Oral Question Answers

UNIT – 6
1. What is network coding?
2. What is load balancing in cellular network?
3. Which are the techniques to improve quality of service?
4. What is scheduling?
5. What are the parameters used to measure quality of service?
6. Explain FIFO Queuing
7. Explain Priority Queuing
8. Explain Weighted Fair Queuing
9. Explain Weighted Round Robin Scheduling
ANSWER:
1. Network Coding:
Network coding is a technique used in data networking where transmitted data is encoded
and combined at intermediate network nodes. This process can increase network throughput
and robustness by optimizing the overall data flow, reducing the number of transmissions
required for data delivery.

2. Load Balancing in Cellular Network:

Load balancing in cellular networks refers to the distribution of traffic load across multiple
cells or base stations to optimize network performance and avoid overloading any single cell.
This helps in maintaining consistent service quality across the network.

3. Techniques to Improve Quality of Service (QoS):

- Traffic Shaping: Regulating data transmission to ensure a consistent flow.
- Priority Scheduling: Prioritizing certain types of traffic.
- Resource Reservation: Allocating bandwidth or resources for specific traffic.
- Admission Control: Restricting access to a network to maintain performance levels.
- Congestion Avoidance: Techniques such as TCP congestion control to prevent network
overload.

4. Scheduling:
 Scheduling in networks determines the order and timing with which packets are processed
and transmitted. It is crucial for managing network resources, minimizing response times, and
ensuring fair resource allocation among users.

5. Parameters Used to Measure Quality of Service:

- Bandwidth: The maximum rate of data transfer.
- Delay: The time it takes for data to travel from source to destination.
- Jitter: Variability in packet delay.
- Packet Loss: The percentage of packets that are lost in transmission.
- Error Rates: The frequency of errors in data transmission.

6. FIFO Queuing:
First In, First Out (FIFO) queuing is a straightforward queuing method where the first packet
to arrive at the queue is the first to be processed. It is simple but does not differentiate between
packet types.

7. Priority Queuing:
Priority Queuing involves assigning a priority level to each packet, and packets are processed
based on their priority. Higher priority packets are processed before lower priority ones, which
is useful for time-sensitive data like VoIP.

8. Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ):

Weighted Fair Queuing is a method of scheduling that provides fair bandwidth allocation to
all flows while also considering the weight assigned to each flow. It helps in managing diverse
types of traffic and provides fairness and efficient utilization.

9. Weighted Round Robin Scheduling:

Weighted Round Robin is a scheduling technique where each flow is assigned a weight that
determines the number of packets the flow can send during its turn. It combines the fairness of
round-robin scheduling with the flexibility of assigning different priorities to different flows
based on their weights.
UNIT – 5
1. What is GSM?
2. GSM corresponds to which generation?
3. Compare 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G standards – based on architectural differences
4. Compare 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G standards – based on performance
5. How much is data rate for 4G technique
6. What is LTE?
7. What is EDGE?
8. What is UMTS?
9. Compare 3GPP and LTE advanced
10. What is roll the of BTS, BSC, MSC, HLR, VLR, GGSN, SGSN
11. Which standard is used for WLAN
12. What is the difference between Traditional (infrastructure) and Adhoc (infrastructure
less) wireless network
ANSWER:
Certainly! Here's a brief and clear response to each of your questions:

1. What is GSM?
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a standard developed to describe
protocols for second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile phones.

2. GSM corresponds to which generation?

GSM corresponds to the second generation (2G) of mobile phone technology.

3. Compare 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G standards – based on architectural differences:

- 2G: Based on circuit-switched technology; primarily for voice and limited data.
- 3G: Introduced packet-switching alongside circuit-switching; better at handling data and
multimedia.
- 4G: All-IP based network architecture; supports systems like LTE, enhancing data speed
and quality.
- 5G: Uses a cloud-based infrastructure with greater emphasis on software and network
slicing for handling various service types, including IoT and ultra-reliable low latency
communications.

4. Compare 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G standards – based on performance:

 - 2G: Speeds up to 64 kbps.
- 3G: Speeds can reach up to a few Mbps.
- 4G: Speeds up to 1 Gbps.
- 5G: Designed to support up to 10 Gbps or more, significantly reducing latency compared
to all previous generations.

5. How much is data rate for 4G technique?

4G technologies, particularly LTE-Advanced, can achieve peak download speeds of up to 1
Gbps.

6. What is LTE?
LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for wireless broadband communication for mobile
devices and data terminals, based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA technologies. It
increases the capacity and speed using a different radio interface and core network
improvements.

7. What is EDGE?
EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) is an upgrade to GSM networks that
provides faster data transmission rates. EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology.

8. What is UMTS?
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is a third generation (3G) mobile
cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard. It extends the capability of GSM with
higher data rates and capacity.

9. Compare 3GPP and LTE Advanced:

- 3GPP: Stands for 3rd Generation Partnership Project, an umbrella term for a number of
standards organizations which develop protocols for mobile telecommunications.
- LTE Advanced: A standard developed by 3GPP that represents an enhancement to the
original LTE technology with higher speeds and capacity.

10. What is the role of BTS, BSC, MSC, HLR, VLR, GGSN, SGSN:
- BTS (Base Transceiver Station): Handles the radio interface to the mobile station.
- BSC (Base Station Controller): Manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs.
 - MSC (Mobile Switching Centre): Central component of the network that performs
signalling and call routing.
- HLR (Home Location Register): A database that contains details of each subscriber that
is authorized to use the GSM core network.
- VLR (Visitor Location Register): A database that stores temporary information about
subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers.
- GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): Interfaces between the GPRS network and
external packet switched networks, like the Internet.
- SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node): Handles all packet switched data within the
network, such as web browsing and SMS.

11. Which standard is used for WLAN?

WLAN uses the IEEE 802.11 standards, which include several variations like 802.11a,
802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, and 802.11ac.

12. What is the difference between Traditional (infrastructure) and Adhoc (infrastructure-less)
wireless network:
- Traditional (Infrastructure) Network: Uses fixed structures such as routers and network
servers for connectivity. Devices communicate through these fixed points.
- Adhoc (Infrastructure-less) Network: Does not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure.
Devices communicate directly with each other, forming a network "on the fly" as they come
within range of each other.
UNIT – 4
1. What is formula to calculate link budget?
2. How to calculate uplink noise power?
3. How to calculate downlink power budget?
4. Define the terms trunk, trunking and traffic
5. Define the term Erlang
6. Define the term Grade of Service
7. Define Blocking Probability
8. Define calling rate and holding rate
9. Write equation for one call arrival, one call departure and no call arrival and departure

ANSWER:
1. Formula to Calculate Link Budget:
The link budget is calculated using the formula:
Received Power (dBm)=Transmitted Power (dBm)+Antenna Gain (dB)−Path Loss (dB)+R
eceiver Gain (dB)
This formula helps determine the strength of a received signal at a receiver given the output
power of the transmitter, antenna gains, and the loss incurred as the signal travels through the
medium.

2. How to Calculate Uplink Noise Power:

Uplink noise power is generally calculated using the formula:
Noise Power (dBm)=10⋅log10(k⋅T⋅B) +NF
Where k is Boltzmann's constant (1.38×10−23 J/K1.38×10−23 J/K), 𝑇T is the absolute
temperature in Kelvin, 𝐵B is the bandwidth in Hz, and 𝑁𝐹NF is the noise figure of the receiver
in dB.
3. How to Calculate Downlink Power Budget:
Downlink power budget is similar in calculation to the uplink, considering:
Received Power (dBm)=Transmitted Power (dBm)+Transmitter Antenna Gain (dB)−Path
Loss (dB)+Receiver Antenna Gain (dB)
It accounts for power transmitted from the base station to the mobile device.

4. Define the Terms Trunk, Trunking, and Traffic:

- Trunk: A communication line or link designed to carry multiple signals simultaneously
to provide network access between two points.
- Trunking: The process of providing network access to many users by sharing a set of
lines or frequencies instead of providing them individually. This is efficient and saves
resources.
- Traffic: The amount of transmitted data across a network. It’s measured in terms of
data units or sessions handled per unit time.

5. Define the Term Erlang:

Erlang is a unit of telephony traffic measurement. It represents the continuous use of one
voice path. It’s used to describe the total traffic volume of one hour. For instance, if a group of
lines is occupied for 30 minutes in an hour, it generates 0.5 Erlangs of traffic.

6. Define the Term Grade of Service:

 Grade of Service (GoS) is a measure of the quality of service in telecommunication, typically
quantifying the probability of a call being blocked or delayed. It is generally expressed as a
decimal or percentage, indicating how many calls are blocked due to high traffic.

7. Define Blocking Probability:

Blocking Probability is the likelihood that a call or data transmission attempt is unsuccessful
because all available channels or resources are in use. It’s a critical metric in evaluating network
performance, especially in circuit-switched networks.

8. Define Calling Rate and Holding Rate:

- Calling Rate: The frequency at which calls are initiated in a network, measured in calls
per hour.
- Holding Rate: The average duration that a call occupies a channel, measured in seconds
or minutes per call.

9. Equation for One Call Arrival, One Call Departure, and No Call Arrival and Departure:
This can be represented using simple probability or state change expressions in a queuing
model or tele traffic engineering:
- One Call Arrival
- One Call Departure:
- No Call Arrival and Departure:
UNIT – 3
1. What is BPSK modulation?
2. What is AWGN noise channel?
3. Explain bit error probability equation?
4. Define the terms – Base station, control channel, forward channel and reverse channel
5. Explain the concept of cellular telephone system.
6. Define cluster
7. Explain cell splitting
8. Explain handoff mechanism
9. Explain frequency reuse concept
10. Define – Hard handoff, Soft handoff
11. Explain – Forced handoff and Qued handoff
12. Explain microcell concept
ANSWER:
1. BPSK Modulation:
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) is a form of phase modulation that uses two phases to
represent binary digits (0 and 1). In BPSK, the carrier wave's phase is shifted by 180 degrees
to represent the two binary states, which makes it robust against noise.

2. AWGN Noise Channel:

Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) is a model used to simulate the effect of random
noise in a communication channel. The noise has a constant spectral density and a Gaussian
distribution of amplitude. It's used extensively in communications to model the effect of noise.

3. Bit Error Probability Equation:

In a communication system, the bit error probability (often for BPSK in AWGN) can be
calculated using the equation:

4. Define the terms:

- Base Station: A fixed station in a mobile wireless network responsible for communicating
with the mobiles in its area (cell).
- Control Channel: A specific channel used for transmitting control signals (not user data)
between the cell site and mobile phones.
- Forward Channel: The channel used for transmitting signals from the base station to the
mobile device.
- Reverse Channel: The channel used for transmitting signals from the mobile device back
to the base station.

5. Concept of Cellular Telephone System:

Cellular systems divide a geographic region into cells, each served by a fixed transmitter
(base station), enabling extensive frequency reuse across a city or country, which significantly
increases the capacity of a mobile phone system.
6. Define Cluster:
A cluster is a group of cells in a cellular network. No two adjacent cells within a cluster use
the same set of frequencies to avoid interference, and this pattern is repeated to cover a larger
geographic area.

7. Explain Cell Splitting:

Cell splitting is a method used to increase the capacity of a cellular network by dividing a
single cell into multiple smaller cells, each with its own base station and a proportionate
decrease in transmission power.

8. Explain Handoff Mechanism:

Handoff refers to the process of transferring the mobile device's connection from one base
station's coverage area to another without disconnecting the session. This is critical for
maintaining active calls or data sessions as users move.

9. Explain Frequency Reuse Concept:

Frequency reuse is the practice of using the same radio frequencies on different cells within
a cellular network, provided that these cells are separated by enough distance to avoid
interference, thereby maximizing the use of available bandwidth.

10. Define – Hard Handoff, Soft Handoff:

- Hard Handoff: This occurs when a mobile device's connection is completely transferred
from one base station to another, breaking the connection with the first before establishing it
with the second.
- Soft Handoff: This involves simultaneous connection to more than one base station
during the transition from one cell to another, which typically results in a smoother transfer and
reduced risk of dropped calls.

11. Explain – Forced Handoff and Queued Handoff:

- Forced Handoff: Happens when a call is transferred from a more congested cell to a less
congested one to balance the load.
- Queued Handoff: Occurs when a call that requires handoff is put in a queue because the
target cell does not have a free channel immediately available.

12. Explain Microcell Concept:

 Microcells are small cellular network cells with lower power and smaller range than typical
cells. They are used to boost network capacity in areas with high user density or to provide
coverage in areas where obstacles block signals from larger cells.
UNIT – 2
1. Explain the concept of MIMO
2. Explain single carrier communication system and multicarrier communication system
3. What is OFDM and explain it.
4. Explain cyclic prefix in OFDM
5. What is BER in wireless channel?
6. What is Rayleigh fading?
7. Define error probability with example?
ANSWER:
1. Explain the Concept of MIMO:
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) is a wireless technology that uses multiple
transmitting and receiving antennas to improve communication performance. MIMO enables
the transmission of more than one data signal simultaneously over the same radio channel by
exploiting spatial diversity. This technology enhances data throughput and link range without
requiring additional bandwidth or increased transmit power.

2. Explain Single Carrier Communication System and Multicarrier Communication System:

- Single Carrier Communication System: Transmits one data stream at a time over a single
radio frequency carrier. This system is simpler in terms of receiver design but can be more
susceptible to frequency-selective fading, which affects signal integrity over longer distances.
- Multicarrier Communication System: Divides the data to be transmitted across multiple
carrier frequencies. This system is highly effective in dealing with frequency-selective fading
and inter-symbol interference (ISI), making it robust and efficient for high data rate
transmission over broadband wireless channels.

3. What is OFDM and Explain It:

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a type of multicarrier
communication system where a single data stream is split across multiple closely spaced carrier
frequencies to provide robustness against ISI and frequency-selective fading. Each carrier is
modulated with a low data rate stream, and carriers are orthogonal to each other, preventing
interference despite the close spacing.

4. Explain Cyclic Prefix in OFDM:

 A cyclic prefix is a portion of the signal that is appended at the start of an OFDM symbol. Its
purpose is to extend the symbol duration, thus providing a buffer zone to mitigate ISI caused
by multipath propagation delays. The cyclic prefix is a copy of the end of the OFDM symbol
and helps maintain the orthogonality of the carriers in the presence of multipath.

5. What is BER in Wireless Channel?

BER (Bit Error Rate) is the probability that a bit is incorrectly received in a wireless
communication channel. It measures the number of erroneous bits received divided by the total
number of transmitted bits, typically over a standard time interval, and is used as a key
performance metric to assess the quality of a communication system.

6. What is Rayleigh Fading?

Rayleigh fading is a statistical model for the effect of a propagation environment on a radio
signal, where the amplitude of the signal fades according to a Rayleigh distribution. This type
of fading typically occurs when there is no line-of-sight path between the transmitter and
receiver, with multiple scattered paths causing the signals to combine destructively.

7. Define Error Probability with Example:

Error probability, often expressed as the probability of bit error or symbol error, is the
likelihood that a transmitted bit or symbol is incorrectly received due to noise, interference, or
channel conditions. For example, in a BPSK system with an AWGN channel, the bit error
probability (BER) can be calculated as Pe=Q(2Eb/N0), where Q is the Q-function, Eb is the
energy per bit, and N0 is the noise power spectral density. This formula estimates the
probability that a bit will be erroneously received.

UNIT – 1
1. What is cell?
2. Why structure of cell is hexagon?
3. What is area of hexagon cell?
4. What is co-channel?
5. How to avoid cochannel interference?
6. What is propagation loss?
7. What is free space propagation?
8. What is use of Hata model?
9. What is fading of signal?
10. What are the types of fading?
11. What is path loss?
12. What is median path loss?
13. Explain in short what is ground reflection / two ray model?
14. State advantages and disadvantages of ground reflection / two ray model
15. Which are outdoor propagation models?
16. Explain Okumura model in brief – with median loss equation
17. Explain HATA model in brief - with median loss equation
18. What are the advantages of HATA model over Okumura model?
19. Which are the different techniques of diversity reception?

1. In cellular networks, a cell is the geographical area covered by a base station antenna system.
It is where all telephone traffic is communicated via radio waves to and from the mobile user
within the area.
2.Cells are typically represented as hexagons in models for several reasons: hexagons tesselate
or fit together without gaps, which minimizes overlap and interference; they cover an area more
efficiently than squares or triangles; and they offer a good approximation of circular radiation
patterns.
3.The area of a hexagonal cell can be calculated using the formula 𝐴=332×𝑟2A=233×r2, where
𝑟r is the radius or distance from the center to any vertex.
4.Co-channel refers to frequencies or channels that are reused in different cells within a cellular
network. Co-channel interference occurs when the same frequency is used in neighboring cells.
5.Co-channel interference can be minimized by careful planning of the frequency reuse pattern,
ensuring that cells using the same frequencies are separated by a distance sufficient to reduce
interference. Increasing the distance between the co-channel cells, using directional antennas,
and adjusting the transmission power also help reduce interference.
6. Propagation loss refers to the reduction in power density of an electromagnetic wave as it
propagates through space. It includes losses due to the spreading of the wavefront (space loss),
absorption, scattering, and diffraction.
7. Free space propagation is the transmission of electromagnetic waves in an environment free
from obstructions and reflective surfaces. It assumes no obstacles between the transmitter and
receiver and is characterized by a loss that increases with the square of the distance from the
source.
8. The Hata model is used to predict the propagation loss in urban areas based on the frequency,
the distance between transmitter and receiver, and the environment (urban, suburban, open). It
helps in designing cellular networks by estimating coverage and cell radius.
9. Fading refers to the variation or reduction in the intensity of a radio signal caused by changes
in the propagation path, such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and scattering.
10.
 Fast Fading: Rapid fluctuations in amplitude and phase of the received signal caused
by interference.
 Slow Fading: Changes in the mean signal level, caused by obstacles like buildings or
hills obstructing the direct path.
 Multipath Fading: Resulting from the interference of multiple versions of the
transmitted signal that have taken different paths.
 Rayleigh and Rician Fading: Statistical models that describe how the signal amplitude
is affected by the sum of many random scatter paths.
11. Path loss describes the attenuation of a radio signal as it propagates through space. It is
influenced by various factors including distance, frequency, and environmental conditions.
12. Median path loss represents the typical path loss that can be expected in a propagation
environment, statistically describing the middle value in a set of measured or predicted path
loss values.
13. The ground reflection model, or two-ray model, considers two primary paths for radio
waves: the direct path and the ground-reflected path. It is often used to model the propagation
over a flat earth with a single reflection.
14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Ground Reflection / Two Ray Model:
 Advantages: Simple to calculate and useful for understanding basic propagation over
flat terrain.
 Disadvantages: Less accurate over complex terrains and does not account for multipath
effects in urban environments.
15. Some commonly used outdoor propagation models include the Hata model, COST-231
model, Okumura model, and Walfisch-Ikegami model.
16. The Okumura model is used for predicting urban propagation loss. It provides curves based
on empirical data collected in Tokyo, which must be adjusted for other frequencies and
environments. The model is typically used within the 150 MHz to 1920 MHz range.
17. The HATA model is an empirical formulation derived from the Okumura model. It
simplifies calculations by providing mathematical expressions for median path loss:
L=69.55+26.16log10(f)−13.82log10(hte)−a(hre)+(44.9−6.55log10(hte)) log10(d)
Where 𝑓f is frequency in MHz, ℎ𝑡𝑒 is the transmitter height, ℎ𝑟𝑒 is the receiver height, and 𝑑d
is the distance in kilometre.
18. Advantages of HATA Model Over Okumura Model: The HATA model is favored over the
Okumura model because it provides a simpler, more direct calculation method suitable for
automated tools without the need to reference multiple curves and graphs.
19. Diversity reception techniques, which are used to improve signal quality and reduce fading
effects, include:
 Spatial Diversity: Using multiple antennas at different locations.
 Frequency Diversity: Using multiple frequencies for the same transmission.
 Time Diversity: Transmitting the same signal at different times.
 Polarization Diversity: Using different antenna polarizations to receive the same signal.