SELF LEARNING

MODULE
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Antipolo City National Science and Technology High School

Jasmine Kate L. Esparagoza, RCh

Special Science Teacher 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON Learning Competency Pages

Use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom

Determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its electronic configuration

LESSON 1 Draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic configuration of atoms

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives, you are to do the following:

• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.

• Answer all the given tests and exercises

What I Need To Know This part contains learning objectives that are set for you
to learn as you go along the module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of knowledge to

the subject matter at hand, meant specifically to gauge
prior related knowledge

What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that of the

current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through various

activities, before it will be presented to you

What is It These are discussions of the activities as a way to

deepen your discovery and understanding of the
concept.

What’s More These are follow-up activities that are intended for you to
practice further in order to master the competencies

What I Have Learned Activities designed to process what you have learned
from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show- case your
skills and knowledge gained, and applied into real-life
concerns and situations
Lesson 1: Use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

Early attempts by nineteenth-century physicists to understand atoms and molecules met with only limited success.
By assuming that molecules behave like rebounding balls, physicists were able to predict and explain some
macroscopic phenomena, such as the pressure exerted by a gas. However, this model did not account for the stability
of molecules; that is, it could not explain the forces that hold atoms together. It took a long time to realize—and an
even longer time to accept—that the properties of atoms and molecules are not governed by the same physical laws
as larger objects.

The new era in physics started in 1900 with a young German physicist named Max Planck. † While analyzing the
data on radiation emitted by solids heated to various temperatures, Planck discovered that atoms and molecules emit
energy only in certain discrete quantities, or quanta. Physicists had always assumed that energy is continuous and
that any amount of energy could be released in a radiation process. Planck’s quantum theory turned physics upside
down. Indeed, the flurry of research that ensued altered our concept of nature forever.

WHAT’S NEW?

Observe the following pictures below

Are you familiar with the shapes given? If yes, name each shape.

WHAT I KNOW?

Before proceeding to the lesson, answer this pre-assessment activity

Rearrange the letters of the correct term that is described by the corresponding statement.
1. Write your answer on the space provided.

___________ a. LAPNICRIP – It is the quantum number that represents the energy level the electron is in.

___________ b. LATOBRI – It is a representation of the wave function of a hydrogen-like atom.

___________ c. ALGANUR MUTMENMO – It is a quantum number that represents the shape of orbitals.

___________ d. NOTRECLE – It is the particle that can be described by four quantum numbers

___________ e. MEGATINC – It represents the quantum number that describes the orientation of an orbital.

___________ f. NEREGY EVELL – It is being represented by n.

___________ g. RHEPES – It is the shape of the s orbital.

___________ h. ROGUND EATTS – It is the most stable state of the electron in the hydrogen atom.
WHAT IS IT?

In quantum mechanics, three quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution of electrons in hydrogen
and other atoms. These numbers are derived from the mathematical solution of the Schrödinger equation for the
hydrogen atom. They are called the principal quantum number, the angular momentum quantum number, and the
magnetic quantum number. These quantum numbers will be used to describe atomic orbitals and to label electrons
that reside in them. A fourth quantum number—the spin quantum number —describes the behavior of a specific
electron and completes the description of electrons in atoms.

The Principal Quantum Number (n)

The principal quantum number ( n ) can have integral values 1, 2, 3, and so forth; it corresponds to the quantum
number. In a hydrogen atom, the value of n determines the energy of an orbital. It also determines the orbital size,
The larger n is, the greater the average distance of an electron in the orbital from the nucleus and therefore the larger
the orbital. It is related to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a particular orbital; the larger the
n value, the farther the average distance of the electron from the nucleus. Orbitals with the same n are said to be in
the same shell.

The Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

The angular momentum quantum number (l) tells us the “shape” of the orbitals.The values of l depend on the value
of the principal quantum number, n . For a given value of n , l has possible integral values from 0 to ( n = 1). If n =
1, there is only one possible value of l; that is, l = n - 1= 1 - 1 = 0. If n = 2, there are two values of l, given by 0 and
1. If n = 3, there are three values of l, given by 0, 1, and 2. The value of l is generally designated by the letters s , p ,
d , . . . as follows:

Thus, if l = 0, we have an s orbital; if l = 1, we have a p orbital; and so on. collection of orbitals with the same value
of n is frequently called a shell. On or more orbitals with the same n and l values are referred to as a subshell. For
example, the shell with n = 2 is composed of two subshells, l = 0 and 1 (the allowed values for n= 2). These subshells
are called the 2 s and 2 p subshells where 2 denotes the value of n , and s and p denote the values of l.

The s, p, d, f designations of the orbitals refer tosharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental lines in emission spectra.

The Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

The magnetic quantum number (ml) describes the orientation of the orbital in space Within a subshell, the value of
ml depends on the value of the angular momentum quantum number, l. If l = 0, then m l = 0. If l = 1, then there are
three values of ml , namely, -1, 0, and 1.

The Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

To take the electron spin into account, it is necessary to introduce a fourth quantum number, called the electron spin
quantum number (ms), which has a value of ½ and – ½
The four quantum numbers compose the numbers that describe the electron in an atom. The quantum numbers shall
be in the order: energy level (n), sub-level or orbital type (ℓ), the orientation of the orbital specified in ℓ (mℓ), and the
orientation of the spin of the electron (ms). Itis written in the order (n, ℓ, mℓ, ms ).

THE QUANTUM NUMBERS AND THE CORRESPONDING ATOMIC ORBITALS

The quantum numbers and corresponding atomic orbitals are given in the following table.

For example

1. An electron is found in the first energy level. What is the allowed set of quantum numbers for this electron?

a. The energy level, n = 1.

b. The orbital type is only s, its designation is 0, thus, ℓ = 0

c. From ℓ, the orbital type is s. There is only one orientation of an s orbital, designated as 0, thus, mℓ = 0.

d. An electron in the 1s orbital can have an up-spin or a down-spin. Therefore, ms could be +1/2 or -1/2.

So the allowed set of quantum numbers for 1s electron are:

(1,0,0,1/2) and (1,0,0,-1/2)

How does (1,0,0,1/2) differ from (1,0,0,-1/2)? The first set corresponds to the electron with spin

up and the second set refers to the electron with spin down.

WHAT’S MORE?

I. Give the n and ℓ values for the following orbitals II. What is the mℓ values for the following types of
orbitals?
a. 1s _______________________________
a. s _______________________________
b. 3p _______________________________
b. p _______________________________
c. 5f _______________________________
c. d _______________________________
d. 4d _______________________________
d. f _______________________________
WHAT I CAN DO?

Do as directed.

a. What is the highest orbital possible in n = 4

b. What is the value of l for a 4f electron?
c. How many electrons have the following quantum numbers: n =4, l = 2, mℓ = -2?
d. Write all the possible set of quantum numbers for n = 3
e. When n = 5, The possible value of l is _______________________. For the 4p sublevel, l has a value of ___.
f. The shape of an atomic orbital is given by the quantum number ____.

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED?

Topic What you already know Learned

Quantum Numbers I have learned that

REFERENCES

Raymond Chang 10th Edition Chemistry

TOPIC 2: Determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its electronic configuration

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

The electron configuration is the standard notation used to describe the electronic structure of an atom. Under the
orbital approximation, we let each electron occupy an orbital, which can be solved by a single wavefunction. Hence,
many of the rules that we use to describe the electron's address in the hydrogen atom can also be used in systems
involving multiple electrons. When assigning electrons to orbitals, we must follow a set of three rules: the Aufbau
Principle, the Pauli-Exclusion Principle, and Hund's Rule. In this lesson, we will the write the electron configuration
of an atom and determine its magnetic property based on it.

WHAT’S IN?

Now that we have some understanding of the shapes and sizes of atomic orbitals, we are ready to inquire into their
relative energies and look at how energy levels affect the actual arrangement of electrons in atoms. According to our
previous lesson, the energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is determined solely by its principal quantum number.
Thus, the energies of hydrogen orbitals increase as follows

To easily memorize the arrangement used in electronic configuration, use the

mnemonics below.
Si Sammy Pumasok Sa Pinto
Si Daddy Pumasok Sa Door
Paano Si Franky Daddy
Paano Si Franky Daddy

The first letter of the mnemonic corresponds to the shape (s,p,d,f) of the orbital.
To add the numbers, follow the steps below.
Step 1
Write the first letters
s s p s p s d p s d p s f d………

Step 2
Start adding number to s orbital.
1s 2s p 3s p 4s d p 5s d p 6s f d…….

Step 3
Start adding number to p orbital but start counting from 2.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s d 4p 5s d 5p 6s f d…….

Step 4
Start adding number to d orbital, start counting from 3.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s f 5d…….

Do the same thing with the f orbital but start counting from 4. To determine the superscript of the orbital, you can
use the formula (ml x 2). For example, in d orbital we already know that there are 5 possible magnetic quantum
number (ml) multiply by 2 = 10.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6

The four quantum numbers n, l, ml, and ms enable us to label completely an electron in any orbital in any
atom. In a sense, we can regard the set of four quantum numbers as the “address” of an electron in an atom, somewhat
in the same way that a street address, city, state, and postal ZIP code specify the address of an individual. For example,
the four quantum numbers for a 2s orbital electron are n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, and ms = - ½ or ½ . It is inconvenient to
write out all the individual quantum numbers, and so we use the simplified notation (n, l, ml, ms). For the preceding
example, the quantum numbers are either (2, 0, 0, ½ ) or (2, 0, 0, - ½ ). The value of ms has no effect on the energy,
size, shape, or orientation of an orbital, but it determines how electrons are arranged in an orbital.

WHAT IS IT

The hydrogen atom is a particularly simple system because it contains only one electron. The electron may
reside in the 1s orbital (the ground state), or it may be found in some higher-energy orbital (an excited state). For
many-electron atoms, however, we must know the electron configuration of the atom, that is, how the electrons are
distributed among the various atomic orbitals, in order to understand electronic behavior. We will use the first 10
elements (hydrogen to neon) to illustrate the rules for writing electron configurations for atoms in the ground state.
For this discussion, recall that the number of electrons in an atom is equal to its atomic number Z. The figure below
indicates that the electron in a ground-state hydrogen atom must be in the 1s orbital, so its electron configuration is
1s1 :

The electron configuration can also be represented by an orbital diagram that shows the spin of the electron. The
upward arrow denotes one of the two possible spinning motions of the electron. (Alternatively, we could have
represented the electron with a downward arrow.) The box represents an atomic orbital.

Example 1:
Write the electron configuration of ground state Na.
Strategy:
We know that Sodium – Na has 11 electrons, based on its atomic number (which is also the number of electron)

Solution:
Follow the steps in writing the electronic configuration.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Add superscript to the orbital that shows the total number of electrons for Sodium
Answer - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Example 2:
Write the electron configuration of ground state Na+
Strategy:
We know that Sodium – Na has 11 electrons, based on its atomic number (which is also the number of electron) but
the given is Sodium Cation, meaning we must remove an electron
Solution:
Follow the steps in writing the electronic configuration.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Add superscript to the orbital that shows the total number of electrons for Sodium
Answer - 1s2 2s2 2p6

Example 2:
Write the electron configuration of ground state F-
Strategy:
We know that Fluorine – F has 9 electrons, based on its atomic number (which is also the number of electron) but
the given is Fluorine Anion, meaning we must add an electron.
Solution:
Follow the steps in writing the electronic configuration.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Add superscript to the orbital that shows the total number of electrons for Fluorine
Answer - 1s2 2s2 2p6

Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism

The Pauli exclusion principle is one of the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics. It can be tested by a simple
observation. If the two electrons in the 1s orbital of a helium atom had the same, or parallel, spins (↓↓or ↑↑), their net
magnetic fields would reinforce each other. Such an arrangement would make the helium gas paramagnetic.
Paramagnetic substances are those that contain net unpaired spins and are attracted by a magnet. On the other hand,
if the electron spins are paired, or antiparallel to each other (↓↑ or ↑↓), the magnetic effects cancel out. Diamagnetic
substances do not contain net unpaired spins and are slightly repelled by a magnet.

The (a) parallel and (b) antiparallel spins of two

electrons. In (a) the two magnetic fields reinforce each
other. In (b) the two magnetic fields cancel each other

For now, you can tell the magnetic properties of an atom by looking at its electron configuration.

For example, Flourine Anion with an electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 is diamagnetic, because all electrons
in an orbital is paired

ORBITAL DIAGRAM
In writing the orbital diagram to represent electron configurations. We follow three rules/law

Aufbau principle

It states that electrons fill lower-energy atomic orbitals before filling higher-energy ones (Aufbau is German for
"building-up"). By following this rule, we can predict the electron configurations for atoms or ions. Orbitals are filled
in order of energy, the lowest energy orbitals being filled first.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

For many-electron atoms we use the Pauli exclusion principle to determine electron configurations. This principle
states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. If two electrons in an atom
should have the same n , l, and ml values (that is, these two electrons are in the same atomic orbital), then they must
have different values of m s. In other words, only two electrons may occupy the same atomic orbital, and these
electrons must have opposite spins. Consider the helium atom, which has two electrons. The three possible ways of
placing two electrons in the 1s orbital are as follows:

Diagrams (a) and (b) are ruled out by the Pauli exclusion principle. In (a), both electrons have the same upward spin
and would have the quantum numbers (1, 0, 0, ½); in (b), both electrons have downward spins and would have the
quantum numbers (1, 0, 0, - ½ ). Only the confi guration in (c) is physically acceptable, because one electron has the
quantum numbers (1, 0, 0, -½) and the other has (1, 0, 0, ½). Thus, the helium atom has the following configuration

Note that 1 s 2 is read “one s two,” not “one s squared.”

Hund’s Rule

The electron configuration of carbon ( Z = 6) is 1s 2 2s2 2p2. The following are different ways of distributing two
electrons among three p orbitals:

None of the three arrangements violates the Pauli exclusion principle, so we must determine which one will give the
greatest stability. The answer is provided by Hund’s rule,† which states that the most stable arrangement of electrons
in subshells is the one with the greatest number of parallel spins. The arrangement shown in (c) satisfi es this
condition. In both (a) and (b) the two spins cancel each other. Thus, the orbital diagram for carbon is

Qualitatively, we can understand why (c) is preferred to (a). In (a), the two electrons are in the same 2px orbital, and
their proximity results in a greater mutual repulsion than when they occupy two separate orbitals, say 2px and 2py .
The choice of (c) over (b) is more subtle but can be justified on theoretical grounds. The fact that carbon atoms
contain two unpaired electrons is in accord with Hund’s rule.

The electron configuration of nitrogen (Z = 7) is 1s2 2s2 2p3

Again, Hund’s rule dictates that all three 2p electrons have spins parallel to one another; the nitrogen atom contains
three unpaired electrons.

The electron configuration of oxygen ( Z = 8) is 1s2 2s2 2p4 . An oxygen atom has two unpaired electrons:

The electron confi guration of fluorine ( Z = 9) is 1s 2 2s2 2p5 . The nine electrons are arranged as follows: The fl
uorine atom has one unpaired electron

In neon ( Z = 10), the 2p subshell is completely filled. The electron configuration of neon is 1s 2 2s2 2p6 , and all the
electrons are paired, as follows:
The neon gas should be diamagnetic, and experimental observation bears out this prediction.

We know from the previous lesson; we can determine the magnetic properties by counting the electrons in an orbital
and pairing it by two’s. But now we already know how to draw the orbital diagram of an element, we can accurately
determine the magnetic properties of an atom.

Example:
Draw the orbital diagram of Na and determine if its paramagnetic or diamagnetic
Strategy:
We already know the electron configuration of Na.
Solution:

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

3s1 has 1 unpaired electron, that makes sodium paramagnetic.

Special Cases

The elements from scandium (Z = 21) to copper (Z = 29) are transition metals. Transition metals either have
incompletely filled d subshells or readily give rise to cations that have incompletely filled d subshells. Consider the

first transition metal series, from scandium through copper. In this series additional electrons are placed in the 3d
orbitals, according to Hund’s rule. However, there are two irregularities. The electron configuration of chromium (
Z = 24) is [Ar]4s1 3d5 and not [Ar]4s2 3d4, as we might expect. A similar break in the pattern is observed for copper,
whose electron configuration is [Ar]4s1 3d10 rather than [Ar]4s2 3d9. The reason for these irregularities is that a
slightly greater stability is associated with the half-filled (3d5) and completely filled (3d10) subshells.

Thus, Cr has a total of six unpaired electrons. The orbital diagram for copper is

Example:
Give the electronic configuration, draw the orbital diagram, and determine the magnetic property of Cr 2+.

Solution:

At ground state, we know that the electronic configuration of Chromium is: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s1 3d5
but Cr3+ is a cation, we need to remove 3 electrons. Based on the explanation earlier, transition metals prefer the
stability associated with the half-filled and completely filled d orbital. So we will remove electrons in the 4s orbital.
This applies to all transition metals.

The electronic configuration will be: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d3 and the orbital diagram will be:

From this orbital we can see that, Cr3+ has unpaired electrons = paramagnetic.
WHAT’S MORE

I. Answer the following questions

1. The ground-state electron configurations listed here are incorrect. Explain what mistakes have been
made in each and write the correct electron configurations.
a. F: 1s2 2s2 2p6
2. The following ground state electron configurations belong to which elements?
a. [Kr] 5s2 4d10
3. A ground-state atom of manganese has ___ unpaired electrons and is _____
(paramagnetic/diamagnetic)
4. What is the electron configuration of an excited state of an oxygen atom?
5. How many electrons are there in the 2nd principal energy level (n = 2) of a phosphorus atom?
6. Write the electron configuration for
a. S2-
ORBITAL DIAGRAMS

I. Answer the following questions

1. Shown below are portions of orbital of diagrams representing the ground-state electron
configurations of certain elements. Which of them violates:
a. Pauli Exclusion Principle?
b. Hund’s rule?
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED?

1. Describe the roles that the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund’s rule play in writing the electron configuration
of elements
2. State the Aufbau principle and explain the role it plays in classifying the elements in the periodic table
3. Explain why the ground-state electron configurations of Cr and Cu are different from what we might expect.

ASSESSMENT (15 ITEMS)

1. The ground-state electron configurations listed here are incorrect. Explain what mistakes have been made in
each and write the correct electron configurations.
b. Al: 1s2 2s2 2p4 3 s 2 3 p3
c. B: 1s2 2s2 2p5
2. The following ground state electron configurations belong to which elements?
b. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d6
3. How many unpaired electrons does an atom of S2- have?
4. How many unpaired electrons does Cr3+ ion has?
5. How many electrons are there in the 2nd principal energy level (n = 3) of a phosphorus atom?
6. What is the electron configuration for
a. O2-
b. Cl-
7. (2 pts each) Write the step by step drawing of the orbital diagram of the following element/ion
a. Cu2+
b. Ca2
c. Sc

REFERENCES

Raymond Chang 10th Edition Chemistry