Gists of topics covered till

18th Aug 2023

CLASS 11
Types of problems
1. Problems on constant acceleration
a) one moving body
b) two or more moving bodies

2. Problems on variable acceleration

a) using differentiation
b) using integration
c) motion of more than one body

3. Problems on graph
a) to interpret a given graph
b) to draw the graph for a given situation
c) to calculate on the basis of graph

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Two dimensional motion

�2
Example 1
�1
� = 2 + 3�
� = 4� − 2�2

Locus of the particle:

�−2
�=
3 Position of the particle:
�−2 �−2 2 at time � = 0.5, � = 3.5, � = 1.5 �1 = (3.5, 1.5)
�=4 −2
3 3 � = 1, � = 5, � = 2 �2 = (5, 2)
2
4� − 8 2� − 8� + 8
⇒�= − �2 − �1 = (5 − 3.5)2 + (2 − 1.5)2 = 2
3 9 Velocity of the particle:
⇒ 9� = 12� − 24 − 2�2 + 8� − 8 At time � = 0.5, �� = 3, �� = 4 − 4� = 2 v  (3,2 )
⇒ 9� = 20� − 2�2 − 32 � = 1.5, �� = 3, �� = 4 − 4� =− 2 velocity
v  (3, 2 )

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Example 2
Locus of the particle:
� = 5cos 2�� �2
� = 5sin 2�� �2 + �2 = 25

�1
Position of the particle:
1 5 3 5 5 3 5
At time � = , �= , � = , �1 = ,
12 2 2 2 2
1 5 5 3 5 5 3
At time � = , �= , � = , �2 = ,
6 2 2 2 2

2 2
5 3 5 5 5 3
�2 − �1 = − + − =5 2− 3
2 2 2 2

Velocity of the particle:

�� =− 10sin 2��
�� = 10cos 2�� Velocity � = �� , ��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Position � in two dimensional motion is an ordered pair (�, �) or (�, �)
Velocity � in two dimensional motion is an ordered pair �� , �� or (�� , �� )
Similarly, acceleration � in two dimensional motion is �� , �� or (�� , �� )

These ordered pairs follow a different kind of algebra:

If �1 ≡ (�1 , �1 ) and �2 ≡ (�2 , �2 ) then �2 − �1 = (�2 − �1 )2 + (�2 − �1 )2

In three dimension, �1 ≡ (�1 , �1 , �1 ) and �2 ≡ (�2 , �2 , �2 )

and �2 − �1 = (�2 − �1 )2 + (�2 − �1 )2 + (�2 − �1 )2

These set of ordered numbers are called vectors

Vectors obey rules of algebra different from those of numbers

We need vectors to study motions in two and three dimensions

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
Vectors
A vector is a set of two or three ordered numbers � = (�, �) or � = (�, �, �)
To distinguish a vector � from numbers �, � or � we sometimes write vector � as �, i.e.
� = (�, �, �)

If represented with respect to a rectangular system of co-ordinates, �, �, � represents

three lengths along three axes taken in order, i.e. �, �, �.

� transforms in the same manner as the co-ordinate system transforms.

Say there are two vectors �1 = (�1 , �1 , �1 ) and �2 = (�2 , �2 , �2 )
�1 and �2 transforms in the same way that the co-ordinate system transforms,
But [(�2 − �1 )2 + (�2 − �1 )2 + (�2 − �1 )2 ] remains the same in both the co-
ordinate systems, and hence called a scalar.

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Representation of vectors in a system of rectangular 2D
Cartesian co-ordinates
Let us take a vector � = �� , ��
Here we have represented the vector as an
ordered pair.
If represented in a system of rectangular
Cartesian co-ordinates consisting of the � and �� , ��
� axes,
�� is a length along +� axis, �� is a length
along +� axis, where unit lengths along

�2
�
+�, + � axes are already defined with the

� +
�2
system of axes and its handedness as (�, �) or
��
�, � ,
��
Then � = ��� + ��� or, � = ��� + ���
As the axes rotate, �� , �� transforms like the

axes transform, so it is a vector, but �2� + �2�

remains
8/11/2023invariant, so it is a scalar. PPR SOUTH POINT
Representation of vectors in a system of rectangular 3D
Cartesian co-ordinates
If represented in a system of rectangular �′ �
Cartesian co-ordinates consisting of the
�, � and � axes,
�� is a length along +� axis, �� is a length
along +� axis and �� is a length along +� axis,
where unit lengths along +�, + � and +� axes (�′� , �′� , �′� )
are already defined with the system of axes
and its handedness as (�, �, �) or �, �, � �
Then � = ��� + ��� + ��� or
� �′
� = ��� + ��� + ���
As the system of axes rotates, the vector � gets
�
�
transformed but the scalar �2� + �2� + �2� �
remains invariant. �′
8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
Different kinds of representation of a vector

A vector � can be represented in

two dimensions in the following ways:

� ≡ (�� , �� ) or, � ≡ (�1 , �2 )

� ≡ ��� + ��� or, � ≡ ��� + ���

or, � ≡ �1 �1 + �2 �2 � ��

�� ��
� ≡ (�, �) = �2� + �2� , tan −1 �
��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Addition of vectors
If there are two vectors �1 and �2 , their sum
� = �1 + �2 is also a vector

If �1 = (�1� , �1� ) and �2 = (�2� , �2� ) then

�2
� = ((�1� + �2� ), �1� + �2� )
� (�2 − �1 )
If �1 = ��1� + ��1� and �2 = ��2� + ��2� then
�2
� = �(�1� + �2� ) + � �1� + �2� �2

If �1 = (�1 , �1 ) and �2 = (�2 , �2 ) then �

�2
� = (�, �) (�2 − �1 )
How do we get � and �? Let us convert �1 and �2 to �1
�2 �1
other representation and determine � and �.
We get � and � by using the triangle rule of addition.
�1

So, � = �21 + �22 + 2�1 �2 cos (�2 − �1 ) and

�2 cos (�2 − �1 )
� = �1 + tan−1
�1 +�2 sin (�2 − �1 )

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

We have seen that
�1 + �2 = �2 + �1
Hence we can also frame a
parallelogram rule of vector addition �1
�1
For every vector � there exists a vector �2
�
� so that � + � = � �2
� is called the zero vector or null vector. �2
Can you represent the null vector in
�
different representations? �2
For
Nullevery
vectorvector
� = 0�= there
(0,0exists
), 0 =a vector
�0 + �0
(�2 − �1 )

so that � (the �1
�
What will�it +
be�in=the (�, �null
) vector) �2 �1
� is called the negative of � or − �
representation? �1
Can you represent − � in different
representations?

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

For a vector � = (�, �) ,
− � = (−�, − �)
� (�, �)
�
So, if � = �� + �� ,
�
− � =− �� − �� �
� �−
� �=
And, if � = (�, �) ,
�+�
− � = (�, � + �)
� −�
If there are two vectors � and �, how
can we determine � = � − � ?
− � (−�, − �)
We have to find out the sum
� + (−�) to get �.

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Two dimensional motion �1 (5,2) �� � = 1�
Example: � = 3�
∆� = �2 − �1

� = 2 + 3�,
� = 4� − 2�2 �2 (8,0)
�� � = 2�

Position at time � can be

represented by the vector

� = (2 + 3� , 4� − 2�2 ) or by �� �(2+3�) �(4�−2�2 )

∴ �= = , = (3, 4 − 4�) or,
� = �(2 + 3� ) + �(4� − 2�2 ) �� �� ��
�� �(2 + 3�) �(4� − 2�2 )
What are the Positions at � = 1� �= =� +� = �(3) + �(4 − 4�)
�� �� ��
and � = 2� and what is the
displacement? Velocity at a particular time, say at � = 1�, is tangential to the path

� = (0, − 4), or, � = �(0) + �(−4)

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Two dimensional motion:
Another example
Put � = 6 10 + 6 10 =
�� = 0from
A ball is thrown obliquely at �ground
= ����at a 6
velocity �0 = �(5) + �(∴ =6
6).� The acceleration of 5
10
the
ball is � =− 10�
Find out the trajectory (locus) of the particle.
�0
�0� = 5 �� = 0 At any time �
�0� = 6 �� =− 10 Now answer the same� = 5�,
questions from here 1
�� = 5 � = 6� − . 10.�2
2
�� = 6 − 10� = 6� − 5�2

� � 2 6� �2 � = �(5�) + �(6� − 5�2 )

� = 6. − 5 = −
5 5 5 5
2
Determine the maximum height the ball rises. Where on ground does the ball return?
⇒ 5� = 6� −
Put� � = 6 10

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

A ball is thrown upward from ground at a velocity
�0 and making an angle � with horizontal. The At any time t position
acceleration of the ball is � vertically downward. � = (�0 cos �)�
Find out
(i) The trajectory (locus) of the particle.
1 2
� = (�0 sin �)� − ��
2
A
1
(ii) The maximum height the ball rises Position � = �((�0 cos � )�) + � (�0 sin � )� − ��2
2
(iii) The horizontal distance at which the ball
returns to ground

Initial velocity is given as (�0 , �). Locus (trajectory) of the ball: Answer (ii) and (iii) from
�0� = �0 cos �
�0� = �0 sin � � = �0 sin �
� 1
− �
�2
A
�0 cos � 2 �0 2 cos2 �
�0 = �(�0 cos �) + �(�0 sin �)
= �tan � −
��2
2�0 2 cos2 �
and also from B.
At any time �, velocity �20 sin2 �
� = �(�0 cos �) + �(�0 sin � − ��) (ii)
2�
2�20 sin �cos �
Acceleration is � =− �� B (iii)
�

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 (�, �) 1
Where should we aim the gun so that the � = (�0 cos � . �)� + (�0 sin � . � − ��2 )�
bullet is able to hit the ball, if the bullet is 2
1
fired at the time the ball is released from a = �0 � − ��2 �
2
height?
1 2 1
�� − � �′ = � + (− ��2 )�
2 2

� = �0 � (�′ , �′ )

�0 � = �′

(2,0)

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Multiplication of a vector
by a number �

�+�
= 2�
�
So, multiplying � by a number 2
means:

� = (�� , �� ) then 2� = (2�� , 2�� )

What will be 2� in other

representations?

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Product of vectors

If � = (�� , �� ) and � = (�� , �� )

��
�. � = �� �� cos (�� ~�� )
�� ��
�. � = 0 �. � = 1
��
�. � = 0 �. � = 1
�. � = 0 �. � = 1

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

� = ��cos � + ��sin � = � �cos � + �sin �

�� �� ��
= ��(− sin �) + ��cos �
�� �� ��
�
��
=� − �sin � + �cos �
��
�

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 (�, �)

�0 � �
�
�

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 (�, �) 1
Where should we aim the gun so that the � = (�0 cos � . �)� + (�0 sin � . � − ��2 )�
bullet is able to hit the ball, if the bullet is 2
1
fired at the time the ball is released from a = �0 � − ��2 �
2
height?
1 2 1
�� − � �′ = � + (− ��2 )�
2 2

� = �0 � (�′ , �′ )

�0 � = �′

(2,0)

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Multiplication of a vector
by a number 2�

�+�
= 2� �
�
So, multiplying � by a number 2
means:

� = (�� , �� ) then 2� = (2�� , 2�� )

What will be 2� in other

representations?

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Product of vectors
If there are two vectors � = �� , �� and � = �� , �� the product of � and � has 4 elements,
�� �� , �� �� , �� �� and �� ��

(�� �� + �� �� ) does not change when the co-ordinate axes rotate.

(�� �� − �� �� ) transforms in the same way that the co-ordinate axes transform.

(�� �� + �� �� ) is called the scalar product or the inner product or the dot product of � and � and
written as � . �

(�� �� − �� �� ) is called the vector product or the outer product or the cross product of � and � and
written as � × � , and it is not in the � − � plane. It is perpendicular to the � − � plane.

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Scalar product
If � = (�� , �� ) and � = (�� , �� )
��
�. � = �� �� cos (�� ~�� )

)
��
−
�. � = Length of one vector x projection of other

��
s(
vector on it

co
��
(�� − �� )
�. � = 0 �. � = 1 �� ��
��
�. � = 0 �. � = 1
�. � = 0 �. � = 1 � �)
�� −
�� c os (
�. � = ��� + ��� . (��� + ��� )
= � � �� + � � ��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Vector product
If � = (�� , �� ) and � = (�� , �� )

� × � = �� �� sin (�� ~�� ) �

Area of the parallelogram

= �� �� sin (�� ~�� )

in �
��
�� s

� = �� ~��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 �� �� �� �� − �� ��
�� × �� = �� �� − �� ��
�� �� �� �� − �� ��

�� ��
�� . �� = �� �� + �� �� + �� ��
�� ��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
 �
� = ��cos � + ��sin �

= � �cos � + �sin � = �� �
�� �� ��
�= = ��(− sin �) + ��cos � �
�� �� ��

�� ��
=� − �sin � + �cos � = � �
�� ��
�. � = 0

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 �� ��
� =− �� sin � + �� cos �
�� ��
(�)
��
�=
��

�� �� �2 � � (− �)
=− �� cos � + sin � 2
�� �� ��
�� �� �2 � �
+ �� (−sin � ) + cos � 2
�� �� ��

�� 2
=� − �cos � + �sin �
��
�2 �
+ � 2 − �sin � + �cos �
��

�� 2 �2 �
�=� (− �) + � 2 (�)
�� ��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Dynamics: ‘Why’ there is a motion

Aristotelian view: An external cause i.e. a force is needed for

motion in a body

Galilean view: No external cause is there when there is

motion in a body. External cause is necessary for any change
in motion

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Galileo's experiment

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Newton’s 1st law (the cause – effect statement)

If a particle is at rest: There is no external cause (net force)

If a particle is in motion at constant velocity (no change in magnitude or/and direction): There is
no external cause (net force)

Newton’s 2nd law (the equation of motion)

� = ��

Newton’s 3rd law (forces exist in pairs) ��→� ��→�

A B
��→� =− ��→�

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 � Applied by the table as a
restoring force in
response to the
Acceleration of the block
deformation ) = � (In opposite direction)
(�table
of the
Acceleration of the block (�) = 0
by ��→�
��→� = �
Acceleration of the block (�) = 0
�=0

�
��→� = �
��→�

��→�

Net force acting on the block (�) = �. 0 = 0

Net force acting on the block (�) = �. � Net force acting on the block (�) = �. 0 = 0, ���?
But no additional force has started acting on the block as the man walks with an acceleration
8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
 � = �� Depends on
observer
P

� �′ � = ���� + �′

�� ����� ��′
���� = +
O �� �� ��
O′ � = ���� + �′

If ���� = 0, all such observers are called inertial observers, � = ���� + �′

and Newton’s laws are valid w.r.t those observers

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Transmission and distribution of force

20 N 20 N

� �

�∥ �⊥
20 N 20 N
20 N
20 N �
� �⊥
∥
�

�⊥ � � �∥
Normal Stress = Tangential (Shear) Stress =
� �

Tension

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 �2

�2

�2 � − �� = 0
� = ��
� ′ ? �1 = �
�1 = �

? �2 � �1
�1 − � − �1 � = 0
� � = �1 = � + �1 �
�1 � � = �� + �1 �
�
�=0 �

�
�2 − � − �2 � = 0
�2 = � + �2 �
� = �� �2 = �� + �1 � + �2 �

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 For the standing elevator resting on ground:
� + � − �� = 0
For the boy inside the standing elevator:
� � − �� = 0
� − �� = 0
�
When the elevator moves upward at constant velocity:
� − �� = 0

For the boy inside the elevator moving at constant velocity :

� − �� = 0
� − �� = 0
� �
�� = �� + ��

�� = ��
8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
 When the elevator moves upward with acceleration �

Force equation for the elevator:

� − �� = (� + �)�

� Force equation for the boy inside the elevator:

�
� − �� = ��

When the elevator moves upward with acceleration −�

Force equation for the elevator:

�� − � = (� + �)�

Force equation for the boy inside the elevator:

�
�� = �� + ��
�� − � = ��
��
8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
 Transmission and distribution of force

20 N 20 N

� �

�∥ �⊥
20 N 20 N
20 N
20 N �
� �⊥
∥
�

�⊥ � � �∥
Normal Stress = Tangential (Shear) Stress =
� �

Tension

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 �= ?

�
� = �� = �ℎ��
ℎ �= ?
�= ?
�
� Normal stress = = ℎ��
�

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 �2

�2

�2 � − �� = 0
� = ��
� ′ ? �1 = �
�1 = �

? �2 � �1
�1 − � − �1 � = 0
� � = �1 = � + �1 �
�1 � � = �� + �1 �
�
�=0 �

�
�2 − � − �2 � = 0
�2 = � + �2 �
� = �� �2 = �� + �1 � + �2 �

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 For the standing elevator resting on ground:
� + � − �� = 0
For the boy inside the standing elevator:
� � − �� = 0
� − �� = 0
�
When the elevator moves upward at constant velocity:
� − �� = 0

For the boy inside the elevator moving at constant velocity :

� − �� = 0
� − �� = 0
� �
�� = �� + ��

�� = ��
8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
 When the elevator moves upward with acceleration �

Force equation for the elevator:

� − �� = (� + �)�

� Force equation for the boy inside the elevator:

�
� − �� = ��

When the elevator moves upward with acceleration −�

Force equation for the elevator:

�� − � = (� + �)�

Force equation for the boy inside the elevator:

�
�� = �� + ��
�� − � = ��
��
8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
 � �

� �
�′

� � ��

�� = �� + �� �� �� = �� + ��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

�
�123 �4
���2431
�1 = �1 = �1 �
�
�2 = �2 = �1 � + �2 �
���2431
�1 �
�3 = �3 = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �
�2 �
�3 �
�4 g
�4 < �4 < �1 � + �2 � + �3 � + �4 �

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 For the standing elevator resting on ground:
� + � − �� = 0
For the boy inside the standing elevator:
� � − �� = 0
� − �� = 0
�
When the elevator moves upward at constant velocity:
� − �� = 0

For the boy inside the elevator moving at constant velocity :

� − �� = 0
� − �� = 0
� �
�� = �� + ��

�� = ��
8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
 When the elevator moves upward with acceleration �

Force equation for the elevator:

� − �� = (� + �)�

� Force equation for the boy inside the elevator:

�
� − �� = ��

When the elevator moves upward with acceleration −�

Force equation for the elevator:

�� − � = (� + �)�

Force equation for the boy inside the elevator:

�
�� = �� + ��
�� − � = ��
��
8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT
 � �

� �
�′

� � ��

�� = �� + �� �� �� = �� + ��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 �2
�1 = �2
�2

�2
�1 �1
�1 �1
�2 �2
�1 �2
�1 �1
�1

�1 − �2 � = �2 � �1 + �2 + �� = ����� �2 �
⇒ �1 + �2 = 0
�1 � − �1 = �1 � ⇒ �1 =− �2 = �
�1 �

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 �1

�2 �
�
�1

�1 �1
�2 �1
�1 �1
�1

�3 �3 �2
�2 � �2

�1 � �1
�2

� + 2�1 + �2 + ��1 + ��2 = �������� What is the relation between �1 and �2 ?

On differentiating twice, 2�1 + �2 = 0 Write the force equations for �1 and �2 .

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

�
�123 �4
���2431
�1 = �1 = �1 �
�
�2 = �2 = �1 � + �2 �
���2431
�1 �
�3 = �3 = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �
�2 �
�3 �
�4 g
�4 < �4 < �1 � + �2 � + �3 � + �4 �

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Friction
�
�123 �4 �1 = �1 = �1 �
���2431
if �1 = 0, �1 = 0, �1 = 0
� �2 = �2 = �1 � + �2 �

���2431 �3 = �3 = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �

�1 � �4 < �4 < �1 � + �2 � + �3 � + �4 �
�2 �
���� �3 � �1 , �2 and �3 are called static friction, and
�4 g �4 is called sliding friction (or, kinetic friction)
Friction

Friction acting on a body at rest on a surface is self

adjusting,
and has a maximum (limiting) value for the body on
that surface
Applied force
Limiting friction (���� ) is more than �3 and can be
determined by gradually increasing the hanging load
by smaller amounts .

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Friction
�
���42315
�1 = �1 = �1 �
� = ��
�+ �
�2 = �2 = �1 � + �2 �
����4�
�
�123 ��45 2315 �3 = �3 = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �
�1 �
�4 = �4 = �1 � + �2 � + �3 � + �4 �
�2 �
�3 � �5 < �5 < �1 � + �2 � + �3 � + �4 � + �5 �
�4 g
�5 g �4 < ����

If � increases, the normal reaction � increases,

and the limiting friction ���� also increases.
For a body at rest on a surface:
How can you determine the relation between �
and ���� experimentally?

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Obs. no. � = �� + �� ����
� = �� + �
�
�� m � = �� + ��

�1 �
�2 �
�3 �
�4 g
�5 g
����
= Constant = ��
�

���� = �� �

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

 Why has the block stopped?

�� It stops at a greater distance on a smoother surface

There is a force of friction, the sliding friction ��

����
� �=0 0 = �2 − 2��� �
Friction

�� = ����

m
We can experimentally get that �� < ����
for the same body on the same surface,
Applied force
�
Also, �� = �� �

Therefore �� < ��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT

Exercise:

A block of mass 5 kg is resting on a horizontal surface. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction between
the block and the surface are 0.3 and 0.2 respectively. Find our the force of friction between the block and
the surface if a horizontal force of
(a) 14 N
(b) 16 N are separately applied on the block.

Limiting (maximum) force of friction = �� � = 0.3 × 5 × 10 = 15 N

(a) As the applied force is less than the maximum force of friction, the block remains at rest. So
the force of friction is equal to the applied force, i.e. 14 N
(b) As the applied force is greater than the maximum force of friction, the block starts moving. So
the force of friction is kinetic friction = 0.2 × 5 × 10 = 10 N

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT 56

 � = ��cos �
����� = ��sin � �

� = ��cos � ��sin � �
� ��cos �
����� = ��sin � � ��si n

�sin �
���
��cos �
��
��sin �
��cos �
�� ��cos �
��
�
� = ��cos � � �
����� = ��sin �
�� � = ��sin �
�� ��cos � = ��sin � � is called the angle of repose.
tan � = ��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT 57

 �
��2
�= � = ��
� �
�����
m
�����
� ��
If there is friction, what is its direction?
�

Which one is
correct?
� ��2
� − ����� =
�
��2
M � + ����� = If friction is absent how does the block move?
�
Direction of friction depends on the answer to
this question
��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT 58

Vehicle taking circular turn on level road If the vehicle is the observer

��2 ����� − �� = 0
����� = �� = ��2
� � ����� − =0
2
�� �
��� =
�
��� = �2

��2
�
�
��
��� �
� �� 2 �����
�� 2
� � This pseudo-force is
��2
called the Centrifugal
� �� force
��

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT 59

 �cos � = ��
��2
� �sin � = �� =
�
�
�2
tan � =
��
�� ��2
� ��
�
�
��
� ��
Think of the equation if there is friction

��
Also, write the equation if the car is the observer

8/11/2023 PPR SOUTH POINT 60

STUDY OF THERMOMETRIC
PROPERTIES
• Linear Expansion: Expansion of length
• Superficial Expansion: Expansion of surface area
• Cubical Expansion: Expansion of volume
EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS AND GASES
• Cubical Expansion: Expansion in volume
 l0
Reference temperature = 00C

lt

Temperature raised to t0C

 Δt

2Δt
2nd rod expands double compared to 1st 2nd rod expands double compared to 1st

l  l0 l  t
  l  l0  t
 l   l0  t

1 l

l0 t
in calculus notation


1 dl lt  l0 1  t 
l dt
Order of magnitude of α≈10-5
 1 A
  1 V
A0  t  
V0  t
1 dA
  1 dV
A dt  
V dt

At  A0 1   t  Vt  V0 1  t 
 lt
At  A0 1    t 
lt  l 0 1    t 
2 2

l 0 1    t   l 0 1    t 
2 2 2
lt
l0
1    t 2  1    t 
1  2  t    t   1    t
2

l0 1  t   l0  l0l0t  l0l0t  l0tl0t

2 2 2
l0
2  t    t     t
2
2
l0  l0 l  l0 l  l 2
A0  l0
2
2   2  t  
2 Neglecting α2 Δt in comparison with 2α
At  lt
STUDY OF THERMOMETRIC
PROPERTIES
 Consider a cube of edge of length l0at 00C
3
Volume of cube at 00C V 0  l0
V t  V 0 1    t 
3 3
l t  l 0 (1    t )
l 0 1    t   l 0 1    t 
3 3 3

1    t  3  1    t 
1  3  t  3 2  t 2   3  t 3  1    t
3  3 2  t   3  t 2  
neglecting 2nd and 3rd term in comparison with 1st
3 2 2 3
l0  3l0 l0t  3l0l0  2 t 2  l0  3t 3
3 2
l0  3l0 l  3l0 l 2  l 3
Exercise
Three rods form an equilateral triangle at ice point. Two rods are of same material and the third of invar
(a substance of negligible thermal expansion). If after heating to steam point, the angle between the
identical rods be 59⁰ 48′ find the linear expansivity of the rods.

Solution:
Let the length of each rod at 0⁰C be lₒ and that at 100⁰C be l100

l100  AC '  AO cos ec 29 0 54 '

l0 1 l0
l100  
2 sin 29 0 54 ' 2  0 . 4985
But
l100  l 0 1  100  
1
 1  100  
0 . 997
  3  10  5 /0 C
Exercise
A clock with steel pendulum has a time period of 2s at 20⁰C. If the temperature of the clock rises to 30⁰C, what will
be the gain or loss per day? Linear expansivity of steel is 1.2 x 10-5/⁰C

Solution
Formula for time period of a simple pendulum l
T  2
g
Now  l  l  t T' T'T l
1  1 1
l T T l
  1 . 2  10  4
l T
l  l  11.2104 1 6105
T '  2 T
g
T
Loss in time in one day =  24  3600
T' l T
 1
T l  6 105  24  3600
Loss in time in one oscillation = T' - T  5.18s
T ' T
Fractional loss in time
T
 Exercise
Two metallic strips, each of length l0 and thickness d, at temperature T0, are revetted together so that their ends coincide.
One strip is made up of a metal of linear expansivity α1 and other of expansivity α2, where α2 >α1. When this bimetallic
strip is heated to a temperature T0 +ΔT, find the radius of curvature R os the strip.

Solution
Let the lengths of the two rods at T+ΔT be l1 and l2 respectively.
The system looks as in the figure. The distance between the mid layers of the two rods is d.

l1  R 
l 2  ( R  d )
l2 l 0 1   2  T 

l1 l 0 1   1  T 
l2
 1   2  1  T
l1
d
1  1   2   1   T
R
d
R 
 2   1   T
STUDY OF THERMOMETRIC
PROPERTIES
 Volume at 00C = V0 represented by level of liquid at P
R
When the container expands, the mark P moves up and
Q P is no more the original level of liquid

Orginal level is kept track of by mark Q

Final level of liquid after completing expansion is R

Apparent expansion  V a  A  PR

Real expansion Vr  A  QR

Expansion of container Vg  A  QP

Vr  Va  Vg

Real expansion = Apparent expansion + Expansion of container

Vr  Va  Vg

1 Va
a 
V0 t

1  Vr
r 
V0  t

V0 r t  V0 a t  V0 g t

r  a g
Due to cubical expansion the density of all substances vary with temperature   m m
0
 t 
V0 V t

m 0
t   t   0 1  t 1
V0 1  t  1  t also

Density of substances decreases with increase in temperature

If γΔt is small then the relation may also be written as

 t   0 1  t 
0  t
 t
0
 The atmospheric pressure is given by the pressure of the mercury column at 00C

P  h0  0 g
h'
At t0C P  h'tg
ht

h0 ρ0 and ρt being the density of mercury at 00C and t0C respectively

h0 and ht being height of the column at 00C and t0C respectively
h0  0 g  ht  t g
0
h0  0  ht
1   r t
The scale attached to the tube also expands hence the correct height
h '  ht 1    t 

Hence the correct barometric height h '  h0 1   r  t 1    t 

 T1

Freezing mixture tray

T2

Hope's Apparatus
• Mechanical equilibrium
• The net force acting among system and surroundings is zero
• Thermal equilibrium
• No exchange of heat among the system and surroundings
• Chemical equilibrium
• Chemical composition of system and surroundings separately remains
constant
• When all the three types of equilibria are simultaneously satisfied,
the system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium with the
surroundings
 Net force on the piston is zero

Atmospheric pressure =P0 F

Downward thrust = P0A
Piston is stationary hence upward thrust applied by gas =P0A

Gas pressure = P0

When the external force F is applied, the piston moves down

Downward thrust = P0A+F
Upward thrust < downward thrust gas

Gas pressure P < P0+F/A P is now unknown

Gas becomes hot, thermal equilibrium is lost

 P is now unknown

gas
Mechanical equilibrium is lost
PV  nRT
(P, V, T) = (5, 3, 300) would represent one thermodynamic state, while (6, 8, 327) would represent another
• What is indicator diagram?
• A plot between any two thermodynamic coordinates of the system.
• For an ideal gas, it may be a P-V plot, a V-T plot or a P-T plot.
• What is the utility of indicator diagram?
• Thermodynamic state of the system can be represented.
• A thermodynamic process can be represented.
• Amount of energy exchanged can be calculated.
 P
A represents the thermodynamic state
(VA, PA) PAVA=nRTA
B
PB
Initial state

A B represents another thermodynamic state

PA
(VB, PB) PBVB=nRTB

Final state
V
VA VB
 P When at state A the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium

The equilibrium is disturbed and the system settles down to

B a new equilibrium state B
PB

The system changes its state along the path shown

The path represents a thermodynamic process

A
PA

V
VA VB
 Pressure of gas = P Area of piston = A

Upward thrust applied by gas = PA

Work done in displacing the piston upwards by dx

dW  PAdx  PdV
dx
Total work done by the gas
V f

gas P W   PdV
Vi
 P Choosing path ACB

Work done along AC WAC  0V  0

C Work done along CB WCB  PB VB VA 
PB B
Work done along path ACB
WACB  WAC  WCB  0  PB VB  V A   PB VB  V A 
Choosing path ADB
A
PA D Work done along AD WAD  PA VB  VA 

Work done along DB WDB  0  V  0

Work done along ADB

VA VB
V WADB  WAD  WDB  PA VB  VA   0  PA VB  VA 

WACBWADB
• Isochoric process
• A process with volume constant
• Isobaric process
• A process with pressure constant
• Isothermal process
• A process with temperature constant
• Adiabatic process
• A process with no thermal exchange
• One can have quasi-static processes which are a sequence of two or
more of the above processes
 PV  nRT
Volume remains constant throughout the process
 nR 
P T
V 
Work done in the process = 0
P  kT
P T Regnault's law
P
or
V
Pressure law

V T

The graphs are called ISOCHORE T

 PV  nRT
Pressure remains constant throughout the process
 nR 
V  T
 P 
Work done = PΔV
V  kT
V T Charle's law

P
P V

V T
T
The graphs are called ISOBAR
 PV  nRT
Temperature remains constant throughout the process
nRT
P 
V
k
P 
V
1
P  Boyle's law
V
P V

T T

The graphs are called ISOTHERM V

 The P-V diagram of a thermodynamic process ABCA is shown below in the diagram. Draw the corresponding
P-T and V-T diagram for the same process. The process is a sequence of isothermal, isochoric and isobaric
processes.

SOLUTION:
PV  nRT

P V
P
A C A B C
C

B B
A

T T
V
First law of Thermodynamics

Heat supplied to the system by the

surrounding = ΔQ
Workdone by the system on the
surroundings = ΔW

gas Change in internal energy of the system

= ΔU

According, to principle of conservation of energy

ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
In differential form,
dQ = dU + dW
 gas

In the two ways energy is transferred to the particles of the system.

When the heat absorbed by the system and work done by ths system are not equal, the difference is stored or
supplied from the system. This difference is called the internal energy.

INTERNAL ENERGY depends only on the state of the system STATE variable

Here, in the two cases as the final states are same their INTERNAL ENERGIES are
also same
Heat absorbed: +ΔQ
Heat released: -ΔQ
Work done by the system: +ΔW
Work done on the system: -ΔW
Increase in internal energy of the system: +ΔU
Decrease in internal energy of the system: -ΔU
 Pressure of gas = P Area of piston = A

Upward thrust applied by gas = PA

dx Work done in displacing the piston upwards by dx

gas P dW  PAdx  PdV

From First law of Thermodynamics,

dQ = dU + dW

dQ = dU + P dV
P dW  PdV
PV  nRT
PA,VA nRT
P
V
VB

P W   PdV
VA
VB
nRT
W V V dV
PB,VB
A

VB
dV
W  nRT 
VA
V
V VB P
dV W  nRT ln  nRT ln A
VA PB

Here VB/VA is called the compression/ expansion ratio

 Specific Heat
The quantity of heat Q required to increase the temperature of a mass m of a certain
material from T1 to T2 is

Q α m (T1 - T2)

Q = m c (T1 - T2)
Here, c is called Specific Heat of material. (different for different materials)
For an infinitesimal temperature change dT and corresponding quantity of heat dQ
dQ = m c dT

c=
In terms of number of moles n , where M is the mass per mole
dQ = nM c dT
dQ = n C dT
Here, C is called the molar sp. heat capacity (or, molar specific heat)
 dQ = n C dT

C=

Value of C depends on way of heating the gas

Standard molar heat capacities -

(1) Molar sp. heat capacity at constant volume ( Cv )
(2) Molar sp. heat capacity at constant pressure ( Cp )

Cv : Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mol of gas by 10C at constant volume

Cp : Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mol of gas by 10C at constant pressure

Cv = Cp =
 From First law of Thermodynamics,
dQ = dU + dW
dQ = dU + P dV
at constant volume,
dV=0 dQV = dU (for temperature change dT)
at constant pressure,
dQP = dU + P dV (for temperature change dT)

For n mole of an Ideal Gas,

PV=nRT

Differentiating we get, VdP + PdV = nRdT

at constant pressure , dP=0 PdV = nRdT

 dQP = dU + P dV
dQP = dU + nRdT
dQP = dQV + nRdT (as dQV = dU)

nCPdT = nCVdT + nRdT

CP = CV + R
Always CP > CV
CP - CV = R

At constant volume W=0 ;Whole of the heat supplied is used in increasing temperature

At constant pressure, a part of heat is used in work done against surrounding

Ratio of Heat capacity of a Gas

γ=

In terms of γ,

Cv =

CP =

Internal energy U = nCV T

U=
Adiabatic Process
In these process no heat exchange takes place between system and surroundings
i.e.
dQ=0
From first law of thermodynamics
dQ = dU + dW
0 = dU + dW (as dQ=0)
dW = - dU
For Workdone by gas – Internal energy of gas decreases
For workdone on the gas – Internal energy of the gas increases

always in Adiabatic expansion, temperature of the gas decreases.

In Adiabatic compression, temperature of the gas increases
Differential form of First law of Thermodynamics , dQ = dU + dW

For Adiabatic process, dU = - dW

dT = - PdV

nR dT = - (γ -1) PdV

Differential form of Ideal Gas law, PdV + VdP = nRdT

PdV + VdP = - (γ -1) PdV

VdP = - γ PdV

= -γ
Integrating both sides we get,
ln P = - γ lnV + C
ln PVγ = constant PVγ = constant
• Work done in adiabatic process and corresponding change in internal
energy
• Comparison of slopes of adiabatic and isothermal PV graphs
• Calculation of isothermal and adiabatic bulk modulus of ideal gas
 VB

To find the work done in adiabatic process we must calculate: W   PdV

VA

Now according to adiabatic gas equation Since we have

  
PV  const  K PAV A  PBV B  K

K
VB
W
1
KV B
1
 KVA
1

 W    dV 1 
V
VA
VB
W
1
1 
P V B B

VB
1
 PAVA VA
 1

 KV

W  dV W
1
PBVB  PAVA 
VA 1 

W 
K
1 
1 
VB  V A 
1 
 W
nR
1 
TB  TA 
 
PV  K PV   K
 PV  nRT  PV  nRT
nRT nRT
V  P
P V

 nRT  nRT 
 P  K  V K
 P  V
 1
P 1  T   const TV  const
 PV  const  K PV   const  K
K K
P P 
V V
P  dP  d 1  dP  d  1 
  K     K   
 dV  iso dV V   dV  adi dV V 
 dP  K  dP  K
   2      1
 dV  iso V  dV  adi V
V  dP  PV P  dP  PV  P
           1  
 dV  iso V2 V  dV  adi V V
 F
dP
B 
dV
V
 dP 
B  V  
 dV 
V
 dP  P
dV
Isothermal bulk modulus: Biso  V   V P
 dV  iso V
gas
 dP  P P P+dP
Adiabatic bulk modulus: B adi  V    V  P
 dV  adi V
• Statement of the principle of calorimetry
• Application of principle of calorimetry
• Change of state, melting and vapourization
• Latent heat of melting and vapourisation
 System C consists of two sub-systems A and B

A B System C is isolated, hence, QC  0

Also, QC  Q A  QB
0  Q A  QB
C QB   Q A

According to 1st law Q  U  W

 U B  WB   U A  W A
In case the systems are not gases, expansion may be neglected. Hence W is taken as zero. Then,
QB   Q A
U B   U A In general:   Q i  0 for an isolated system
mB c B TB   m A c A TA
 c1T1  c2T2  c3T3
Teq 
c1  c2  c3
EVAPORATION:

Evaporation occurs at all temperatures. The rate varies with temperature.

Boiling occurs when the vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the superincumbent pressure.
According to 1st law of thermodynamics: Q  U  W
During change of phase,  Q  mL L being the latent heat

mL  U  W During fusion there is hardly any change in volume, hence work done may be neglected

For fusion mL fusion   U

During boiling 1cc of water occupies 1651 cc upon vaporisation under 1 atmospheric pressure

mLvap  U  PV
mLvap  PV  U

Calculate the internal energy change of 1 g of water upon boiling at 1 atmospheric pressure. Given Lvap =2.268x106J/kg
atmospheric pressure = 105 Pa
• Heat source and sink
• Statement of second law
• reversible and irreversible process
• Heat engine
• Efficiency of heat engine
 The heat source and sink are systems of infinite heat capacity.
SOURCE Source is at a high temperature T1 while sink is at a lower temperature T2 .
T1 Their temperatures are assumed constant at all times.

Q1 The engine takes heat Q1 from the source at temperature T1 converts some
of it into work W and rejects Q2 heat into the sink at temperature T2

ENGINE W Heat absorbed by the engine: Q1

Q2 Heat rejected to the sink by the engine: Q2

Heat converted to work: W  Q1  Q2

SINK
T2 Net heat flowing into the engine in a cyclic process equals the net work done
 W Q  Q2 Q The most efficient engine would be the one that converts
Thermal efficiency:    1  1 2
heat to as large amount of work as possible and rejects as
Q1 Q1 Q1
less amount to heat to the sink as possible.

When a heat engine is operated in the reverse direction, it is called a refrigerator

Q2 amount of heat is absorbed from the cold reservior, W work is done on the engine
HOT RESERVIOR
and Q1 amount of heat is rejected into the hot reservior
T1
Q1

Q2 Q2 ENGINE
Coefficient of performance: K   
W
W Q1  Q 2
Best refrigeration cycle is the one that removes the greatest amount of heat from cold Q2
reservior Q2 for least mechanical expenditure of work W.
COLD RESERVIOR
T2
This engine undergoes isothermal and adiabatic processes to form a cycle

P A B Isothermal expansion
A
BC Adiabatic expansion

B CD Isothermal compression

D A Adiabatic compression
D
C Q2 T2
Efficiency:   1  1
Q1 T1
V
 Is it possible to drive a steam ship across the ocean by extrating
heat from the ocean?

The two statements are equivalent.

The second law of thermodynamics expresses an essential one sidedness of nature.

Is it possible to cool a room by keeping the door of a refrigerator open?

 All natural, spontaneous processes when studied in the light of second law of
thermodynamics, and in all such cases
the peculiar one sidedness is found.
1. Heat always flows spontaneously from hotter to colder body
2. Gases always seep through an opening spontaneously from higher pressure to lower pressure region.
3. Gases and liquids left by themselves always tend to mix, not to unmix.
In the thermodynamic sense an irreversible process is always a non- equilibrium process. Irreversible heat flow
accompanies departures from thermal equilibrium, a free expansion of gas involves states that are not in
mechanical equilibrium, and so on.