HEI P U 0482 - SelfLearning - 20230331151315

BCHES - 11
தமிழ்நாடு திறந்தநிலைப் பல்கலைக்கழகம்
B.Sc. CHEMISTRY
(FIRST YEAR / SEMESTER - 1)
[CBCS PATTERN]
CHEMISTRY - I
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY
577, ANNA SALAI, SAIDAPET, CHENNAI - 600 015
TAMIL NADU, INDIA.
October, 2021
Name of Programme B.Sc. Chemistry
Name of the Course Chemistry - I
Course Code BCHES - 11
Curriculum Design Dr. P. SHANMUGAVELAN
Assistant Professor of Chemistry
School of Science
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai
&
Dr. E. KUMAR
Assistant Professor of Physics
School of Science
Course Writer Dr. K. SUNDARAVEL
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore
Content Editor & Course Dr. P. SHANMUGAVELAN
Coordinator Assistant Professor of Chemistry
School of Science
Total No. of Pages : 208
First Edition : October, 2021
ISBN No : 978-93-5706-041-7
© Tamil Nadu Open University

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from the University Office at 577, Anna Salai, Saidapet, Chennai - 600 015, Tamilnadu, India [or]
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@TNOU, 2021, “Chemistry-I” is made available under a Creative Commons
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Printed by: M/s. N.N. 490, Ramanathapuram District Co-operative Printing Work Ltd., Ramanad –
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BCHES - 11: CHEMISTRY - I
SCHEME OF LESSONS
Page No
BLOCK I CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 01
Unit - 1 : Classification of Organic Compounds 02 – 15
Unit - 2 : IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds 16 – 33
Unit - 3 : Factors Influencing Electron Availability 34 – 45
BLOCK II NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 46

Unit - 4 : Naming of Organic Compounds with One Functional Group 47 – 60
Unit - 5 : Naming of Organic Compounds with Two Functional Groups 61 – 70
Unit - 6 : Resonance 71
67––82
77
BLOCK III MODERN PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODIC PROPERTIES 83

Unit - 7 : Periodic Laws 84 – 91
Unit - 8 : Classification of Elements 92 – 113
Unit - 9 : Periodic Properties 114 – 127
BLOCK IVCHEMICAL BONDING 128

Unit - 10 : Ionic Bond 129 – 144
Unit - 11 : Covalent Bond 145 – 159
Unit - 12 : Intermolecular Forces 160 – 167
BLOCK V GASEOUS STATE 168

Unit - 13 : Ideal Gas 169 – 181
Unit - 14 : Ideal Gas: Kinetic Theory of Gases 182 – 198
Periodic Table of the Elements 199

Block I
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Unit 1 : Classification of Organic Compounds
Unit 2 : IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds
Unit 3 : Factors Influencing Electron Availability
1
Unit 1
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
1.1. Organic compounds - A Brief Introduction
1.2. Classifications of Organic Compounds Based on Carbon
Skeleton
1.2.1. Acyclic or Open Chain Compounds
1.2.2. Alicyclic or Closed Chain or Ring Compounds
1.2.3. Aromatic Compounds
1.2.4. Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds
1.3. Classification of Organic Compounds Based on Functional
group
1.3.1. Functional Groups
1.3.2. Functional Groups in Organic Compounds
1.4. C and H atoms of Organic Compound (Primary, Secondary,
Tertiary)
Let us Sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Answers to Check Your Progress
Model Questions
OVERVIEW
It is very important to learn the basic concepts involved in organic

chemistry. It is also referred as the study of carbon containing
compounds. Organic compounds consist of carbon attached with other
2
carbon atoms or elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc., the main
aim of studying this unit involves, understanding some organic concepts
including the organic compounds and its classifications based on the
nature of carbon skeleton and functional groups, classification of carbon
and hydrogen atoms of organic compounds (primary, secondary,
tertiary), knowing these concepts are more important for the students to
develop a basic understanding about the concepts involved in organic
chemistry. This will be highly useful for the students who are studying
chemistry as main subject in their undergraduate level.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
 Define the basics of organic compounds
 Classify organic molecules based on the nature of carbon skeleton
and functional groups.
 Analyze deeper knowledge about the cataloguing of carbon (C)
and hydrogen (H) atoms of organic compounds (primary,
secondary, tertiary).
1.1. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - A BRIEF INTRODUCTION

We have both organic and inorganic compounds. So far, we've only
looked at inorganic substances in our chemistry classes. Compounds
taken from living things are once believed to be organic compounds,
while inorganic substances were those that did not come from living
systems. A substance containing the element carbon is called as an
organic compound. A better definition for organic compounds is, these
are compounds that contain carbon base, or its "backbone‖ is carbon.
Organic chemistry is extremely significant in our everyday lives. We
wear a lot of rayon, dacron, nylon, and orion in our outfits. All of these
organic substances are synthetic (man-made). Plastics of all kinds are
also made up of synthetic organic chemicals. Petroleum is an organic
chemical that occurs naturally, but two of its by-products are synthetic
rubber, plastics. Petroleum by-products have been used to create a
significant range of contemporary chemical compounds. Other
compounds developed because of organic chemistry research include
sulfa medicines, penicillin, cortisone, fragrances, detergents, vitamins,
anaesthetics insecticides, and many of today's antibiotics.
Over 90,000 inorganic compounds have been identified. However, there

are far over a million known organic molecules, with chemists creating
thousands more every year! Why plenty of organic compounds exist? so
3
many Carbon atoms, can also bonded between them in number of ways.
Both short and even long chain containing organic compounds are
formed, as well as a variety of rings.
Carbon undergoes even branching and cross-linking with other atoms

(often hydrogen) can form even chains and rings. We're going to
approach organic chemistry through the lens of organic nomenclature.
The word nomenclature is used to refer naming of compounds. We'll see
the nomenclature of simplest organic molecules because the more
complex ones can quickly become overwhelming. As you name
compounds, certain rules should be followed. Learning organic
nomenclature will require some memory, but it will primarily rely on a
logical approach to the challenges presented.
Hydrogen is the second large abundant element present in organic

molecules. This chapter will focus solely on compounds made with
carbon and hydrogen. These are called as hydrocarbons. The structures
of various hydrocarbons are depicted in the illustrations below. Bonds
are represented by the lines that connect the atomic symbols. Carbon-
to-carbon bonds are classified in to three types.
1.2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CARBON SKELETON

Organic compounds are classified as below.
4
What is an Organic Compound?
Organic substances also contain carbon, as well as other components

required for living creatures to reproduce. Carbon is the most important
ingredient since it possesses four electrons and can fit eight in its outer
shell. So, various types of bonds are formed between carbon atoms as
well as elements like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Organic
compounds capable of generating lengthy chains and complicated
structures include hydrocarbons and proteins, these molecules and
other organic components serve as the foundation for chemical
reactions taking place inside the living organisms, which gives the
energy needed to find food, reproduce, and carry out all other life-related
processes.
1.2.1. ACYCLIC OR OPEN CHAIN COMPOUNDS
These compounds are aliphatic compounds; they form both branched or

can also form straight chains. Below given compounds are the examples
of this category.
5
1.2.2. ALICYCLIC OR CLOSED CHAIN OR RING COMPOUNDS
These compounds are carbon-based cyclic compounds which has

homocyclic ring made by carbon atoms. Heterocyclic refers to a cyclic
compound which contain atoms other than carbon. Examples are given
below.
1.2.3. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

They are unique compounds that have benzene and benzene-like
unsaturated ring containing compounds. Even rings made of
heteroatoms, just like alicyclic compounds. Heterocyclic aromatic
compounds are a type of heterocyclic chemical. The following are some
examples:
 Benzenoid aromatic compounds
6
 Non-benzenoid aromatic compounds
1.2.4. HETEROCYCLIC AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
A heterocyclic compound is an organic compound in which one or more

of the carbon atoms in the backbone of the molecule has been replaced
by an atom other than carbon. Typical hetero atoms include nitrogen,
oxygen, and sulfur. Ex.: Pyridine (C 5H 5N), pyrrole (C 4H 5N), furan (C
4H 4O), and thiophene (C 4H 4S) are examples of heteroaromatic
compounds.
1.3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Organic compounds are classified as based on the functional groups
which are present in the molecule. It is described as below.
1.3.1. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Atoms (or small groups of atoms) with a specific chemical reactivity is

known as functional groups. Depending upon their functional group a
molecule, almost invariably exhibits its distinctive chemical behavior.
Functional groups have distinctive names that often continue over into
the naming of chemical compounds integrating specific groups.
1.3.2. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Characterization of Functional groups is done based on their unique

bonding patterns between certain atoms in organic molecules. As we
advance through our studies of organic chemistry, being able to rapidly
recognize the most frequent functional groups will become increasingly
crucial, as they are the main factor that decide how organic molecules
react. The secondary suffix of the compound‘s name is given based on
the functional group of the molecule. Specific atoms, atom, or ionic
7
groups present in a large hydrocarbon chain and gives certain qualities
to the compounds are called as functional groups.
ORGANIC COMPOUND FUNCTIONAL GROUP SECONDARY SUFFIX
Alcohols -OH -ol
Aldehydes -CHO -al
Ketones >CO -one
Carboxylic acid -COOH -oic aid
Acid amides -CONH2 -amide
Acid chlorides -COCl -oyl chloride
Esters -COOR -alkyl…oate
Cyanides -CN -nitrile
Thioalcohols -SH -thiol
Amines -NH2 -amine
Example
Ethyl alcohol has two carbon atoms, so ―

eth‖ will be the root word.
Ethyl alcohol molecule is saturated so, according to IUPAC

nomenclature the primary suffix used is ―
ane‖ but the functional group
(alcohol) ―
–OH‖ so, by removing the word ―e‖ from the compound name
and then add secondary suffix ―
ol‖.
So, the IUPAC name is ―

ethanol‖.
CH3–CH2–OH: Eth + an + ol: Ethanol
Similarly,
propanaldehyde molecule is called as propanal,
CH3–CH2–CHO:
The root word is: Prop
The Primary suffix given is: an
Secondary suffix will be: al
According to IUPAC rules,
8
Add root word and Primary suffix and then Secondary suffix: we get the
name propanal
By the IUPAC nomenclature propanone is the systematic name given to

acetone.
CH3–CO–CH3:
Root word is: Prop
Primary suffix will be: an
Secondary suffix given is: one
Similarly,
Add root word and Primary suffix and then Secondary suffix to give the
name Propanone
ethanoic acid is called as acetic acid by systematic IUPAC rules.
CH3–COOH:
The root word is: Eth
The Primary suffix will be: an
The Secondary suffix according to rules is: oic acid
So,
On adding root word and Primary suffix with Secondary suffix we get
Ethanoic acid
Functional groups with halogen as the hetero atom are,

FUNCTIONAL GROUP FORMULA PREFIX
Flourine –F Flouro
Chlorine –Cl Chloro
Bromine –Br Bromo
Iodine –I Iodo
ethyl chloride naming based on IUPAC rules

CH3–CH2–Cl
The root word is: Eth
9
The Primary suffix will be: ane
Prefix is: Chloro
Similar to the above-mentioned examples The Prefix then the root word
and primary suffix: are added to get Chloroethane
if carbons present in the molecules are more than three, then it becomes
necessary to denote the position of halogen.
Example:
CH3–CH2–CH2–Cl
The root word is: Prop
The Primary suffix is: ane
Prefix given is: 1-Chloro
Prefix on adding with root word and then adding primary suffix to it we
get the name 1-Chloropropane
CH3–CH(Cl) –CH3
Root word will be: Prop
Primary suffix is: ane
Prefix used is: 2-Chloro
Prefix on addition with root word and then by adding primary suffix to it
we get 2-Chloropropane
10
These functional groups, which determine a molecule's chemical
reactivity under certain conditions, can be made up of a single atom (like
Cl) or a collection of atoms (such as COOH). The present table
summarises the five families discussed in previous chapters, provides
11
examples of functional group containing molecules, and denotes the
prefix or suffix used in the IUPAC naming of compounds possessing
each functional group.
The hydrocarbons are the first family to be mentioned. The

molecular used to denote alkane is CnH2n+2 the n mention in the formula
is an integer. The molecular formula of alkene is CnH2n; alkynes have the
molecular formula CnH2n-2; and arenes have the molecular formula CnH2n-
6m (where m = No. of rings). The aryl and the alkyl halides are two
important families of compounds that comprise halogen-substituted

alkenes, arenes and alkanes. Alcohols, phenols (benzene derivatives),
and ethers are examples of oxygen-containing organic compounds with
C–O bond, while aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids are instances
of carbonyl-containing organic compounds with a carbonyl group (C=O).
The fourth category of molecules is carboxylic acid derivatives, the
carboxylic acid (COOH) functional group when alkoxy (–OR) group takes
the place of aldehyde, forming an ester, or an amido (–NR‘R, where R‘
and R can either be H or can also be alkyl groups, forming an amide).
The fifth family of nitrogen-containing organic compounds includes
amines, nitriles (which have a CN bond), and nitro compounds (that
have no CN bond. compounds with similar name are one and the same.
Still various compounds are identified by their common names than
systematic names, despite the fact that scientific names are preferred
since they are explicit.
1.4. C AND H ATOMS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (PRIMARY,

SECONDARY AND TERTIARY)
Essential features of carbon are due to its tetravalency. Carbon
follow octet rule, which means carbon can only form stable compounds
with a maximum of eight electrons. Every carbon atom form four bonds
because it contains four valence electrons. Carbon's ability to create
incredibly stable bonds among themselves is one of the main reasons
for the presence of millions of compounds. Now we will look how carbon
is classified based on carbon atoms linked to it. Depending on number of
carbon atoms connected, carbon is categorized as below. Only
saturated carbons are classified in this way. The following are the
classifications:
 Primary Carbon (1°) – Carbon only bonded to one carbon
 Secondary Carbon (2°) – Carbon attached with two different carbons
 Tertiary Carbon (3°) – Carbon forms bond with three other carbons
12
C1 is connected to three different hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom
example of 3-methylpentane. C1 is a main carbon, according to the
classification stated above. C2 bonds with two hydrogen atoms and the
other two atoms of carbon. C2 is classified as a secondary carbon in this
scenario. Finally, C3 contains one hydrogen and three carbon atoms
bonded to it. C3 is a tertiary carbon in this circumstance. The carbons
both C5 and the C6 are primary, but carbon atom C4 is secondary,
according to the classification above.
3-methylpentane
This categorization technique is significant because it may be used to
categorize organic molecules with various functional groups. This is
correct for functional groups like amines, alcohols, and alkyl halides
particularly. It can also be used to categorize carbocations and
carbanions.
13
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson, we studied well in detail about the organic compounds

and its classifications based on the nature of carbon skeleton and
functional groups, classification of C and H atoms of organic compounds
(primary, secondary, tertiary).
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What are carbonyl functional groups?
2. Write priority order of various functional groups.
3. Write an example for a cyano compound.
4. The IUPAC name of the CH3–CH2–OH molecule is____?
5. What are –I effect functional groups?
GLOSSARY
Organic compound: Compounds with carbon skeleton.
Inorganic compound: Compound that lacks carbon-hydrogen bond.
Aromatic compound: Unsaturated organic compound which obeys
Huckel rule.
Aliphatic compound: Sturated or unsaturated organic molecule doesn‘t
obey Huckel rule.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry by T.W.Graham Solomen and

John-Wiley.
2. A text book of Organic Chemistry by R.K. Bansal.
3. A text book of Organic Chemistry, B.R. Puri, H.M. Chawla.
4. Organic Chemistry by P. H. Pine and McGraw Hill.
WEB RESOURCES
1. https://youtu.be/pI0xzCfF0Yc
2. https://collegedunia.com/exams/aromatic-compounds-chemistry-
articleid-7061\
3. https://youtu.be/pI0xzCfF0Yc
4. https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/organicchemistry/chapter/2-3-functional-
groups/
14
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acids
2. COOH > -SO3H > -COOR (R= alkyl group) > -COCl > -CONH2 > -CN
> -HC=O > >C=O > -OH > -NH2 >> C=C >> -C-C-
3. N≡C-CH3 : Acetonitrile
4. The IUPAC name of the CH3–CH2–OH molecule is,
According to IUPAC nomenclature CH3–CH2–OH is named as: Eth + an
+ ol: Ethanol.
5. Electron-withdrawing groups include halogen, nitro (-NO2), cyano
(CN), carboxy (-COOH), ester (-COOR), and aryloxy (-OAr).
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain about the classification of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
2. Describe in detail about the naming of aldehydes and ketones.
3. Define the primary, secondary and tertiary carbon compounds.
4. Explain briefly about alcohol functional group?
15
Unit 2
IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
2.1. Naming of Organic Compounds
2.1.1. Common Nomenclature of Some Organic Compounds
2.2. The IUPAC System of Nomenclature
2.2.1. Naming of Alkanes
2.2.2. Naming of Alkenes
2.2.3. Naming of Alkynes
2.2.4. Naming of Cycloalkanes
2.2.5. Naming of Aromatic Compounds
Let us Sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Model Questions
OVERVIEW
Giving specific name for the compounds is necessary; it helps in correct

identification of the compounds. Though giving common name is also a
way to classify the organic compounds, giving the systematic way of
classification is necessary because it will reduce the problems involved
in correct prediction of organic compounds by the people all over the
world. It is highly significant to learn and understand the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature system.
Organic compounds such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, cycloalkanes,
16
and aromatic compounds can easily be identified and named more
precisely with the aid of IUPAC nomenclature system. By exposing in to
this highly important basic concept the students will gain deeper
knowledge about guidelines followed in the nomenclature of organic
molecules which we studied in the previous unit. This will help everyone
in understanding the nomenclature of different types of organic
compounds in better way.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Describe the basics of organic compounds
 Classify based on the IUPAC system of nomenclature of common
organic compounds such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes,
cycloalkanes, and aromatic compounds.
 Explain the properties of organic molecules based on their
molecular skeleton
2.1. NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUND

IUPAC, is the system devised for organic compound naming. This
system is used in naming simple organic compounds, but large and
complex biomolecules cannot be named using this system. So, if
biologist know basics of IUPAC nomenclature, then structures that are
simple can be drawn by biologist based on this.
2.1.1. COMMON NOMENCLATURE OF SOME ORGANIC

COMPOUNDS
In Trivial or common nomenclature system is the non-systematic system
of nomenclature. The common names are given based on the source
and properties. Example: acid derived from citrus fruits are named as
citric acid. On the other hand, in IUPAC systematic nomenclature the
names are given based on the molecular structure.
Common
Number Common name Acid Number
name
of Prefix given to Common of
given to
carbons aldehyde name carbons
alcohol
Methyl Formic
1 Meth- Formaldehyde 1
alcohol acid
17
Ethyl
2 Eth- Acetaldehyde Acetic acid 2
alcohol
Propyl Propionic
3 Prop- Propionaldehyde 3
alcohol acid
Butyl Butyric
4 But- Butyraldehyde 4
alcohol acid
Amyl Valeric
5 Pent- Valeraldehyde 5
alcohol acid
Caproyl Caproic
6 Hex- Caproaldehyde 6
alcohol acid
Enanthyl Enanthoic
7 Hept- Enanthaldehyde 7
alcohol acid
Capryl Caprylic
8 Oct- Caprylaldehyde 8
alcohol acid
Pelargonic Pelargonic
9 Non- Pelargonaldehyde 9
alcohol acid
Capric Capric
10 Dec- Capraldehyde 10
alcohol acid
2.2. THE IUPAC SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE
The IUPAC system provide guidelines for organic compound

nomenclature. In other words, this nomenclature provides a foundation
for naming in organic chemistry. The primary step done while naming
should be identification of the 'parent chain‘, that is the longest straight
chain of carbon atoms. Let us start with simple alkane CH4 which is
called as methane, and C2H6 is named as ethane.
18
The two systems used in naming organic compounds are
 Common system
 IUPAC system
IUPAC rules of organic compound nomenclature is formed to give every
molecule a unique name. According these rules organic compound
names consist of a root word, a suffix, and a prefix.
Root word
It is given based on the numbers of carbon atoms in the basic skeleton.
Number of carbon atoms Root word
C Meth
C-C Eth
C-C-C Prop
C-C-C-C But
C-C-C-C-C Pent
C-C-C-C-C-C Hex
C-C-C-C-C-C-C Hept
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C Oct
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C Non
C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C Dec
Example: C-C-C-C-C
Root word of the above given carbons are ‗Pent‘ (as it has five carbon
atoms).
19
Suffix
Functional groups of the compound are designated by suffix. Which is

again classified into
 Primary suffix.
 Secondary suffix.
Primary suffix
The molecule if it is saturated or it is unsaturated is indicated by primary

suffix.
By adding Primary suffix and Root word we get a name that indicates
the nature of carbon skeleton (Saturated or unsaturated).
2.2.1. NAMING OF ALKANES
The ―
ane‖ is the primary suffix used, if hydrocarbons are saturated.
Example: IUPAC rules for naming of molecules containing single

bonded carbon atoms.
CH3–CH3 : Eth + ane giving Ethane
CH3–CH2–CH3 : Prop + ane giving Propane
When naming an organic molecule, the main step is to find the 'parent
chain,' which is the longest chain composing carbons. Let's start with the
most basic alkane structures: straight chains. CH4 is known as methane,
and C2H6 is known as ethane. The below given table containing names
of alkanes these provide the foundation for the IUPAC nomenclature.
Names for straight-chain alkanes
1 carbon methane
2 carbons ethane
3 carbons propane
4 carbons butane
20
5 carbons pentane
6 carbons hexane
7 carbons heptane
8 carbons octane
9 carbons nonane
10 carbons decane
Carbon numbers are utilized to locate substitutes branching from the

primary parent chain, lowest numbers are used for substituents (for
example, notice the compound below which on your left corner is named
as 1-chlorobutane, not 4-chlorobutane). The root words such as methyl,
and ethyl are used depending on alkyl groups attached.
Common names which are used to indicate hydrocarbon substituents

are, tert-butyl and phenyl etc.
21
An 'ethyl group' (in blue) present in the below example is not called as a
substituent; rather, taken as the part in parent chain, while methyl group
present is handled as a substituent. The parent chain, in below
compound is four carbon atoms, not three atoms.
2.2.2. NAMING OF ALKENES
Alkenes are the type of hydrocarbons which contain double bonds. The
primary suffix "ene" is the root word used for such hydrocarbons.
Example:
CH2=CH2: Eth + ene: Ethene
CH3–CH=CH2: Prop + ene: Propene
When writing IUPAC alkene nomenclature, it's crucial to remember and

include the positions of double bonds for compounds which has carbon
atoms higher than three.
22
Example:
CH2=CH–CH2–CH3:
Root word:
Prefix: 1-ene
When we add Root word and prefix we get: 1-Butene
CH3–CH=CH–CH3:
Root word: But
Prefix: 2-ene
Root word + prefix will give: 2-Butene
A hydrocarbon's molecular formula informs us about the various

structural types it could represent. Take, for example, molecules with the
composition C5H8C5H8. The alkane called pentane has the formula
C5H12C5H12, hence the hydrogen content difference is 4. Such
compounds could have all the below possible structures based on this
difference. Here are few examples, but there are fourteen more!
Possible compounds like this
As with alkanes, a unified nomenclature system is required to distinguish

the nature of these unsaturated compounds. The simplest unsaturated
compounds are alkenes, which are written using chemical formula
CnH2nCnH2n, the same as cycloalkanes.
Rules for nomenclature of alkenes
Rule 1
Alkenes are named in the similar way as that of alkanes, with the
exception that the suffix is now -ene. The names for the first ten straight
chain alkenes are listed in the chart below.
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No. of C atoms Name of alkene Molecular formula
2 Ethene C2H4
3 Propene C3H6
4 Butene C4H8
5 Pentene C5H10
6 Hexene C6H12
7 Heptene C7H14
8 Octene C8H16
9 Nonene C9H18
10 Decene C10H20
Have you noticed that there isn't a single methene? Because formation
of double bond between single carbon is not possible.
Rule 2
The parent chain should contain both double bonded carbon atoms.
Numbering is not necessary, when double bonds present in alkene is
only one and it is present in the terminal position.
butane: C4H10 (CH3CH2CH2CH3)
butene: C4H8 (CH2=CHCH2CH3)
when double bond is not at terminal (i.e., in the middle of the chain), the
numbering should be done so that carbon atom from which double
bonding starts have the lowest numbering, which is preceded by a dash
before the "ene" suffix, as illustrated below.
correct: pent-2-ene (CH3CH=CHCH2CH3)
Naming as pent-3-ene (CH3CH2CH=CHCH3) is incorrect.
The second is wrong because horizontally rotating the formula results in

the lower numbering for alkene.
24
2.2.3. NAMING OF ALKYNES
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with carbons having triple-bond, therefore the

primary suffix "yne" should be appended to their names.
Example: The names of molecules that has triple bonds.
CH≡CH: is named as Eth on adding the suffix yne we get the name
Ethyne
CH3–C≡CH: by similar way Prop on adding the suffix yne to it we

get Propyne
It is vital to mention triple bonds position, if compounds have carbon

atoms greater than three according to IUPAC nomenclature rules.
Example: CH≡C–CH2–CH2–CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 1-yne
Root word + prefix on adding give the name 1-Pentyne
CH3–C≡C–CH2–CH3:
Root word: Pent
Prefix: 2–yne
Root word + prefix giving the name 2-Pentyne
These are hydrocarbons that are unsaturated. Name of Alkynes have

the suffix –yne, when there is just one alkyne in the molecule. If double
and triple bonded compounds are given. The precedence is given to
double bond in assigning the number. The molecule is subsequently
given the name "n-en-n-yne," with the root word for double bond coming
first (e.g. 2-hepten-4-yne).
Name Chemical formula Structure
Ethyne C2H2 HC≡CH
Propyne C3H4 HC≡CH-CH3
25
Butyne C4H6 HC≡C-CH2-CH3
Pentyne C5H8 HC≡C-CH2-CH2-CH3
Hexyne C6H10 HC≡C-CH2-CH2-CH3
Heptyne C7H12 HC≡C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
Octyne C8H14 HC≡C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
The IUPAC rules used in nomenclature of alkynes
Rule 1
Finding of the parent carbon chain, includes carbon atoms forming triple
bond.
Rule 2
Number the longest chain such that triple bond should have smallest
number. An alkyne with double bond at the terminal position is named as
1-alkyne, while alkynes other location is called as internal alkynes. For
example:
4-Chloro-6-diiodo-7-methyl-2-nonyne
Rule 3
Triple bonded carbons present in parent chain is allocated lowest

numbering. Substituents present are written in alphabetical order while
writing molecule's name. prefixes di, and tri, were used if same
substituent appears more than one in number then also above given
prefixes are used. During the assigning of alphabetical order do not take
these prefixes into consideration. For example:
26
2,2,10-Triiodo-5-methyl-3-decyne
If the molecule contains alcohol functional group. The alcohol shows

high priority, then the suffix used is –ynol.
5- Methyl-7-octyn-3-ol
when a molecule contains two triple bonds Identify the parent chain
which includes both triple bonds. parent chain numbering is done such
that triple bond carbon must be given lowest numbering. The suffix diyne
would is attached to molecule's name. For example:
4-Methyl-1,5-octadiyne
Rule 4
Alkynyl is used to indicate triple bonded compounds. For example:
4-Bromo-1-chloro-1-ethynylcyclohexane
27
The below given table contain names of few alkynyl substituents:
Value Formula Structure Common IUPAC

of n Name Name
2 C2H2 HC≡CH Acetylene Ethyne
3 C3H4 CH3-C≡CH Methyl

Propyne
acetylene
4 C4H6 CH3-CH2-C≡CH Ethyl

But-1-yne
acetylene
C4H6 CH3-C≡C-CH3 Dimethyl

But-2-yne
acetylene
Rule 5
An alkenyne is a molecule consisting of double as well as triple bonds.

The chain is being numbered lowest numbering of functional group, For
example:
6-Ethyl-3-methylnon-4-en-1-yne
2.2.4. NAMING OF CYCLOALKANES
Cycloalkanes are Cyclic alkanes containing compounds, these ring

containing compounds possess rings of various size.
Prefix
Prefixes are the portions of a name that come before the root word. The
prefix "cyclo" signifies the alicyclic character of the components in the
chemical cyclobutane, for example. In order to distinguish whether
compound is acyclic or cyclic, prefix is used. However, there are some
differences in how to use these.
Example: The prefix cyclo is added before root word for cyclic
compounds.
28
If multiple substituents are present, then prefixes used are di, tri, tetra
etc.
2.2.5. NAMING OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
Aromatic compounds are considered as planar ring containing

conjugated system possesing compounds with delocalized pi-electron
clouds. Aromatics and arenes are other names for them. Toluene and
benzene are the greatest examples. Aromatics must adhere to Huckel's
guideline. Plants and microbes have a one-of-a-kind pathway to
benzene-ring molecules. Plants and microorganisms present in nature
produces number of aromatic compounds, and animals are reliant on
plants for many aromatic compounds, either directly or indirectly.
AROMATIC COMPOUNDS AND EXAMPLES
Aromatic hydrocarbons are ring-shaped hydrocarbons with conjugated

planar ring system. Consider the chemical benzene. It is a well-known
aromatic compound.
29
Compounds having same structural formula were recognized by different
names depending on where they were created. This name scheme was
quite simple, yet it caused confusion. Finally, the IUPAC (International
Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry) established a standardized
nomenclature system for substances that included conventional rules.
IUPAC naming, often known as IUPAC terminology, is a way of naming.
IUPAC nomenclature of some other aromatic hydrocarbons is explained

below:
 The name of the substituent is written as the prefix while naming the
aromatic compound. Nitrobenzene, for example, is a benzene ring
linked to a one-nitro group.
 When identical substituent group present are more in numbers,

prefixes di, tri, are used. 1,2-dibromobenzene is formed when two
atoms of bromo are linked in benzene ring.
30
 The names of the substitutes are listed alphabetically. When groups
chloro and nitro are present in benzene ring, for example, we look for
the chloro group first, then the nitro groups.
 Prefixes such as ortho (o), meta (m), as well as the name para(p) are
commonly used as prefixes in the aromatic compounds with multiple
substituents. In order to designate the relative positions 1,2, 1,3, and
1,4 correspondingly. 1,2-Di-bromo-benzene, for example, can be
referred to as o-di-bromo-benzene.
 The aromatic compound bonded to alkane containing functional

group, act as substituent. Example benzene ring linked to an alkane
containing functional group, is known as a phenyl substituent,
represented by Ph-.
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson we have learnt some organic concepts including IUPAC

system of nomenclature of common organic compounds alkanes,
alkenes, alkynes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic compounds. This will allow
us to gain understanding in the nomenclature of organic compounds.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The IUPAC name of acetylene HC≡CH is?
2. The IUPAC name for the below structure is,
3. Write an example for an aromatic compound.

4. The prefix used in the nomenclature of CH≡C–CH2–CH2–CH3 is?
5. The correct structure of butene is?
31
GLOSSARY
IUPAC: Rules for nomenclature.

Root word: The word which indicates number of carbons in the
compound.
Aromatic: Unsaturated organic compound which obeys Huckel rule.
Cycloalkanes: Saturated single bond containing molecules that doesn‘t
obey Huckel rule.
SUGGESTED READINGS

John-Wiley.
4. Organic Chemistry by P.H.Pine and McGrawHill.
WEB RESOURCES
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYU_JluleME
2. https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/organic/IUPAC_Handout.pdf
3. https://youtu.be/vSxZm_91GT0
4. https://www.chemistrysteps.com/naming-aromatic-compounds/

1. Eth + yne: Ethyne is the IUPAC name for acetylene.
2.
4-Bromo-1-chloro-1-ethynylcyclohexane
3.
4. The prefix used is 1-yne.

5. (CH2=CHCH2CH3) is the structure of Butene.
32
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain about the classification of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.

2. Describe in detail about the naming of cycloalkanes.
3. Define the IUPAC nomenclature of aromatic compounds
33
Unit 3
FACTORS INFLUENCING
ELECTRON AVAILABILITY
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
3.1. Factors Influencing Electron Availability
3.1.1. Inductive Effect
3.1.2. Electromeric Effect
3.1.3. Resonance Effect and Mesomerism
3.1.4. Hyperconjucation
3.1.5. Steric Effect
Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Model Questions
OVERVIEW
The students after gaining the basic knowledge about general
introduction of organic compounds and insight into the rules involved in
the IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds they must know about
the significance of electron distribution factor. Now, we are moving in to
the third unit which deals with the various factors that are influencing the
electron availability, they are Inductive effect, electromeric effect,
resonance effect, mesomerism, hyperconjugation, steric effect. These
factors play an important role in deciding the reactivity and stability of
organic compounds and it also helps in visualizing the mechanistic
pathway in which the organic compounds react and which would pave a
route to develop a chemical process with high yield and selectivity. It is
so necessary to promote students to know about the various factors
involves in electron availability in their undergraduate level.
34
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain about the various factors influencing the electron
availability
 Discuss the importance of electron delocalization in cyclic and
acyclic conjugated systems
 Illustrate the concept of resonance and their importance in
predicting the stability and reactivity of the interesting organic
molecules which in turn help students in understating the effects
of these factors over the characteristics of compounds
3.1. FACTORS INFLUENCING ELECTRON AVAILABILITY
The factors which influence the availability of electron are

1) Inductive effect 2) Resonance effect 3) Electromeric effect 4)
Hyperconjugation
These electronic factors influence organic reactions.
3.1.1. INDUCTIVE EFFECT

 An electronic effect caused by the polarization of bonds within an ion
or molecule is referred as the inductive effect.
 This is usually owing to electronegativity difference in atoms bonded
together.
 The electrons present in bond are pulled towards more towards more
electronegative atom, resulting in bond polarity. For example, the
below given compounds exhibit inductive effect.
 The positive center of the alkyl carbocation draws the electrons of the
bonds towards itself, and hence away from the other bonded atom.
 Electrons polarizes more quickly in C–C bonds than in C–H bonds.
As a result, alkyl groups are more effective at stabilizing C+ than
hydrogen atoms.
 Inductive effect is the distance-dependent effect.
Cδ+–X δ-
The above bond is considered to be polarized if the element X obtains

slightly negative charge (𝛿-) and the carbon atom acquires a slight
positive charge (𝛿+).
35
After electronegative atom X bonded to carbon chain. Though C1 has
positive charge it pulls the electrons of C2, but it is weaker than pull
between X on C1. This effect is lasting but weak, and the electrical
effects outlined later can readily overshadow it.
The (-I effects) and the (+I effects) are the two types of inductive effects.
The other name of later is electron donating effect. X group in the above
is electron-withdrawing group and Y being electron-donating group.
inductive effect order by keeping hydrogen as reference.
-I effect
The -I effect is seen when electron density is greater near

electronegative atom. Electron-withdrawing groups include halogen,
cyano (CN), nitro (-NO2), carboxy (-COOH), ester (-COOR), and aryloxy
(-OAr).
+I effect
Electron releasing (or electron giving) groups cause the +I effect among
the molecule's less electronegative atoms. Typically, alkyl groups are
thought to be electron releasing (or electron donating) groups.
3.1.2. ELECTROMERIC EFFECT
The electromeric effect occurs in organic compounds only. In

compounds having more bonds when an attacking reagent comes show
this effect.
36
The pi electrons present in shared pair are transferred from various
bonds to one atom.
+E effect
The pi electrons of numerous bonds are transferred to the atom to which

the attacking reagent is bound in the positive electromeric effect.
-E effect
During negative electromeric effect pi electrons of numerous bonds are

transferred to an atom to which the attacking reagent will not bond.
3.1.3. RESONANCE EFFECT AND MESOMERISM
The resonance effect is electrons withdrawal and release associated to

a various substituent by pi-electron delocalization, that is demonstrated
by sketching various canonical structures. It is represented by the M or
R symbols. This chemical phenomenon can be observed in organic
molecules that have double bonds. Organic compounds with double
bonds in their structures, and the p-orbitals on the two opposite sides of
carbon atoms are frequently overlapping.
The diagram above depicts the various resonance configurations of

several substances with resonance effects.
37
The polarity created by the molecule due to the reaction occurred with
lone pair electrons and pi bond is described as resonance effect. In its
most basic form, resonance refers to molecules that have numerous
Lewis structures. In chemistry, resonance aids in the study of a
compound's stability as well as its energy states.
Types of Resonance Effects
Resonance effects are of two types:

1) Positive resonance effect
2) Negative resonance effect
(i) Positive Resonance Effect
The positive type of resonance effect happens when the groups

delocalize and release electrons to other molecules. +R or +M are the
most used abbreviations for the groups. The molecule electron density
increases because of this action. Consider the following scenario: -OH, -
SH, -OR, -SR.
(ii) Negative Resonance Effect
When groups delocalize, they withdraw electrons from other molecules,

resulting in this type of resonance effect. The groups are commonly
identified by the suffixes -R or -M. The molecule electron density is said
to drop during this process. For example- -NO2, C=O, -COOH, -C≡N.
38
Mesomerism is the stabilization of organic compounds with various
substituents and functional groups. This happens mainly due to some
substituents/functional groups play a role as electron donors (with less
electronegative atoms) or electron withdrawers (atom or group having
high electronegativity). Whereas resonance arises due to the interaction
of lone pair electrons with the bond pair electrons ( electrons).
3.1.4. HYPERCONJUCATION
Delocalization of electrons present in C-H bond with unshared p orbital

is known as hyperconjugation effect, this is not a temporary effect. When
a single bond attaches the conjugated system to atoms or groups
containing a single pair of electrons, then electrons are displaced to
numerous bonds. When groups or atoms with higher electronegativity
use multiple bonding to attach to conjugated systems, they draw
electrons from the multiple bonds.
Hyperconjugation is the conjugation of electrons from one (H-C) bond

with many other bonds., example benzene ring.
39
There are many molecules and reaction intermediates which can show
hyperconjugation.
(i) In Ethyl carbocation
In ethyl carbocation C-H bond‘s sigma electron are delocalized to vacant

p-orbital of positive charge containing carbon of carbocation, and four
contributing forms of such ethyl carbocation are given below.
40
(ii) In Iso-propyl carbocation:
Iso-propyl carbocation, like ethyl carbocation, exhibits hyper conjugation.

The below given compound contains six sigma bonded carbon-hydrogen
atoms in this intermediate that can interact with the pi-electron, so it has
seven contributing structures have greater stability than ethyl
carbocation.
(iii) In Free radicals
Free radicals are similarly stabilized by hyper conjugation. Carbon-

hydrogen bonds sigma electron in methyl which is near carbon atom
have an odd electron, interact with the p-orbital, which also has an odd
41
electron. If the number of carbon-hydrogen alpha bonds grows, so does
the number of contributing structures, resulting in increased stability.
(iv) In Nitromethane
The alpha carbon-hydrogen bond interacts with the nitrogen-

oxygen pi-bond, resulting in hyper conjugation.
(v) In Acetonitrile and propyne
In the acetonitrile and propyne, due to the triple link between carbon and
carbon or carbon and nitrogen hyperconjugation with the alpha carbon-
hydrogen bond occurs.
(vi) In Toluene:
The carbon - hydrogen sigma bond interacts with the aromatic ring to
form four contributing structures of toluene.
42
(vii) In 2-Butene
Two resonant structures of 2-butene are formed when the pi-bond

interacts with the alpha carbon-hydrogen bond. 1-butene contain two
contributing structures which have lesser stability than 2-butene.
3.1.5. STERIC EFFECT
The steric effect refers to how the reacting chemicals spatial

arrangement affects the rate, character, and extent of the reaction.
Chemical reactions are influenced by atoms and molecules shape and
size, distribution of their electric charge, and geometry of their bond
angles. The word steric has its origin from Greek word stereos, which
means space. The steric effect is caused because of atom in a molecule
taking up some space. The atoms electron clouds resist each other
when they forced to come closer than their van der Waal radii. As a
result, such a process is inefficient in terms of energy. Steric effect has
important role in understanding reactions of organic chemistry. For clear
understanding, let us consider an example
43
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson, we studied well in detail about the factors influencing
electron availability, inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance
effect, mesomerism, hyperconjugation and even steric effect.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is steric effect?
2. What are factors influencing electron availability?
3. Write an example for hyperconjugation.
4. What is positive resonance effect?
5. What are different types of inductive effect?
GLOSSARY
Inductive effect: Electronic effect due to the polarization of σ bonds
within a molecule or ion.
Electromeric effect: Temporary effect observed only in organic
compounds with multiple bonds.
Hyperconjugation: Effect in which delocalization of σ electrons occurs.
SUGGESTED READINGS
John-Wiley.
44
WEB RESOURCES
1. https://youtu.be/5BSQG2sbrQw
2. https://slideplayer.com/slide/14616443/
3. https://youtu.be/VKxz3qKvWMQ
4. https://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses/353/Carey5th/Ch04/ch4-3-2-
1.html#:~:text=Hyperconjugation%20is%20the%20stabilising%20inter
action,the%20stability%20of%20the%20system.

1. Steric effect is the influence of the spatial configuration of reacting
substances upon the rate, nature, and extent of reaction.
2. Inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance effect, mesomerism,
hyperconjugation, steric effect, are few factors which influences
electron availability.
3.
4. Positive resonance effect occurs when the groups release electrons

to the other molecules by the process of delocalization
5. There are two types of Resonance effects namely positive

resonance effect and negative resonance effect.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain about the classification of resonance effect.
2. Describe in detail about the steric effect.
3. Write a short note on hyperconjugation.
4. What is mesomerism?
45
Block II
NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Unit 4 : Naming of Organic Compounds with One
Functional Group
Unit 5 : Naming of Organic Compounds with Two
Functional Groups
Unit 6 : Resonance
46
Unit 4
NAMING OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS WITH ONE
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
4.1. Basic Principles for Naming of Organic Compounds
4.2. Naming of Organic Compounds with One Functional Group
4.2.1. Naming of Alcohols
4.2.2. Naming of Phenols
4.2.3. Naming of Aldehydes and Ketones
4.2.3.1. Naming of Aldehydes
4.2.3.2. Summary of Aldehyde Nomenclature Rules
4.2.3.3. Nomenclature of Aromatic Aldehydes
4.2.3.4. Naming Ketones
4.2.3.5. Summary of Nomenclature of Ketone Rules
4.2.3.6. Nomenclature of Aromatic Ketones
4.2.4. Naming of Carboxylic Acids
4.2.4.1. Naming Carboxyl Groups Added to a Ring
4.2.4.2. Naming of Aromatic Acids
4.2.5. Naming of Nitriles
4.2.6. Naming of Aromatic and Aliphatic Amines
4.2.7. Naming of Nitro Compounds
Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Model Questions
47
OVERVIEW
The functional group of an organic compound is an important part of it.

These functional groups only decide the physical properties and
chemical reactivities of an organic compound. In general, most of
organic molecules consist of only at least one functional group but some
compounds with two and more than two functional groups also exist. In
this unit we confine ourselves to study briefly about the organic
compounds with one functional group and their nomenclature of both
aliphatic and aromatic compounds with one functional group (halogen
compounds, alcohols, phenol, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids,
amines and cyano compounds, amines and nitro. This will help each and
every one to get deeper understanding about the organic compounds
with one functional group.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Describe the basic principles that governs the naming of organic
compounds with different functionalities
 Naming of organic compounds with one functional group such as
halogen compounds, alcohols, phenol, aldehydes, ketones,
carboxylic acids, amines and cyano compounds. amines and
nitro compounds. (Both aromatic and aliphatic).
4.1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF NAMING OF ORGANIC

COMPOUNDS
Prefixes, suffixes, are used in chemistry to indicate the nature and the
functional groups position in a compound.
The following are the steps of naming an organic compound:
 The first step is identification of parent hydrocarbon chain.
 The suffix of more priority functional group should be mentioned. If

there are many functional groups, the priority order should be used.
 The carbon chain should have many single bonds as possible.
 Side-chains identification is important. Side chains of parent chain are

not part of it, but considered as parent chain‘s branching.
48
 Identify the residual functional groups and name them using their
prefixes (for example, hydroxy is the name given for -OH, oxy is the
name given for C=O, oxyalkane is the name for O-R, and so on).
Alphabetical sequence, is followed when different functional groups
are placed together. (Prefixes like di-, tetra-, and others are ignored
when grouping alphabetically). Ethyl, for example, comes before
dihydroxy and dimethyl alphabetically, because the "e" present in
"ethyl" it gets higher priority than the "h" letter of "dihydroxy" and the
letter "m" present in "dimethyl." In either case, the "di" is ignored.
The priority order of various functional groups is given as:
–COOH > –SO3H > –COOR (R = alkyl group) > –COCl > –CONH2 > –
CN > –HC=O >> C=O > –OH > –NH2 >> C=C >> –C–C–
4.2. NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS WITH ONE

FUNCTIONAL GROUP
Organic compound research is extensive. Organic compounds are a
broad category consisting of wide number of substances. Functional
groups are found in a number of chemical substances. Functional group
consist of either single atom or a compound which is formed in a unique
way. The most reactive part of organic molecule is its functional group.
The responses of compounds with comparable functional groups are
similar.
4.2.1. NAMING OF ALCOHOLS
The system of nomenclature exclusively for alcohol was invented by

Harmann Kolbe, a 19th-century German chemist. This system uses the
name "carbinol" for methanol. The (IUPAC) gave approval to this
systematic nomenclature.
IUPAC nomenclature of alcohol is done based on the following

rules.
 Select the hydroxyl group linked longest chain. Then remove the
word -e and then suffix -ol to alkane‘s name that corresponds to the
chain.
 Numbering is given to parent chain containing hydroxyl group. The
hydroxyl group position is Indicated using by numbering.
 The numbering of parent chain is done. These numbers are used as

locants to denote position of other substituents. The following
example shows how the rules are applied.
Alcohol is named using three system of nomenclature
49
1. Common system
2. Carbinol system and
3. IUPAC system
Parent Common Carbinol

Formula IUPAC name
Hydrocarbon name name
Methyl
CH3-OH Methane Carbinol Methanol
alcohol
Ethyl Methyl
CH3-CH2-OH Ethane Ethanol
alcohol carbinol
Isopropyl Dimethyl
CH3-CH(OH)-CH3 Propane 2-Propanol
alcohol carbinol
2-Methyl Tert-butyl Trimethyl 2-Methyl-2-

(CH3)3-C-OH
propane alcohol carbinol propanol
4.2.2. NAMING OF PHENOLS
Phenols are aromatic ring molecules with a hydroxyl group bonded to

carbon atom. Phenol is hydroxybenzene by definition. The substance is
known by the name phenol. According to IUPAC rules phenol is named
as benzenol, which is similar to the IUPAC names of aliphatic alcohols.
When extra groups are added to a phenol molecule, the prefixes such as
ortho, meta, or para are used. The phenol in the name given according
to common system of nomenclature. In IUPAC nomenclature, parent
chain is named as benzenol and other substituents are giving numbering
and OH group is Given numbering one, which is well-understood. The
50
first name given is common name, while the below given name is IUPAC
name.
Common names are given to certain phenols. Cresols, for example, are
methyl phenols. The first name beneath each compound in the diagrams
below is its trivial or the common name, IUPAC name is given below the
common name.
The below given compounds are hydroxyphenols with their common

names written first, following their IUPAC names.
4.2.3. NAMING OF ALDENYDES AND KETONES
The aldehydes and ketones contain carbonyl groups. The aldehydes are
thought as very important. The aldehyde is referred as formyl or
methanoyl is the common system of nomenclature. The dehydration of
alcohols give aldehyde. The aldehydes have one hydrogen bonded to
carbonyl group. In ketone carbonyl group is linked with two carbon
atoms.
Aldehydes and ketones come under the group of organic compounds

containing carbonyl (C=O) functional group. The remaining valency of
51
carbon atom is filled by either hydrogen, alkyl, or aryl. The aldehyde is
formed when one among the substituents is hydrogen. The compound
formed is ketone if hydrogen is not bonded with carbonyl group.
4.2.3.1. NAMING OF ALDEHYDES
Aldehydes are named using the suffix -al as per the IUPAC rules.
H2C=O, for example, is methanal. Carbonyl group of aldehydes is
always found at carbon chain end, which is assigned as #1 position
while numbering and it will not be included while naming the aldehyde.
IUPAC keeps track of a number of simple carbonyl-containing
compounds that have common names.
There is also a standard way of designating aldehydes and ketones.
Names of parent chain of aldehydes are identical to carboxylic acids,
with the suffix –aldehyde appended at the end. In popular aldehyde
names Greek letters are given to carbon atoms near carbonyl bond.
Alpha is the atom near carbonyl function, beta carbon atom appears
after alpha carbon atom.
The suffix –carbaldehyde is used if aldehyde moiety is bonded to the

ring.
4.2.3.2. SUMMARY OF ALDEHYDE NOMENCLATURE RULES

 Aldehydes are named from alkane chains they come from. The -e is
eliminated and replaced with -al at the end.
 The carbonyl group position of aldehyde is not mentioned in the

name.
 To make an aldehyde's common name, the suffix -aldehyde is used.
Greek letters represent substituent locations.
 The suffix -carbaldehyde is added when -CHO functional group
present in ring, and the carbon associated to that group is C1. In the
below given compounds the names based on IUPAC system are
given above the trivial name is written in parentheses.
52
4.2.3.3. NOMENCLATURE OF AROMATIC ALDEHYDES
4.2.3.4. NAMING KETONES
According to IUPAC system suffix -one is added to ketones. Carbonyl

group of ketones are located in the chain or ring is indicated by giving
location number. Common names of ketones are given by adding the
suffix -ketone. Alphabetically order is used to indicate alkyl groups.
4.2.3.5. SUMMARY OF NOMENCLATURE OF KETONE RULES

 Ketones are named by removing ending -e from of the parent alkyl
group and adding -one to it.
53
 The substituent groups present are listed alphabetically.
 Generic names as commonly used while naming ketones. Example,
propanone is widely called as acetone.
4.2.3.6. NOMENCLATURE OF AROMATIC KETONES
The first name written below the compound structure is IUPAC name,
the name written inside the bracket is common name.
4.2.4. NAMING OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
IUPAC system of naming carboxylic acid the letter –e from parent name
is replaced by the suffix -anoic acid. carboxylic acid group always lie in
terminal position of carbon chain, so the position in one by default so it is
not mentioned while naming. Common names are also given to
carboxylic acid. Common name denotes the source. The carbon directly
bonded with carbonyl carbon is called as alpha, the carbon next to alpha
is beta.
54
Example (Common Names are in Red)
4.2.4.1. NAMING CARBOXYL GROUPS ADDED TO A RING

The suffix carboxylic acid is attached to cyclic compound‘s name. The
number 1 is given to carboxylic acid.
4.2.4.2. NAMING OF AROMATIC ACIDS
 The simplest aromatic carboxylic acid is benzoic acid.

 Substituted benzoic acids are named with benzoic acid as the parent
name.
 Derivatives are named using numbers to show the location of
substituents relative to the carboxyl group.
 The ring carbon attached to the carboxyl group is the number 1
position.
55
4.2.5. NAMING OF NITRILES
Name of nitrile according to IUPAC is, to the parent word -nitrile is

added. Nitrile group is numbered as 1. The position of nitrile is not
mentioned if it is terminal.
Cycloalkanes with CN functional group are named as -carbonitrile.

Cyano is the name given if nitrile act as substituent.
 1-butanenitrile or 1-cyanopropane
 butanedinitrile
 2-methycyclohexanecarbonitrile
Common names of the below given nitrile structures are
56
4.2.6. NAMING OF AROMATIC AND ALIPHATIC AMINES
57
 For primary amine the suffix -amine is added to alkyl group. For 1º-
amines such as butanamine in the first example. In the 2º and 3º-
amines prefix N- is used before the name.
 Finally, a common system for simple amines names each alkyl

substituent on nitrogen in alphabetical order, followed by the suffix -
amine. These names are mentioned in black color in the last row.
Various aromatic and heterocyclic amines are known by common names

with unknown origin. Because it is not based on rational system of
nomenclature, we need to memorize them.
4.2.7. NAMING OF NIRTO COMPOUNDS
The general formula of nitro compound is
Nitro compounds are named by prefixing the nitro with the alkane name.
CH3NO2 – Nitromethane
CH3-CH(NO2)-CH3 – 2-Nitropropane
58
Nomenclature of aromatic Nitro Compounds
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson, we studied well in detail about the naming of organic

compounds with one functional group-halogen compounds, alcohols,
phenol, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amines and cyano
compounds amines, nitro compounds (Both aliphatic and aromatic).
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Draw the resonance structure of Benzene.
2. How the functional groups for alcohol, thiol and amine are
represented?
3. Give an example for cyano compound.
GLOSSARY
Functional group: Reactive part of a compound.

Heteroatom: Any atom other than carbon or hydrogen.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry by T. W. Graham Solomen and
John-Wiley.
59
WEB RESOURCES
1. https://youtu.be/m9jM8lWxrAE
2. https://youtu.be/kggg1dqvxX8
3. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supple
mental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Aldehydes_and_Ketones/No
menclature_of_Aldehydes_and_Ketones#:~:text=As%20with%20ma
ny%20molecules%20with,as%20an%20%22oxo%22%20substituent
4. https://www.britannica.com/science/carboxylic-acid
1.
2. Alcohols (R-OH), Thiols (R-SH) and Amines (R-NH2)
3.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Discuss in detail about the naming of organic compounds with more

than one functional group.
2. Describe about the naming of aliphatic ketones.
3. Give notes on naming of compounds containing alcohol.
60
Unit 5
NAMING OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS WITH TWO
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
5.1. Naming of Organic Compounds - Two Functional Groups
5.1.1 Naming Aldehydes and Ketones present in the
Same Molecule
5.1.2 Naming carboxylic Acids Which Contain Other
Functional Groups
5.2. Naming of Organic Compound with More than One Carbon
Chain
5.3. Naming of Heterocyclic Compounds (One or More
Heteroatoms in Five or Six Membered Rings)
Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Model Questions
OVERVIEW
Organic molecules with more than one functional group would exhibit
distinct characteristics compared to that of the compounds with one
functional group. Naturally occurring bioactive molecules, multifunctional
materials, contain more than one functional groups. The continuation of
the previous unit is this unit which deals about the nature of organic
compounds with the two functional groups. If a compound has two
functional groups, then one among them is considered as the
61
substituent. The present unit deals about the naming of organic
compounds with two functional groups and naming of mono-/bi- cyclic
organic compounds with one and two hetero atoms (S, N, O) present in
five and six membered ring systems. Knowledge gained after studying
this unit will help students to prioritize between the functional groups
when organic compound contains more than one functional groups.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the naming of organic compounds with two functional
groups.
 Define the naming of heterocyclic compounds with one and two
hetero atoms present in five and six membered rings.
5.1. NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS WITH TWO

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Names of functional group and their substituent names are listed based
on priority
Substituent FG
Functional Group Main FG Ending
Name
Carboxylic Acid
-oic acid Carboxy
carboxy
alkoxycarbonyl (or
Ester -oate
alkoxy and oxo)
Acid halide oyl halide halocarbonyl Acid halide
Amide amide carbamoyl (or amido) Amide
Nitrile nitrile cyano Nitrile
Aldehyde al oxo (if CHO in parent chain) Aldehyde
al formyl (if CHO not part of

Aldehyde Aldehyde
parent chain)
Ketone one oxo Ketone
Alcohol ol hydroxy Alcohol
62
Amine amine amino Amine
ene If C=C in parent, add main

FG name to alkene name
Alkene Alkene
(minus ending e); otherwise,
alkenyl
yne add main FG name to

Alkyne alkyne name (minus ending e); Alkyne
otherwise alkynyl
ane add main FG name to

Alkane alkane name (minus ending e); Alkane
otherwise, alkyl
Ether - Alkoxy
Halide - Halo
5.1.1. NAMING ALDEHYDES AND KETONES PRESENT IN

THE SAME MOLECULE
When an organic compound has many functional groups, only one group
is prioritized other act as the substituent. Aldehydes are prioritized more
than ketones, the substituent here is ketone and named as "oxo”.
Aldehyde is not given location number, however, giving location number
to ketone is necessary.
5.1.2. NAMING CARBOXYLIC ACIDS WHICH CONTAIN

OTHER FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
IUPAC system gives higher priority to the carboxylic acid. This means
carboxyl group will be given lowest location number with the suffix
corresponding to the carboxylic acid. Let us take molecules having both
carboxylic acid group and the group alcohol then alcohol is considered
as substituent. And named as hydroxy.
63
If molecule have carboxylic acid group and aldehydes and/or ketones
group carbonyl containing functional groups are considered as
substituent by giving the name "oxo".
In the organic compound containing both carboxylic acid and amine

group then in this case amine is considered as substituent and named
as ―amino".
If carboxylic acids and alkene both are present then the following rules
are followed
Remember that the priority of carboxylic acid is more so it is given

lowest location number. if necessary, the E/Z and cis/trans nomenclature
of aldehyde is also included.
5.2. NAMING OF ORANIC COMPOUND WITH MORE

THAN ONE CARBON CHAIN
In the acyclic unsaturated hydrocarbon, parent chain contains various

double as well as triple bonds. If larger number of chains are present,
the parent chain selection is based on below rules.
a. The parent chain must contain many carbon atoms,
64
b. The both carbon chain is of same length, then the chain
containing maximum of double bonds is considered as parent
chain.
During parent chain numbering lowest number is designated to the

substituents attached.
Examples of some compounds are given below:
5.3. NAMING OF HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS (ONE OR

MORE HETEROATOMS IN FIVE OR SIX MEMBERED RINGS)
Heterocyclic compounds are formed by replacing one or more carbon

atoms constituting the ring with different element. We normally restrict to
atoms like oxygen then nitrogen and the sulfur but there are numerous
heterocyclic compounds.
65
Forming systematic nomenclature rules for heterocyclic compounds is a
tough challenge. Many heterocycles, like amines, were identified early,
so common names given to them are still in use and is preferred. Few
monocyclic compounds are shown below, with their common name and
systematic name.
There is a systematic nomenclature rules in which names are given by

assigning elemental prefix to heteroatom after its carbocyclic name.
prefixes are given in the below table, right to left based on the increasing
order of priority. Examples are ethylene oxide is named as
oxacyclopropane, furan is named as oxacyclopenta-2,4-diene, pyridine
is called as azabenzene, and morpholine gets the name 1-oxa-4-
azacyclohexane.
Element oxygen sulfur Selenium nitrogen phosphorous silicon boron
Valence II II II III III IV III
Prefix Oxa Thia Selena Aza Phospha Sila Bora
The Hantzsch-Widman devised a systematic method of heterocyclic

compounds nomenclature. In this nomenclature also same prefix defined
above is given by removing the final word "a‖ then a suffix indicating ring
size and then the saturation is given. In the below given table, suffix
indicates the ring size indicated in (blue) and the ending indicate the
unsaturation of the ring. We have to see that saturated suffix is given to
systems containing saturated rings, Unsaturated suffix is given to rings
having double bonds that are non-cumulated. For systems with lesser
amount of unsaturation prefixes, such as "dihydro" or "tetrahydro" are
used.
66
Ring
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Size
Suffix
unsaturated irene ete ole ine epine ocine onine ecine
Saturated irane etane olane inane epane ocane onane ecane
In order to avoid conflicts with in systematic Hantzsch-Widman

nomenclature several modifications are done. The examples are:
 The letter "e" is used in naming and the suffix usage becomes
optional.
 The suffix such as ―

iridine", "etidine" & "olidine" are used for saturated
three and four and then for five membered nitrogen containing
heterocycles.
 The "irine" suffix is used for three-membered nitrogen containing

heterocycle.
 The "etine" and "oline" are suffix used for unsaturated nitrogen
containing four and five membered heterocycles.
 The names like oxine and azine then silane is used for compounds,
which eliminates the usage of names like pyran, and pyridine and
then the silacyclohexane respectively.
Examples of above-mentioned nomenclature are given in blue.

unsaturated ring containing saturated atom is designated using the
prefix "#H ". When more heteroatoms are present highest priority
heteroatom will be given numbering one.
67
Polycyclic compounds are mentioned in the below diagram. Common
names are indicated in black color the systematic names are written in
blue. In the below given heterocyclic nomenclature of fused rings. fused
ring‘s location is highlighted using letter of lowercase which denotes
heterocyclic ring edge involved in fusion.
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson, we studied well in detail about the naming of organic

compounds with one and two functional groups, naming of heterocyclic
compounds with one and two hetero atoms present in five and six
membered rings.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Write the name of the below given compound
2. If both ketone and aldehyde is present in the same compound, which

is considered as functional group?
3. Draw the structure of any hetero atom containing five and six
membered rings?
68
GLOSSARY
Rings system: Family of compound differing in repeating unit.
Monocyclic: Combination of equivalent structures.
Polycyclic: Any atom other than carbon or hydrogen.
Heterocycle: Reactive part of a compound.
Bifunctional compounds: Compounds having two functional group.
SUGGESTED READINGS
John-Wiley.
WEB RESOURCES
1. https://youtu.be/jb2i8QdNL24
2. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supple
mental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Aldehydes_and_Ketones/No
menclature_of_Aldehydes_and_Ketones#:~:text=Naming%20Aldeh
ydes%20and%20Ketones%20in%20the%20Same%20Molecule,-
As%20with%20many&text=Because%20aldehydes%20have%20a
%20higher,as%20an%20%22oxo%22%20substituent.
3. https://youtu.be/YZcOlQglYyA

1.
The name of the above given compound is compound is 4-oxopentanal
2. Then aldehyde is considered as functional group

3.
69
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Discuss in detail about the naming of organic compounds with more

than one functional group.
2. Describe about the naming of compound having more than one
carbon chain.
2. Give notes on hetero atoms containing five and six membered rings.
70
Unit 6
RESONANCE
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
6.1. Resonance Structure
6.2. Drawing of Resonance Structures
6.3. Conditions for Resonance Structure
6.3.1. Drawing Correct Resonance Structures
6.3.2. Physical Meaning of Resonance Structures
6.3.3. Ranking the Relative Importance of Individual
Resonance Structures
6.4. Stability of Resonance Structures
Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Model Questions
OVERVIEW
It is important for the students to know about resonance. An organic

compound tries to maintain stability by existing in various electronic
structures. Although, an organic compound exists in various resonance
structures there is clear difference in the stability of different resonance
forms having basic knowledge about these resonance structures are
important for the chemists to know about the stability of organic
compounds. This unit thus includes how to draw the resonance
structures, and conditions for resonance and the various resonance
structures and their stability. Because of all the above factors it is
necessary for the students in the undergraduate level to have a sound
knowledge above resonance.
71
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Describe how to draw the various resonance structures of

conjugated organic molecules
 Discuss conditions for resonance, various resonance structures
and their importance
 Explain the reactivity pattern and stability of conjugated aliphatic
and aromatic systems
6.1. RESONANCE STRUCTURES

Resonance stabilization effect (also known as resonance effect) is one
of the fundamental concepts of Organic Chemistry and has broad
applications. The discussion of resonance effect heavily relies on the
understanding of resonance structures. Here we will focus on how to
draw resonance structures (or resonance contributors) for organic
molecules.
Resonance structure of Benzene
According to resonance effect, the greater the number of resonance

contributors, the greater the resonance stabilization effect, and the more
stable the species is. Therefore, to predict whether the resonance effect
applies or not, we usually need to construct ― new‖ resonance structures
(contributors) based on the ― original‖ one that is available.
6.2. DRAWING OF RESONANCE STRUCTURES

In this lesson We will learn how electron delocalization influences
chemistry. This lesson deals with few rules to follow while drawing the
resonance structures.
 Resonance structures are the Lewis structures differing in the position

of electrons
72
 Because resonance structure differs only in the electron position, the
electron motion changes the resonance structure from one to other.
 Resonance structures are connected by double-headed arrow do not

think this as double arrow indicating equilibrium.
There are some things which we have to consider before moving the
electron pairs.
 Move fewer electron pairs rather than more.
 In general, move electrons from greater electron density regions
(unshared pairs, C=C double bonds) toward regions with very less
electron density (carbocation centers, C=O double bonds, nitro
groups);
For example,
 Follow the red arrow first. See that it converts an unshared pair into a
bonding pair.
Work out the new formal charges; since we moved electrons away from
the nitrogen, it should become positive, and the carbon receiving them
should become more negative (going from +1 to 0 is becoming more
negative).
73
 Now follow the arrows. The left arrow converts an unshared pair into
a bonding pair; the other blue arrow does the opposite conversion.
We moved electrons away from a negative carbon; it becomes more
positive. A positive carbon received electrons and became neutral.
Some general rules:
i. The head of a curly arrow always makes a bond or an unshared

pair.
ii. The tail either breaks a bond or makes an unshared pair into a
shared pair.
iii. If several possibilities for moving electrons exist within a given
structure, try each of them, but separately.
iv. Both of the resulting structures in the example were resonance
contributors.
v. Structures in which all atoms satisfy octet rule example consider
the structure in the right, are better than those in which an atom
is missing electrons, like the left structure.
vi. Structures that result from creating charges on formerly neutral
structures, on the contrary, are unfavorable; avoid them if
possible.
Finally, although charges on atoms may change from structure to
structure, the overall charge of the structure remains the same.
Otherwise, you are creating or destroying electrons, and Mother Nature
doesn't like that.
 Notice here that the starting structure has formal charges of zero; so,
do both resonance structures that we drew.
Here's another example:
Here, the original structure is on the left, and we generated the third
structure from the second. One cannot know ahead of time whether all
structures can be generated from the original or from each other, or
both. One simply keeps trying, until no new structures seem to appear.
Species with unpaired electrons also undergo resonance to give
resonance structures.
 In these cases, move electrons one at a time rather than in pairs.
74
 Use curly arrows with only one barb (curly fishhooks?) to move single
electrons
6.3. CONDITIONS FOR RESONANCE STRUCTURE

The compounds having either lone pair or double bond will go
resonance.
Explanation
Whenever two or more resonance structure is formed by the compound,

differing in electron position, the resonance hybrid of all structure give
compound‘s actual structure.
For example, let us find the structure of the nitrite ion, NO₂⁻?
 First find the central atom from the structure. That is normally the one
with least electronegativity which is the nitrogen (N) atom.
 skeleton structure in drawn in which other atoms present are singly
bonded to nitrogen atom constituting the structure O-N-O.
 A trial structure is drawn by filling electron pairs around all the atom
until they get an octet. Leading to the structure: Ö-N(::)-Ö::
 valence electrons count of our trial structure comes out to be (20).
 Now if we calculate theoretically. 1 N + 2 O + 1 = 1×7 + 2×6 +1 = 18.
The trial structure is found to have two extra electrons.
 Now we will draw the trial structure again, this time by inserting a
double bond instead of extra electron pairs giving the structure O-
N=O and O=N-O (there are two possibilities). This tells us that there
is possibility for two resonance structures.
 As we did before, now add electrons to all the given atom to get an
octet.
 Give formal charge to all atoms.
So that now each atom has lone pair electrons and then even have half
of the shared pairs of electrons also.
The O atom at right hand side has 6 lone pair of also with the formation
of one single bond. Isolated O atom have one extra electron.
So, -1 being the oxygens formal charge. Resulting in two below given
resonance structures
75
The below given resonance hybrid structure constitutes actual structure
of molecule.
6.3.1. DRAWING CORRECT RESONANCE STRUCTURES
1. In order to draw resonance structures correctly for a molecule, we

can only move electrons. other nuclei positions remain same.
2. Writing resonance structures in the proper way is important for

example, never draw a structure carbon atom forming five bonds.
6.3.2. PHYSICAL MEANING OF RESONANCE STRUCTURES
 A molecule containing multiple resonance structures exist as hybrid of

all resonance structures. It will not shift between these resonance
structures.
 A molecule that can exist as mixture of many resonance hybrids

shows more stability (lower energy) than the molecule with only one
resonance structure.
76
6.3.3. RANKING THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF
INDIVIDUAL RESONANCE STRUCTURES
1. The Resonance structures in molecule can be equivalent or not
equivalent. In the structure given below, both A and B are equivalent
but C is not equivalent to other structures A and B.
2. Equivalent Resonance structures equally contribute towards the

formation of resonance hybrid. The Non-equivalent resonance structures
on the other don‘t give equal contribution the extent of their contribution
depends upon their relative stability.
3. To find the relative stability of various resonance structures:
First, step is to determine if atoms fulfill the octet rule. Structures in

which all the atoms present in it follows the octet rule (except hydrogen)
are highly stable and its contribution to the formation of hybrid structure
is more. In the example given above in number 5, structure C would
contribute the least since the carbon doesn't have an octet. Likewise, for
the two structures below the more stable with all atoms following the
octet rule.
 See the number of atoms which have formal charge. Structures with
atoms having lower values of formal charges show more contribution
in the formation of resonance hybrid. In the below given structures,
resonance structure Z exhibit least contribution.
 If formal charges of the structures are same, consider the

electronegativity of atom bearing that formal charge. If negative
charge is over electronegative atom the structure will be stable, when
77
lesser electronegative atom gets the formal negative charge the
resonance structure, we get will be unstable. In the above structure X
contributes more than structure Y, because electronegative (oxygen)
atom has negative charge in the example X.
Benzene (C6H6): The various structures of benzene are given below.
Possible structures of benzene.
Structures I and II are due to Kekule. Structures III, IV and also V are
Dewar structures and Structure VI is such that two carbon atoms have
only seven electrons (i.e., one electron deficient than electrons required
to follow Octet rule). Structure VI is thus unimportant and hence has
least contribution. Structure III, IV and even V are also less important.
Structure I and II are real resonating structures because these explain
the equivalence of all C-C bonds. Thus, each C-C bond length lies in
between C-C and C=C bond.
6.4. STABILITY OF RESONANCE STRUCTURES
The following rules will help us in making decisions about the relative
stability of various resonance structures.
a. The structure if it has more covalent bond, more stable it is. This
is exactly what we would expect because we know that forming a
covalent decreases the atoms energy. From the following structures of
1,3-butadiene, 1 is the most stable structure and this makes it the largest
contributor because it contains one more bond. (It has high stability due
to the rule c)
78
b. Structures which have atoms with filled valence orbital (i.e.,
noble gas configuration) are relatively stable and give more
contribution in hybrid formation. Again, this is what we would expect
from what we know about bonding. This means, for example,
that 2 makes a larger stabilizing contribution to the cation below
than 1 because all of the atoms of 2 have a complete valence shell.
c. Charge separation decreases stability: We need energy to

separate opposite charges. Therefore, structures with charge separation
have lower stability than the structures with no charge separation. This
means that among the following structures of vinyl chloride,
structure 1 is the larger contributor because there is no charge
separation
following rules are for resonance forms which has no unpaired electrons.
1. Minimization of point charges: lesser the point charges, greater is

the contribution of resonance structure towards hybrid formation.
2. Full octets: Resonance form containing atoms which follow octet rule
will show higher contribution towards hybrid.
3. Stabilized negative charges: The negative charge present in

resonance structure, should be present on the atom which can stabilize
it. Here, greater the electronegativity greater is their stability, so O- > N-
> C-. If we consider atoms from same group in periodic table, then
greater is their size greater will be its stability, so S- > O- etc.
4. Stabilize positive charges: If we have carbon which violates octet

rule, it's wise to put the positive charge over highly substituted carbon.
79
5. Aromaticity (special case): If resonance forms are aromatic, they
show disproportionate contribution toward the resonance hybrid
formation. The well-known example for this is resonance form of tropone
in which resonance form with negative charge over the oxygen is
aromatic.
The resonance forms of nitro compound are as follows,
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson, we studied well in detail about conditions of drawing

resonance structures and how the stability depends on the resonance
structures.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Draw the resonance structure of any aromatic compound.

2. Draw the Lewis structure of the nitrite ion, NO₂⁻.
3. Draw the structure of resonance stability among carbocations.
GLOSSARY
Lewis structures: Structures for a compound, differing only in the
locations of the electrons.
Resonance structures: Combination of equivalent structures.
Heteroatom: Any atom other than carbon or hydrogen.
80
SUGGESTED READINGS

John-Wiley.
WEB RESOURCES
1.https://youtu.be/2N117Q1UozI
2. https://byjus.com/chemistry/resonance-structures/
3. https://youtu.be/uv302YzjBSY
4.https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_C
hemistry_(LibreTexts)/02%3A_Polar_Covalent_Bonds_Acids_and_Base
s/2.05%3A_Rules_for_Resonance_Forms#:~:text=Rules%20for%20Esti
mating%20Stability%20of%20Resonance%20Structures&text=The%20r
esonance%20structures%20in%20which,and%20therefore%20an%20in
complete%20octet.
1.
2.
3.
81
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Discuss in detail about the conditions for drawing resonance structure.

2. Describe about the stability of resonance structures.
3. Give notes on conditions for resonance.
82
Block III
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE AND

PERIODIC PROPERTIES
Unit 7 : Periodic Laws
Unit 8 : Classification of Elements
Unit 9 : Periodic Properties
83
Unit 7
PERIODIC LAWS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
7.1. Modern Periodic Table - A Brief Introduction
7.2. Mendeleev’s Classical Periodic Law
7.3. Moseley’s Modern Periodic Law
7.4. Periods and Groups
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Model Questions
OVERVIEW
It is very essential to know about the periodic table and its classification
of elements in order to understand their chemistry in better way. The
elements are arranged in periodic table in such a way that one can
easily remember and recognize both the physical (colour, odour, boiling
point etc) and chemical properties (reactivity with other elements,
valency) of elements. In order to completely understand modern periodic
table which was formulated by Henry Mosley primarily, it is necessary to
understand the classical periodic table which was constructed by Dimitri
Mendeleev. Because, Mendeleev‘s periodic table is the first known
systematic way of classification of elements but in Mosley‘s modern
version of periodic table elements are arranged in rows and columns,
respectively, based on their physical and chemical properties and
named as periods and groups. Having knowledge about the above-
mentioned basic concepts are highly important to the students those
who are studying chemistry subject in the undergraduate level.
84
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the basic concepts involved in the categorisation of
elements
 Describe the basic structure of Mendeleev‘s periodic law
 Discuss the merits and demerits of classical periodic table and its
classifications.
 Differentiate classical and modern periodic table and the necessity
of modern periodic table
 Explain about the fundamental idea of periods and groups.
7.1. MODERN PERIODIC TABLE – A BRIEF INTRODUCTION

Carbon and gold have been known to mankind since the dawn of
humanity. Chemical methods could not be used to modify the elements.
Each element has different number of electrons. You can't know how
many protons the atoms in iron and silver have by looking at them. The
elements, instead, can be distinguished by their distinct properties. You'll
probably note that iron and silver have more in common than iron and
oxygen.
The First Periodic table
Dmitri Mendeleev was the mankind known first person to construct a

periodic table consists of elements that resembled the one we use
today. The original table of Mendeleev given here (Published in the year
1869). Several elements were sorted by increasing the atomic mass of
the respective element, a pattern emerged in which the attributes of the
elements repeated on a regular basis. This table is a collection of
elements containing similar properties.
The purpose of constructing a periodic table
Many elements remained to be discovered in Mendeleev's time. The

periodic table helped predict the properties of new elements.
Modern Periodic Table
The classical periodic chart had fewer elements than Henry Mosle's
modern periodic table. Mendeleev's table has gaps between elements
where he believes new and undiscovered elements would fit.
85
Discovering elements
It's important to remember that changing the proton count affects the
atomic number, which is the element's number. Do you see any missing
atomic numbers in the contemporary periodic table that could be
undiscovered elements?
Today, no new elements are discovered. They've been created. The
modern table can still be used to anticipate the properties of new
elements.
The trends in periodic properties
 The periodic table aids in the prediction of some distinct properties of

the periodic elements when compared to one another.
 Atom size tend to increase in a column and decease along a period.
 The ionization energy is the energy needed to eject the valence
electron (outermost) in gas phase of an element increases gradually
in a period and decreases in a column.
 The capacity to form a chemical bond by the elements is increases in

a period and decreases along the column in modern periodic table.
The Modern Periodic table
The significant difference between Mendeleev's table and modern

table is the modern table was arranged on the criteria of increase in
atomic number/number of protons or electrons of the element, not by
atomic weight or not by number of nucleons. The reason behind this
significant change is an experiment carried out by Henry Moseley in
1914. From the experiment, he proposed that we can identify the
number of protons/electrons present in any element experimentally.
Before the modern table, atomic weights were used. The modern form of
the periodic table was reorganized when everyone agreed that the
atomic numbers had importance.
7.2. MENDELEEV’S CLASSICAL PERIODIC LAW
The modern form of the table is a collection of elements arranged

according to their atomic numbers or the number of electrons/protons
present in the elemental form, electron configurations, and repetitive
chemical properties. The elements are given in ascending atomic
number sequence. The modern form of the table consists of
elements with rows designated as periods and columns designated
as groups.
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The periodic table's history spans more than 100 years of progress in
chemical property knowledge. The most significant moment in its history
happened in 1869, when Dmitri Mendeleev published the table, which
was based on prior discoveries by scientist such as John Newlands &
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier.
John Newlands, an unsung British chemist, arranged the elements table
in an arrangement of atomic weight, and he proposed that these
arrangements result some similarities at regular intervals, in his case,
eight elements of a group. The "law of Octaves" is the scientific
expression given to this invention.
In 18th century the numerical value of atomic weights was known.
Before 10 years to that such information‘s and the knowledge did not
exist. In 1860, chemists from all regions of the globe met at Karlsruhe,
Germany.
In the opinion with the discussion of well-known scientists of that time
Avogadro, Gerhardt and Regnault, an atom as "the smallest portions of
any element which enters into a molecule of its compound." For
example,
K = 39 Rb = 85 Cs = 133
Ca = 40 Sr = 87 Ba = 137
Recently using weights instead of the above units,

K = 39 Rb = 85 Cs = 133
Ca = 20 Sr = 43.5 Ba = 68.5
The consistency of atomic weight shift, which is so obvious with correct

values, vanishes totally.
In 1860-70, some of the laws were postulated to enrich the knowledge
regarding atomic weights and analogous elements. Cooke, Gladstone,
Lenssen, Cremers, Gmelin, Pettenkofer, and Dumas. Some of the
examples which is given below explains how Dumas compared the
elements with organic radicals.
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F = 19.
Cl = 35.5 = 19 + 16.5.
Br = 80 = 19 + 2 x 16.5 + 28.
I = 127 = 2 x 19 + 2 x 16.5 + 2 x 28.
Cr = 26.2 Mn = 27.6 Fe = 28 Ni = 29 Co = 30
Cu = 31.7 Zn = 32.5
7.3. MOSELEY’S MODERN PERIODIC LAW

After the discovery of proton by Rutherford‘s experiment in 1911, Henry
Moseley, (1887–1915) subjected the changes happening in elements
when they exposed to X-rays. He proposed a theory based on frequency
of X-rays and element. Mosley displayed elements by increasing order
of electrons or protons or atomic number. When Moseley placed the
elements with according to their ascending order of atomic numbers, not
by their atomic weights, the inconsistencies shown by Mendeleev‘s table
were sorted out.
In 1913, the total number of positive charges in the nucleus was
determined by measuring the emitting wavelength of X-rays from the
metal. Once isotopes were found, it became evident that atomic mass
was not as important in periodic law as it had previously been thought,
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and that element attributes varied with atomic number instead. The
issues in Mendeleev's periodic table vanished when atoms got ordered
by ascending atomic number.
The atomic number Z means the electrons count in an atom. It's also
important to notice that electron configurations are responsible for all
physical and chemical features. He applied the following formula:
ν = A (Z−b) 2ν = A (Z−b) 2
ν: X-Ray frequency
Z: Atomic Number
A and b: constants
Note: The Periodic Law can now be restated thanks to Moseley's
contribution: "When elements are ordered according to ascending order
of atomic numbers, similar qualities recur frequently."
7.4. PERIODS AND GROUPS
Elements in the Mosley‘s table can be divided into rows (periods) and
columns (groups). In a period or row, atomic number (Z) is increases.
Periods: The arrangements of elements in row are called as rows. The

highly energized ground state level of an electron of an element is
represented by its period number. In a period, the total number of
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electrons is increases. Because, a greater number of sublevels
contributes the energy level of an atom.
Groups: A set of elements has various qualities in common. Elements

assembled in a group have same outer electronic configuration. Valence
electrons are indeed the outermost electrons. Elements in a family
or group have comparable chemical characteristics as they contain
same counts of valence electrons. The count of valence electrons is
indicated by the Roman numerals over each group. For example, in a
group VA element, having 5 outermost valence shell electrons.
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson, we studied well in detail about the modern periodic table
and periodic properties, Mendeleev‘s classical periodic law, Moseley‘s
modern periodic law, the necessity of modern periodic table, Rows and
Periods, difference between classical and modern periodic table and the
fundamental idea of periods and groups.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is the basic idea of Mendeleev‘s classical periodic table?
2. Write the demerits of classical periodic table.
3. What is a period and group in the modern periodic table?
GLOSSARY
Period: Horizontal rows in periodic table.
Group: Vertical columns in periodic table.
Electronegativity: Tendency to attract the bonding electrons.
Electron affinity: Amount of energy released when an electron is added
to an atom.
Polarizability: Distortion of electron cloud from its normal shape.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry by Satya Prakash, Edition 17.
2. Inorganic Chemistry by G.C. Shivhare and V.P. Lavania.
3. Inorganic Chemistry by P.L. Soni.
4. Modern Inorganic Chemistry by R.C. Agarwal.
90
WEB RESOURCES
1. https://youtu.be/n8ok1tfpyS8
2. https://www.asbmb.org/asbmb-today/science/020721/a-brief-history-
of-the-periodic-
table#:~:text=In%201869%2C%20Russian%20chemist%20Dmitri,gr
oup%20he%20would%20rearrange%20them.
3. https://www.britannica.com/science/chemistry/Mendeleevs-periodic-
law
4. https://www.simply.science/images/content/chemistry/structure_of_m
atter/dev_of_periodic_table/conceptmap/Moseleys_Periodic_law.htm
l
1. The elements which were known in 1860‘s was arranged by Dmitri

Mendeleev (in 1869) by their atomic weights.
2. The classical periodic table had some vacant spaces between
elements. Because Mendeleev thought that upcoming new elements
can fit into the gaps in periodic table.
3. Period is a row in which elements are arranged in decreasing order of
size and a group consists of elements which has similar physical and
chemical behaviour.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain about the modern periodic table.
2. Describe the classification of elements based on electronic
configuration.
3. Write short notes of periodic properties along groups and periods.
4. What is Moseley‘s modern periodic law?
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Unit 8
CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
8.1. Classification of Elements - s, p, d, & f Block Elements
8.1.1. Alkali Metals
8.1.2. Alkaline Earth Metals
8.1.3. Transition Metals
8.1.4. Inner Transition Metals
8.1.5. Non-Metals and Metalloids
8.1.6. Halogens
8.1.7. Noble Gases
8.1.8. Metal Triads
8.2. Electronic Configuration of Elements
8.2.1. Aufbau Principle
8.2.2. Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
8.2.3. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Suggested Readings
Model Questions
OVERVIEW
After knowing the history and evolution of modern periodic table, now
right the time is right to look deep into modern periodic table. After
studying and understanding this unit, you can get clear answers to the
common questions which are arising upon reading the periodic table.
The question is why there is a need to classify the known elements.
92
Henry Mosley also had the same question in his mind so by using his
ability to see the similarities and contradictions among elements which
were known at that time and taking in to consideration of several factors
which directly and indirectly influence the physiochemical character of
elements, the periodic table is classified in to four blocks such as s, p, d
& f – blocks. Further, periodic table is again subdivided into periods and
groups. Elements exhibiting similar physiochemical behaviour are placed
in same group. Elements under each group has similar character and
are designated using different names like alkali metals, alkaline earth
metals, transition, inner transition metals, non-metals, noble gases and
halogens. There are several scientists who have got a place in history of
inorganic chemistry such as Wolfgang Pauli, Friedrich Hund and Niels
Bohr contributed to the classifications of elements by the electronic
configurations. The formulations were given by their inevitable works
such as Pauli's exclusion principle, Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity
and Aufbau principle respectively. As an undergraduate student, it is
very much important to understand the fundamentals of periodic table
and classifications of periodic table. With this knowledge an
undergraduate student can able to grasp the upcoming topics on the
discussion of periodic properties in detail.
OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the basic concepts involved in classification of s, p, d & f

block elements
 Explain the different classifications of elements in the periodic table
such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals transition, inner
transition metals non-metals, noble gases, halogens and concept
of metal triads
 Summarize the classification of groups according to their electronic
configuration
 Discuss about Aufbau principle, Hund's rule of maximum
multiplicity, and Pauli's exclusion principle are some of the
concepts
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8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF s, p, d AND f - BLOCK ELEMENTS
Classification of elements in modern design of periodic table are based
on their properties. The major classifications of elements are metals,
nonmetals, and metalloids.
Metals in the periodic table
Most of the elements arranged in the modern form of periodic table are
metals. The large number of metals are classified into groups like alkali,
alkaline-earth and transition metals. The transition metals consist
another class, that is, inner transition metals such as lanthanides &
actinides.
8.1.1. ALKALI METALS

The alkali metals (Li-lithium, Na-sodium, K-potassium, Rb-rubedium, Cs-
cesium and Fr-francium) are situated at Group IA of the table. IA metals
able to produce salts and many compounds. Some notable properties
are,
 Metals with lesser density
 They can produce ions with a charge of +1
 Highly reactive elements are present in group IA
 Elements with larger size in the whole periodic table are present
here.
Physical Properties of Alkali Metals
 They have metallic luster.

 They have high ductility.
 They can easily conduct heat and electricity.
 They melt at comparatively low temperatures like lithium melts at 179
°C and cesium melts at 28.5 °C.
 Alloys can be produced by alkali metals. But their melting point as
low as -78 °C (−109 °F).
 Every alkali metal contains one electron in valence shell. The
valence shell bound more loosely than the inner shells. When they
allowed to react with nonmetals, they tend to show singly charged
positive ions.
 Generally, the compounds which shows high melting points might
have ionic bonding.
 In the metallic state, electrons in outermost orbital are readily forming
bonds with alkali metals to produce an alloy by forming a half-filled
valance band. A partially filled valence band. The single electron
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likely to be less securely retained as it moves from lithium to
francium.
 In common, on passing from lithium to francium, the later one need
the lowest energy to eject the outermost electron, which is called as
ionization energy (IE). Generally, IE decreases in a group (column).
In fact, francium is the element with the lowest 1st ionization energy
(IE1) followed closed by cesium (89.7 Kcal/mol) in the whole periodic
table. Lithium which has the smallest size in the whole alkali metals
has the 1st ionization energy 124.3kcal/mol.
 In the group, alkaline-earth metals, shows greater IE. For example,
214.9 for beryllium,120.1 kcal/mole for barium.
 Electronegativity is a scale of various atoms of an element compares
the capacity to attract the electrons to themselves. For example,
cesium has the electronegativity of 0.7, whereas, fluorine has the
value of 4.0, which is the most electronegative. Metals are usually
considered to be the having values less than 2.0. As a group, group
IA metals have the least electronegative character, ranging from 0.7
to 1.0. The group IIA have electronegativities from 0.9 to 1.5.
 In solid state chemistry, we will get an in-depth knowledge about the
concepts of close packing of atoms. At room temperature &
atmospheric pressure, mostly all atoms are crystallized by a body-
centered cubic crystallographic arrangement. In which one atom will
share the eight neighbouring atoms. The minimum distance between
two atoms increases while increase in atomic mass of alkali metals.
For example, cesium will have the greatest inter atomic distance
more than any metal atom due to its larger size.
Chemical Properties of alkali metals
Alkali metals are can said to be electropositive in nature (the

least electronegative), they have the tendency to react with nonmetals.
Lithium mimics alkaline earths in chemical reactivity more often than the
other elements in its own group. Lithium is not highly reactive among
other metals in same group with water, halogen and oxygens. Whereas,
it is more reactive with carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen.
Reactions with Oxygen
 The group IA metals have the ability to produce ionic solids with +1
oxidation state. As a result, neutral substances containing oxygen can
be easily categorized based on the oxygen species involved. The
oxide O2-, peroxide O22-, superoxide O2-, and ozonide, O3- are ionic
oxygen species. Monoxide M2O, peroxide M2O2, superoxide MO2,
and ozonide MO3 are some of the common forms of that can be
95
made with an alkali metal, M, and oxygen. M4O6, a sesquioxide
containing two peroxide anions and one superoxide anion per formula
unit, is also formed by rubidium, cesium, and maybe potassium.
Lithium is having the of forming monoxide and peroxide.
 All alkali metals have the capacity to react directly with oxygen,
forming monoxides (Li2O and Na2O). Lithium and sodium forms
superoxides (MO2). The speed of the reaction with oxygen or air is
affected by metals if it is in solid or liquid, as well as the extent of
mixing between the metals and the O2 or air. Alkali metals could be
easily ignited in air in their liquid state, producing enormous heat and
a slightly dense choking cloud of the oxide.
 At 25°C (77°F), the free energy (G) of generation of stable alkali
metal peroxides ranges from -133kcalmol (for Li2O) to -63 kcal/mol
(for Cs2O). The large value of free energy of production of the oxide
is because of the near proximity of the tiny lithium ion to the oxygen
atom. Although sodium peroxide is commercially produced by
oxidising sodium monoxide with oxygen, the peroxides (Li2O2 and
Na2O2) can be generated by passing oxygen through a liquid-
ammonia solution of the alkali metal. High oxygen pressures is used
to make sodium superoxide (NaO2), although RB, K and Cs cesium
superoxide can be made immediately by combustion in presence of
air. Lithium and the alkaline-earth metals, however, no pure
superoxide has been isolated. The interaction of superoxide with
ozone can produce K, Rb & Cs cyanides which are less stable than
the lower oxides.
Reactions with Water
Vigorous reactions are shown by IA metals with water.

M + H2O → MOH + 1/2 H2
The speed of the reaction based on the metal surface presented to the
liquid. Explosive reactions could be shown by reacting with small
droplets. With O2, the speed of the reaction increases with increasing
atomic weight of the metal.
IA M(OH)2 are generally soluble. Those reactions are heat generating
reactions (exothermic) and the formed hydrogen can combine with
oxygen to produce even more heat.
Reactions with Nonmetals
Only lithium interacts with nitrogen in the alkali metals, forming a nitride
(Li3N). It resembles the alkaline-earth metals more than the alkali metals
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in this regard. Lithium also creates a reasonably stable hydride, in
contrast to the more reactive hydrides formed by the other alkali metals.
Li has the capacity of forming Li2C2, that is comparable to calcium's
carbide. Other metals of that group do not form stable carbides.
The IA metals can be burnt in halogen atmospheres to produce the
appropriate halides. The interactions are highly exothermic, with lithium
fluoride yielding up to 235 kcal/mole. IA metals react with nonmetals.
Sulfides are created when IA metals react with elemental sulphur,
yielding a range of sulphides. Phosphorus forms phosphides, which
have the common formula M3P, when it reacts with alkali metals.
Formation of Alloys
The similarity of the components involved in the alloy could be studies

with the characteristics of alloy behaviour in alkali metals. Solid solutions
(that is, mixtures in all proportions) are created when atomic volumes
are similar.
Solutions and mixed crystals possibly formed by the element‘s K, Rb
and Cs, which do have identical atomic volumes and IE. Because
sodium is a smaller atom with a greater IE than potassium. The atomic
occupancies of Na and Li are much more different, resulting in
insolubilities in the solution phases. When switching from a lithium-
sodium alloy system to a lithium-caesium alloy, the consolute
temperature (the temperature at which the two liquids become entirely
miscible) rises. At temperatures of at least 1,100 °C lithium and caesium
can coexist as two independent liquid phases.
The lithium-magnesium combination (those two having similar
behaviour) is the only available evidence of solid miscibility in alkali–
alkaline-earth-metal binaries. In the alkaline-earth-metal series, sodium
exclusively forms compounds with barium. With the IIA metals, the
heavier Ia metals tend to produce immiscible liquid phases.
Zn, Cd & Hg are among the elements in IIb that react with alkali metals
to generate compounds. Exceptions: Li + amalgam and Hg + amalgam
forms minimum six compounds, often mentioned as amalgams.
Cadmium and zinc combine with lithium and sodium to produce
compounds.
Uses of Alkali Metals
 Lithium metal used in the industrial production of useful alloys, such

as white metal 'bearings for motor engines, aluminium aircraft parts,
97
and magnesium armour plates. It's a component in thermonuclear
reactions.
 Li is also utilized as a production tool of electrochemical cells.
 Li2CO3 is utilized in pharmaceuticals.
 To manufacture a Na/Ph alloy, Na is used.
 In fast nuclear reactors, sodium metal (in liquid state) is acts as
coolant.
 Potassium chloride is utilized as a fertilizer. In the industrial
synthesis of soft soap, potassium hydroxide is employed. It is also
employed as an effective carbon dioxide absorber.
 Cs is widely implemented in the photoelectric cells.
8.1.2. ALKALINE EARTH METALS

The alkaline earths (2nd group) are found in Periodic Table Group IIA
(second column).
Alkaline earths include calcium and magnesium. These metals present
in a variety of compounds. They have a common oxidation state +2. The
atoms of these metals are smaller than among alkali metals.
Physical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals
 When freshly cut the heavier elements of this group IIa, they appear
in green-white sheen, but tarnish quickly in air.
 Highly metallic in nature, they easily allow heat and electricity.
 The melting and boiling points (mp) are higher than corresponding
group Ia metals Irregular variation is there. Example – Mg has mp -
650°C, bp - 1,090 °C (lowest in the group) and Be has mp 1,287 °C;
bp-2471°C (highest in the group).
Chemical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals
 They're all potent reducing agents chemically. The dark blue-coloured

solutions of Ca, Sr and Ba which are assumed to include metal ions
included with uncommon solvated electrons. To the higher
concentration solutions of elements which have a copper-like
appearance, metallic and subsequent evaporation produces residues
which contains ammonia (ammoniates), which match the general
formula. M(NH3)6. The ammoniates breakdown over time to generate
the amides, M(NH2)2.
 The s electrons are easily ionized (removed from the atom), and
alkaline-earth chemistry is characterized by this ionisation. From Be
(9.32 Ev) to Ba (5.21 eV), the ionisation energy falls steadily in the
series; radium, the heaviest of the group, has greater ionisation
98
energy (5.28 eV). The unequal filling of electron shells in consecutive
rows of the modern table explains the slight inconsistencies noted in
the generally smooth change as one progresses down the group.
Energies similar to those required to form chemical bonds can
promote s electrons to p-orbitals of the same n (n-principal quantum
number), the lighter atoms can thus form stable covalent bonds,
whereas helium, which comparable electronic configuration of 1s2.
 The synthesis and properties of the doubly cationic charged M2+
ions, in which the outermost s-electrons have been removed,
dominate the metals in most circumstances. The resultant ion is
stabilized by electrostatic contact with a solvent with a higher value
dielectric constant and a strong ability to absorb electric charges,
such as water, or by combining with opposite charged ions in an ionic
lattice, such as salts. The higher binding potential present in the
doubly charged ion more than compensates for the extra energy
necessary to eject the second s-electron (the second Ionisation
energy is approximately double that of the first). However, removing a
third electron from an alkaline-earth atom will necessitate an energy
expenditure that cannot be recovered from any known chemical
environment. As a consequence, the alkaline-earth metals'
compounds have maximum oxidation state of +2.
 The ionic radii of the alkaline earths gradually increase as the nuclei
size increases. Example – radius of Be2+ 0.27 angstrom, which has a
radius of 0.27 angstrom for a coordination number of 4. Radii of Ra2+ -
1.48 angstrom, CN – 8, that is it cannot form more than 8 bonds.
Uses of Alkaline Earth Metals
Beryllium
Beryllium is a soft metal with silvery white appearance in its basic form.
Emeralds, aquamarine, and alexandrite are green and bluish-coloured
gemstones made from ore complexes containing beryllium, aluminium,
and silicon. Beryllium is valuable in radiology because it allows X-rays to
penetrate through it, giving it the appearance of transparency. It's
commonly utilized in the industrial production of X-ray tubes and
windows. Beryllium improves the hardness of alloys used in the tools
manufacturing and watch springs.
Magnesium
Magnesium has similar physical properties to beryllium. At room

temperature, it will not react easily with water, but it rapidly interacts with
acids. Magnesium – a highly abundant element in the Earth's crust along
the others, and it's a crucial part in naturally occurring chlorophyll, the
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green plant pigment that helps with photosynthesis. Magnesium is
important in medicine since it is found in antacids, laxatives, and Epsom
salts. Magnesium produces a brilliant, white, long-lasting flame when
burned, making it helpful in fireworks and flares.
Calcium
On Earth, calcium becomes even more abundant than magnesium. Both

oxygen and water particles easily form compounds with the silvery,
semi-soft metal. Calcium carbonate, or limestone, is a common form
found in nature. Calcium is found in many living creatures' structures,
including bones, teeth, shells, and exoskeletons. Because calcium is
needed to manufacture plaster, cement, drywall, and other construction
materials, it is also crucial for man-made structures.
Strontium
Strontium is a lustrous, soft metal that reacts with oxygen and other
oxides to generate carbonate (CO32-), nitrate (NO32-), sulphate (SO42-),
and chlorate (Cl) (ClO3-). Strontium-based salts burn bright red and are
used in fireworks and signal flare.
Barium
X-rays can't penetrate the metal barium, unlike beryllium, which is

transparent. Barium sulphate is widely used to aid in the detection of
abnormalities in the digestive system using X-rays. When consumed,
this chemical coat the oesophagus, stomach, and intestines and is
insoluble in water. When heated, barium nitrate and barium chlorate are
implied in fireworks to emerge green light. Barium is also used in the
paint pigments manufacturing in industries.
Radium
Radium, as similar to the alkaline earth metals, is white in colour and

smooth and glossy. Its radioactivity, further on, sets it different from
others in the group. Radium was first employed for medical treatments
and to produce glow-in-the-dark clocks and watches shortly after its
discovery by the Curies in the late 1800s. When individuals learned
about the dangers of radiation, the usage of radium came to an end
decade later. Radium is playing a major role in the treatment of many
malignancies.
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8.1.3. TRANSITION METALS
General properties of the group
 The 24 elements of d-block in concern have a lot in common: they're

all metals, and the majority of the metals are hard, robust, and
lustrous, have melting and boiling temperatures, and are good
electricity and heat conductors. Because these attributes have such a
wide range, the statements are compared to the fundamental
properties of other elements.
 Most of the transition metals are significant in technical applications:
titanium, iron, nickel, and copper, for example, are utilized in
structural and electrical applications.
 The transition metals mixed with various other metal sources to
produce numerous types of alloys form a numerous alloy with other
metals.
 Mineral acids can be able to dissolve most of the transition metals.
However, some, like Pt, Ag and Au, are considered "noble,"
unaffected by nonoxidizing acids.
 The first major transition series starts with scandium (Sc, Z-21) and
finishes with zinc (Zn, Z-30). 4d series starts with yttrium (Yt, Z-39)
and ends with cadmium (Cd, Z-48).
 5d series includes with lanthanum (La, Z-57) and mercury (Hg, Z-80).
Biological functions of transition metals
Iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), and molybdenum (Mo) are just a few
of the transition metals that are vital in the chemistry of biological
systems. Iron – a widely distributed, common and crucial transition metal
in biocompatible systems; iron-containing proteins are involved in two
key processes: oxygen transportation and electron transport (i.e.,
oxidation–reduction) activities. Numerous compounds are also involved
in the storage and transportation of iron.
Role of cobalt metal in biological systems
Cobalt is a necessary element in animal nutrition which found actually in

trace amounts, the only detailed modern science knowledge of its
biological importance is limited to vitamin B12 and associated
coenzymes. One cobalt atom is bound in a heme - macrocyclic ring
known widely as corrin system, which is analogous to a porphyrin in
these molecules.
101
Role of copper
Copper is widely found in animals as well as in plants could be seen in

both plant kingdom and animal kingdom. Isolation of copper-based
proteins helps us to acquire the importance of copper in enzymatic
systems.
Examples
 One of the commonly known copper-based enzymes is Hemocyanin,
the one major difference is it is a non-heme protein. Hemocyanin has
the capacity to bind with dioxygen by two copper atoms. Copper is
present in the many lower creature‘s blood. For example, decapods,
mollusks.
 Ceruloplasmin, a glycoprotein with 8 copper atoms in its structure, is
found in human serum; its biological role is unknown. Cerebrocuprein
present in mammalian brain, erythrocuprein is found in mammalian
erythrocytes and hepatocuprein is present in liver of mammalians.
They contain around 60% of the cumulative copper content in those
organs; their roles remain unknown.
 Copper-containing enzymes includes,
 Ascorbic acid oxidase (oxidizing enzyme with eight copper atoms per
active site; widely found in plants and microorganisms);
 Cytochrome oxidase, which is constituted by equal ratios (1:1) of
heme and copper;
 Tyrosinases, which catalyse melanin formation (brownish-black
pigments found in hair).
Role of vanadium
Vanadium which has unknown origin, may be separated as porphyrin
complexes and is found abundantly in petroleum, particularly that from
Venezuela. Certain ascidians, especially sea squirts, contains vanadium
metal in their blood. Presumably as hemovanadin, a strange, complex,
and rarely understood protein-containing compound that is supposed to
aid in oxygen delivery.
Role of molybdenum
Molybdenum is found as an essential element in animal diets which

present in trace amount, although its function and minimum amounts are
unknown. Molybdenum and iron-containing enzymes are used by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 2 atoms of Mb and 40 atoms of Fe present in
the active site of an enzyme, in which a part of it is extracted and studied
in crystalline form. This protein can catalyse the conversion of nitrogen
102
gas into nitrogen compounds when combined with another protein that
only contains iron.
The discipline of bioinorganic chemistry has emerged in response to
efforts to better understand the role and mechanistic view of transition
metals in biological systems.
8.1.4. INNER TRANSITION METALS

Lanthanides
There are two periods between transition elements and non-metals in

the current periodic table. The atomic numbers after lanthanum are
listed in the top row. The lanthanides are the name for these elements.
The lanthanides are tarnish-prone silvery metals. They're soft metals
with large melting and boiling temperatures. Lanthanides react to
generate large range of chemicals. These elements are utilized to
improve the properties of other metals and are employed in lights,
magnets, and lasers.
Properties of Lanthanides
 Lanthanides are a group of soft metals. They are silvery white colour
in nature. When exposed to the atmospheric air, their colour fades
and their brightness diminishes quickly.
 Except samarium, 1623K, all the other metals have lower melting
points within 1000K-1200K.
 Lanthanides can conduct both electricity and heat very easily.
 Except Promethium, all the others are non-radioactive.
 While moving from lanthanum to lutetium, the ionic radii decrease.
This is called lanthanoid contraction.
Actinides
The actinides are found below the lanthanides in a row. Their atomic
numbers are the same as actiniums. With positively charged ions, all
actinides are radioactive. They are reactive metals that combine with
most non-metals to produce compounds. Medicines and nuclear
equipment contain actinides.
Properties of Actinides
 The Actinide elements have a silvery appearance, and they are

radioactive.
 These metals are very reactive, and the reactivity increases when
finely divided.
 From Actinium to Lawrencium, there is a decrease in radii in its
atomic and ionic forms. This is actinoid contraction, and they usually
103
have a +3-oxidation state. The first 7 elements have the ability to
show large oxidation states very regularly.
Difference between Lanthanides and Actinides
 Lanthanoids are the group elements in filling 4f- orbitals, Whereas,

actinoids are the group of elements in which their last electron will
take up 5f-orbitals. The energy of binding (termed as binding energy)
is less for 4f- electrons as compared to 5f electrons. The shielding
effect is less effective for 5f electrons as compared to 4f.
 The paramagnetic (presence of unpaired electrons) properties of 4f
series are simple to explain, whereas actinoids are more difficult to
explain.
 Except for promethium, all elements of 4f series are non-radioactive
in nature, whereas all of the actinoid elements have the capacity to
expel radiation.
 Although lanthanides do not tend to generate oxo-cations, the
actinide series has multiple oxo-cations. Lanthanide compounds have
a lower basicity. Actinide compounds are extremely basic.
Similarities between Lanthanides and Actinides
The filling of the (n-2) f subshell distinguishes the lanthanide and

actinide classifications. They have nearly identical outermost electrical
configurations but have similar characteristics. The following are some
notable parallels:
 Both of them exhibit a significant +3 oxidation state.

 They are responsible for populating (n-2) f orbitals.
 They have a high electropositive charge and are very reactive in
nature.
 In a period, the radii of both ionic and atomic is tended to decrease.
 Both of them have magnetic characteristics.
8.1.5. NON-METALS AND METALLOIDS

Metals, metalloids, and non-metals are all represented in Groups 13-15.
The change from metal to non-metal happens gradually. These parts are
not same to be grouped together in a single column, they do have some
characteristics. It is possible to find the total electrons required to
complete an electron shell. These metals are called as basic metals.
104
Major Difference between Non-metals & Metalloids
Non-metals are elements that will not have the properties of metals.
Some elements share some, but not all, of the metals' properties.
Metalloids are the name given to these elements.
8.1.6. HALOGENS
The halogens are found in Periodic Table Group VIIA. Chlorine and
iodine are examples of halogens. Bleaches, disinfectants, and salts all
contain these components. These nonmetals produce -1-charged ions.
Halogens have a variety of physical properties. All of the halogens
known to man are extremely reactive.
At ordinary temperature and pressure, the halogen family is the only
group of elements in whole periodic table that contains elements in all
three recognised states of matter.
 Fluorine (F) is a gas with a pale yellow colour.
 Chlorine (Cl) is a colourless gas.
 Bromine (Br) is a dark crimson liquid with a pungent odour.
 Iodine (I) is a black solid that turns purple when heated; astatine (At)
is a black solid; the halogen elements all have a strong, often
unpleasant odour; the halogens are highly toxic; they are known for
being poor heat and electricity conductors; and they have low boiling
and melting points in general.
Chemical Properties
 All halogen molecules are diatomic. This means that each of their
molecules has two atoms.
 Halogens have 7 valance electrons.
 Halogens form anions and are very reactive because one electron is
absent.
 On reaction with atoms of other elements, they can accept an
electron.
Uses of Halogens
Fluorine is mostly obtained from fluorspar. Calcium sulphate (CaSO4) is

generated during the distillation process and is do not dissolve in HF.
Fractional distillation method used for copper or steel containers
produces hydrogen fluoride in a somewhat anhydrous form, which is
packed in steel cylinders. Sulfurous and sulfuric acids, silicic acid
(H2SiF6), are common contaminants in commercial HF due to the
abundance of silica in the fluorspar. Moisture traces can be eliminated
using platinum electrodes, elemental fluorine treatment, or storage in
105
strong Lewis electron accepting acids (MF5, M-any metal), which can
produce non-volatile (H3O)+ (MF6) salts, as illustrated by the equation:
H2O + SbF5 + HF → (H3O)+ (SbF6)−
Hydrogen fluoride is involved in making of variety of commercially

important inorganic as well as organic fluorine compounds.
Electrolytic smelting process of aluminium metal, sodium aluminium
fluoride (Na3AlF6) is employed as an electrolyte. An aqueous HF,
hydrofluoric acid is widely used in industry for cleaning metals and
refining, frosting, and etching glasses.
8.1.7. NOBLE GASES

Helium (z = 2), neon (z = 10), argon (z = 18), krypton (z = 36), xenon (z
= 54), radon (z = 86), and oganesson (z = 118) are the elements. Noble
gases are non-flammable. They are colourless, odourless, and tasteless.
They were given the designation Group 0. But, group 18 is a more
suitable designation based on their electrical structures and the
discovery that some of the noble gases form compounds.
General Properties of Noble Gases
 Each noble-gas element is found in the Mosley‘s periodic table
between the most electronegative elements, the halogen elements
(Group 17, whose atoms add electrons to get octet configuration and
form negative ions).
 The noble gases' inability to react chemically is crucial to a number of
applications. The noble gases' indifference to oxygen atom, for
example, confers complete nonflammability. While helium is not a
better buoyant than hydrogen, it is a safe lifting gas for lightweight
craft due to its incombustibility. The noble gases—most commonly
helium and argon, which are the least expensive—are used with
chemically inert conditions for metal activities. For example, cutting,
welding, and purifying.
 In comparison to other materials, group 18 elements absorb and emit
all regions in electromagnetic radiation in a simpler manner. This
behaviour is employed in discharge lamps and florescent devices:
any noble gas contained at less pressurised state in a glass tube that
is passed through an electrical discharge will glow. Xenon emits a
stunning blue colour, while neon generates the recognisable orange-
red colour of advertising signs.
106
 Noble gases have applications based on their chemical features.
Noble gases are valuable in study of materials at low temperatures.
Because of their exceptionally low boiling and melting points.
Because helium does not dissolve in blood, it does not generate
bubbles during decompression, hence it is mixed with O2 gas for
breathing usage for the deep-sea divers (as nitrogen does, leading to
the condition known as decompression sickness, or the bends).
Although expensive, xenon has been utilised as an anaesthetic since
it is non-flammable and can be removed from the body very easily.
Because radon is radioactive, its sole applications have been those
that take use of this feature (e.g., radiation therapy).
 Flash Lamp: A xenon flash bulb is turned on. A quick and strong
flash of bluish-white light is produced when a charge of electricity
ionises the xenon gas in a sealed glass tube. Only the elements Kr,
Xe, and Rn are capable of producing stable compounds. These noble
gas compounds are strong oxidants (substances that tend to take
electrons from other substances) and could be useful as reagents in
the synthesis of other compounds.
8.1.8. METAL TRIADS

Iron, cobalt & nickel named as iron triad. The palladium trio of ruthenium,
rhodium, and palladium sits just beneath Fe, Co and Ni, whereas the
platinum triad of osmium, iridium, and platinum sits beneath them.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has a single positive charge, but
naturally it is found in gaseous state that does not operate like a metal at
normal temperature. As a result, hydrogen is commonly classified as a
non-metal.
8.2. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS

The placement of electrons in atomic or molecular orbitals determines
an atom's or molecule's electron configuration.
From the other hand, an atom's electronic configuration is described as

the dispersion of electrons into shells and orbitals.
1. s-orbital can accommodate 2 electrons.

2. p-orbital can accommodate 6 electrons.
3. d-orbital can accommodate 10 electrons.
4. f-orbital can accommodate 14 electrons.
107
Placing of electrons into the orbitals are based on three principles.
1. Aufbau principle
2. Hund's rule
3. Pauli's exclusion principle
8.2.1. AUFBAU PRINCIPLE

The Aufbau principle governs how electrons are accommodated in an
atom's atomic orbitals when it is in its ground energy level. According to
this theory, electrons are accommodated in atomic orbitals in sequence
of increasing orbital energy level. As per the Aufbau principle, least
energised atomic orbitals are occupied first, followed by the higher
energy levels.
The order of filling electrons is

1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p, etc.,
The following picture is useful to remember the order.

For example, the electronic configuration of the Ne atom is 1s2 2s2 2p6.
108
Electronic configuration of hydrogen,
Energy level
1s1 Number of electrons in this orbital
Type of orbital (subshell)
8.2.2. HUND'S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

Hund's rule asserts that the term with the highest spin multiplicity (2s+1)
will have the lowest energy (most stable) for a particular electron
configuration. According to the above rule, electron pairing in the p, d,
and f orbitals can't happen until each subshell's orbital has one electron
or in other words it is singly occupied.
According to Hund‘s rule,
1. In an orbital, only after the single occupancy of one electron in a
sublevel, then the double occupancy should happen.
2. The electrons in orbitals showing single occupancies must have the
same spin.
Explanation
Before partnering up, the electrons enter an empty orbital. Because

electrons are having a negative charge, they will repel one another.
Electrons are not sharing orbitals, in order to avoid the repulsion factor.
Whenever the second rule is implemented, the spins of unpaired

electrons in singly occupied orbitals are the same. The spin of the sub-
earliest level's electrons affects the spin motion of the remaining
electrons. For illustration, the electron configuration of a carbon is
1s22s22p2. The two 2s electrons would occupy the same orbital, the
remaining two 2p orbitals would take different orbitals, that according to
the Hund's rule.
8.2.3. PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

The Pauli exclusion principle asserts that, 2 electrons in an individual
atom will have the same combination/set of quantum numbers (n, l, ml,
109
and ms). In other words, each electron should be in a distinct state
(singlet state). Pauli‘s Exclusion rules has two main parts:
 A same orbital should contain two electrons only.
 Those two electrons have the spin which must be antiparallel to each
other.
The Pauli Exclusion Principle does not simply apply to electrons. It also
applies to fermions and other half-integer spin particles. It is irrelevant
for particles which are having an integer spin, such as bosons, because
their wave functions are symmetric. Moreover, unlike fermions, bosons
have a possibility to divide the same quantum states.
Formulation of the Principle
Wolfgang Pauli, an Austrian scientist, first proposed the principle in

1925. He substantially explained the behaviour of electrons using this
idea. Under his spin-statistics theorem, he extended the idea to embrace
all fermions later in 1940. However, fermions are elementary particles
can also be defined using the same principle. Examples for elementary
particles are given below,
 quarks
 electrons
 neutrinos
 baryons
In physics, Wolfgang Pauli (1945) have won the noble price. Albert
Einstein even nominated him for the honour.
Pauli Exclusion Principle in Chemistry
The law is mostly applied to understand chemistry, and to explain or

identify the electron shell structure of atoms, as well as to predict which
atoms are inclined to contribute electrons. When an atom gets a new
electron, it often transitions to the low energy level or the outermost
shell. If there is one electron in the state, it can be either spin-up or spin-
down. If we examine the Pauli exclusion principle, individually, 2 e- in a
state will have a spin-up or spin-down state, but they will not be the
same.
Applications of Pauli Exclusion Principle
 A large part physical phenomena can be explained with the use of

Pauli exclusion principle.
 It is applied to the various chemical elements and how they
participate in forming chemical bonds.
110
 It is also playing a key role in understanding the modern periodic
table.
 Pauli made his contributions to quantum physics through his
exclusion principle.
 It is also playing a role in astrophysics.
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson, we studied well in detail about the Moseley‘s modern

periodic law, Rows and Periods, classification of elements based on
electronic configuration - s, p, d & f block elements, elementary idea of
atomic size, atomic radii, ionic radii, shielding effect, bond angle, bond
length, ionization energy, electronegativity, electron affinity and their
trends along periods and groups.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is Aufbau principle?

2. What is Hund‘s rule?
3. Write the maximum occupancy of d and f - block elements?
4. Write any three properties of lanthanides.
GLOSSARY
Alkali metals: Elements of the first group in the periodic table

Alkaline earth metals: Elements of second group
Inner transition elements: Radioactive elements and found in between
transition metals and nonmetals in the periodic table.
Orbital: Circulating path of electrons which are attracted by the nucleus
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry by Satya Prakash, Edition 17.

2. Inorganic Chemistry by G.C. Shivhare and V.P. Lavania.
3. Inorganic Chemistry by P.L. Soni.
4. Modern Inorganic Chemistry by R.C. Agarwal.
111
WEB RESOURCES
1. https://youtu.be/b6YbRo-D4D8
2. https://classnotes.org.in/class11/chemistry/classification-elements-
periodicity-properties/division-elements-s-p-d-f-block/
3. https://study.com/learn/lesson/alkaline-earth-metals-overview-
characteristics-properties.html
4. https://study.com/academy/lesson/transition-metals-definition-list-
properties.html4
5. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3
A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Miessler_Fischer_Tarr)/02%3A_Atomic_Str
ucture/2.02%3A_The_Schrodinger_equation_particle_in_a_box_and_
atomic_wavefunctions/2.2.03%3A_Aufbau_Principle
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hund%27s_rule_of_maximum_multiplicit
y
7. https://youtu.be/C6afrc1QS6Y
1. The Aufbau principle governs how electrons are filled in an atom's

atomic orbitals when it is in its ground state. According to this theory,
electrons are filled into atomic orbitals in sequence of increasing orbital
energy level. As per the Aufbau principle, the lowest energy atomic
orbitals are occupied first, followed by the higher energy levels.
The order of filling electrons is
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p, etc.,
2.
 Each orbital is singly occupied in a sublevel before it is doubly

occupied.
 The electrons in singly occupied orbitals all have the same spin.
 Write the maximum occupancy of s, p, d and f - block elements?
 The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in
an s-orbital is 2.
a p-orbital is 6.
112
a d-orbital is 10.
 The number of electrons can be accommodated by f-orbital is 14.
 Write any 3 properties of lanthanides.
 Lanthanides are soft metals with a silvery white colour.
 Their colour dulls and their brightness reduces rapidly when
exposed to air.They have melting points ranging from 1000K to
1200K (Except Samarium, 1623K).
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain about the physical and chemical properties of halogens.

2. Describe the classification of inner transition metals.
3. Write a short note on noble gases.
4. Write in detail about the (i). Hund‘s rule (ii). Aufbau Principle (iii).
Pauli‘s exclusion principle
113

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தமிழ்நாடு திறந்தநிலைப் பல்கலைக்கழகம்

© Tamil Nadu Open University

BLOCK II NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 46

BLOCK III MODERN PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODIC PROPERTIES 83

BLOCK IVCHEMICAL BONDING 128

BLOCK V GASEOUS STATE 168

Periodic Table of the Elements 199

Unit 2 : IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic

Unit 3 : Factors Influencing Electron Availability

It is very important to learn the basic concepts involved in organic

1.1. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - A BRIEF INTRODUCTION

Over 90,000 inorganic compounds have been identified. However, there

Carbon undergoes even branching and cross-linking with other atoms

Hydrogen is the second large abundant element present in organic

1.2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CARBON SKELETON

Organic substances also contain carbon, as well as other components

1.2.1. ACYCLIC OR OPEN CHAIN COMPOUNDS

These compounds are aliphatic compounds; they form both branched or

These compounds are carbon-based cyclic compounds which has

1.2.3. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

1.2.4. HETEROCYCLIC AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

A heterocyclic compound is an organic compound in which one or more

1.3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

1.3.1. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Atoms (or small groups of atoms) with a specific chemical reactivity is

1.3.2. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Characterization of Functional groups is done based on their unique

ORGANIC COMPOUND FUNCTIONAL GROUP SECONDARY SUFFIX

Alcohols -OH -ol

Aldehydes -CHO -al

Ketones >CO -one

Carboxylic acid -COOH -oic aid

Acid amides -CONH2 -amide

Acid chlorides -COCl -oyl chloride

Esters -COOR -alkyl…oate

Cyanides -CN -nitrile

Thioalcohols -SH -thiol

Amines -NH2 -amine

Ethyl alcohol has two carbon atoms, so ―

Ethyl alcohol molecule is saturated so, according to IUPAC

So, the IUPAC name is ―

CH3–CH2–OH: Eth + an + ol: Ethanol

propanaldehyde molecule is called as propanal,

The root word is: Prop

The Primary suffix given is: an

Secondary suffix will be: al

According to IUPAC rules,

By the IUPAC nomenclature propanone is the systematic name given to

Root word is: Prop

Primary suffix will be: an

Secondary suffix given is: one

ethanoic acid is called as acetic acid by systematic IUPAC rules.

The root word is: Eth

The Primary suffix will be: an

The Secondary suffix according to rules is: oic acid

Functional groups with halogen as the hetero atom are,

ethyl chloride naming based on IUPAC rules

The root word is: Eth