MSCCH 501

MSCCH-501
M.Sc I Semester
INORGANIC
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY-I
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY,HALDWANI (NAINITAL)
Expert Committee
Prof. B.S.Saraswat Prof. A.K. Pant
Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry
Indira Gandhi National Open University G.B.Pant Agriculture, University
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi Pantnagar
Prof. A. B. Melkani Prof. Diwan S Rawat

DSB Campus, Delhi University
Kumaun University, Nainital Delhi
Dr. Hemant Kandpal Dr. Charu C. Pant

Assistant Professor Academic Consultant
School of Health Science Department of Chemistry
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Uttarakhand Open University,
Board of Studies
Prof. A.B. Melkani Prof. G.C. Shah
DSB Campus, Kumaun University SSJ Campus, Kumaun University
Nainital Nainital
Prof. R.D.Kaushik Prof. P.D.Pant

Department of Chemistry Director I/C, School of Sciences
Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya Uttarakhand Open University
Haridwar Haldwani
Dr. Shalini Singh Dr. Charu C. Pant

Assistant Professor Academic Consultant
School of Sciences School of Science
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Uttarakhand Open University,
Programme Coordinator
Dr. Shalini Singh

Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry
Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani
Unit Written By Unit No.
1. Dr. Kamal Bisht 01,02,03,04
Assistant Professor
R.C.U.Gov P.G . College, Uttarkashi
2. Dr. Gunjan Rajput 05,06,07,08
Research Scientest
R.C.U.Gov P.G. College, Uttarkashi
Course Editor
Dr.Geeta Tewari
Associate Professor
D.S.B.Campus Nainital
Title : : Inorganic Chemistry-I

ISBN No.: :
Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University
Edition : 2021
Published by : Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital- 263139
CONTENTS
Block I: Stereochemistry and Bonding

_______________________________________________________________________________
UNIT :1 STEREOCHEMISTRY AND BONDING IN MAIN GROUP 1-21

COMPOUNDS
UNIT :2 PHOSPHORUS-NITROGEN AND SULFUR-NITROGEN 22-39
COMPOUNDS
UNIT: 3 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS OF ALKALI AND ALKALINE 40-53
EARTH METALS
UNIT: 4 ALKYLS AND ARYLS OF TRANSITION METALS 54-71
Block II : Metal pi-Complexes and Metal Clusters

_____________________________________________________________________________
UNIT: 5 METAL–π COMPLEXES – I 72-101

UNIT: 6 METAL π-COMPLEXES II 102-146
UNIT :7 METAL CLUSTERS 147-179
UNIT: 8 METAL-LIGAND EQUILIBRIA IN SOLUTION 180-199
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY-I MSCCH-501

UNIT 1 STEREOCHEMISTRY AND BONDING IN MAIN

GROUP COMPOUNDS
CONTENTS
1.1 Objectives`
1.2 Introduction
1.3 VSEPR theory
1.3.1 Structure of beryllium chloride (BeCl2)
1.3.2 Structure of boron trichloride (BCl3)
1.3.3 Structure of water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4)
1.3.4 Structure of nitrate anion (NO3-)
1.3.5 Structure of phosphorous pentachloride (PCl5)
1.3.6 Structure of xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4)
1.3.7 Limitations of VSEPR theory
1.4 Walsh diagram
1.4.1 Walsh diagram for tri-atomic molecules
1.4.2 Walsh diagram for penta-atomic molecules
1.5 d𝜋- p𝜋 bond
1.6 Bent’s rule and energetics of hybridization
1.7 Some simple reactions of covalently bonded molecules

1.7.1 Atomic inversion
1.7.2 Berry pseudorotation
1.7.3 Lewis acid-Lewis base adduct formation

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1.7.4 Nucleophilic substitution reaction

1.7.5 Nitrogen fixation
1.7.6 Ozone-oxygen cycle
1.8 Summary
1.9 Terminal questions
1.9.1 Reasoning based questions
1.9.2 Short answer type questions
1.9.3 Long answer type questions
1.10 Answers to reasoning-based questions
1.11 References and further studies
1.1.OBJECTIVES
Objectives of this unit are to introduce you with important basic concepts to understand the
bonding and structure of inorganic substances. Prerequisites to understand the offerings of this chapter
are the concepts of valency, dot structures of inorganic molecules, hybridization and general
understanding of structural representation and chemical reactions. At the end of this chapter, you will be
able to understand and explain the rather difficult bonding and structures of inorganic molecules.
1.2. INTRODUCTION
There are several models and theories which explain the shapes and geometries of molecules. One
of the important theories by G. N. Lewis provided the knowledge of electronic structures of molecules.
Many subsequent theories build upon the foundation laid by the Lewis theory of electronic structures of
molecules. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model used to predict the
geometry of a molecule from the number of electron pairs surrounding their central atoms. The theory is
also called as Gillespie-Nyholm theory after Ronald Gillespie and Ronald Nyholm who were the main
contributors to this theory.

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1.3. VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR)

THEORY
The VSEPR model which explains the shapes and geometries of polyatomic molecules is based on
Lewis model of molecular structures. This theory predicts the shape of molecule from the knowledge of
Lewis dot structures. In fact, the VSEPR theory relies on the tendency of the valence electron pairs
surrounding an atom to exert repulsion among each other and thereby adoption of geometrical
arrangement to minimize this repulsion. It is important to note that repulsion between two lone pairs is
stronger than that between a lone pair and a bonding pair of electrons, which in turn is stronger than the
repulsion between two bonding pairs of electrons. Hence, the VSEPR theory makes use of positions of
different atoms and electrons around a central atom. Complete positioning of bonded and lone electron
pairs of electrons determine the shape of the molecule. The final shape is deduced by ignoring the
position of lone electron pair of electrons. Although, the VSEPR theory can be applied for a variety of
compounds; nevertheless, it excellently explains geometry of simple halides of the p block elements. It
is also important to note that the VSEPR models do not take steric factors, i.e., bulkiness of substituent
around the central atom into account. Following are the general rules for determining VSEPR
geometries of a given molecule.
1. Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule for which geometry has to be evaluated.
2. Place the lone pairs (lp) and bonding pairs (bp) of electrons around the central atom.
3. Electron–electron repulsions decrease in the sequence: lone pair–lone pair (lp-lp) > lone pair–bonding
pair (lp-bp) > bonding pair–bonding pair (bp-bp).
4. If the central atom is connected to a surrounding atom by multiple bonds, then the electron–electron
repulsions decrease in the order: triple bond–single bond > double bond–single bond > single bond–
single bond.
Possible common shapes for a molecule or ion, ABn comprising of central atom A surrounded by n
atoms of B, are presented in Table 1.1.

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Table 1.1.Summary of possible geometry and shapes for simple molecules.
Coordination
Molecular
formula
number
Geometry
S. No.
(Bond Angle)
1 AB2 2
Linear (180°) Bent

2 AB3 3
Trigonal planar (120°) T shaped (180° / 90°) Trigonal pyramidal

3 AB4 4
Tetrahedral (109.5°) See-saw shaped Square planar (90°)

4 AB5 5
Trigonal bipyramidal Square pyramidal Pentagonal planar (72°)

(120° / 90°)
5 AB6 6
Octahedral (90°)
6 AB7 7
Pentagonal bipyramidal (90° / 72°)

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Few worked examples demonstrating distribution of electrons to minimize the electronic repulsion in
some selected molecules and the resultant molecular geometries are presented ahead (note that the
bonding pair of electrons, i.e., bp are depicted as solid lines or flying wedges):
1.3.1. Structure of beryllium chloride (BeCl2)
Beryllium chloride is a white colored hygroscopic solid substance with chemical formula BeCl2.
Beryllium chloride has two bonding pairs and no lone pair of electrons around the beryllium atom as
depicted in Figure 1.1. In order to minimize mutual repulsion, the bonding pairs of electrons orient far
from each other which results in the linear geometry of the molecule. As per VSEPR considerations, the
Cl-Be-Cl bond angle is 180°
Figure 1.1.The linear geometry of BeCl2 molecule.
1.3.2. Structure of boron trichloride (BCl3)
Boron trichloride is a colorless gas with chemical formula BCl3. This molecule has three bonding pairs
of electrons around the boron atom; hence, the molecule assumes trigonal planar geometry with Cl-B-Cl
bond angle of 120° (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2. The trigonal planar shape of BCl3 molecule
.1.3.3. Structure of water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4)

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Figure 1.3. Geometry and structural attributes of methane (left), ammonia (middle) and water (right).
Each of the water, ammonia and methane molecules has four electron pairs around the respective central
atom (Figure 1.3). However, the number of bonding and lone pairs of electrons is different. Methane
with four bonding pair of electrons has a tetrahedral geometry (H-C-H bond angle = 109.5°). Ammonia
has three bonding pairs and a lone pair of electron; therefore, the geometry reduces to trigonal
pyramidal. Since, the lp-bp repulsion is stronger than the bp-bp repulsion; therefore, H-N-H bond angles
of ammonia are contracted to 107°. In case of water, there are two lone pairs and two bonding pairs of
electrons which surround the oxygen atom. Therefore, the geometry of molecule reduces to bent shape
with H-O-H bond angle of 105°.
1.3.4. Structure of nitrate anion (NO3-)
The Lewis structure of nitrate anion is presented in Figure 1.4 where formal charge on the anion is
not depicted for the sake of clarity. Central nitrogen atom has one double bonded and two single bonded
oxygen atoms around it. There is no lone pair of electron present around nitrogen atom. Hence, VSEPR
theory suggests a trigonal planar geometry for nitrate ion (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4.The trigonal planar shape of NO3- anion.
1.3.5. Structure of phosphorous pentachloride (PCl5)
Phosphorous pentachloride molecule has five bonding pairs of electrons around phosphorous atom
and there is no lone pair of electrons on central atom. Therefore, VSEPR theory suggests the structure of
PCl5 to be trigonal bipyramidal (Figure 1.5).
Figure 1.5.The trigonal bipyramidal shape of PCl5 molecule.

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1.3.6. Structure of xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4)
The Lewis structure of xenon tetrafluoride suggests that there are four bonding pairs and two lone
pairs of electrons around the central xenon atom. Hence, the octahedral geometry for six coordinated
central atom reduces to square planar in case of XeF4 (Figure 1.6).
1.3.7. Limitations of VSEPR theory
The VSEPR theory makes general statements about molecular geometry which is very useful in
predicting the geometries of most of the molecules and ions. However, there are limitations to the theory
as the predicted structures does not corroborate with those established by physical characterizations in
some cases as discussed ahead.
1. IF7 and TeF7- are isoelectronic with seven bonding pairs of electrons around the respective central
atoms. Hence, VSEPR predicts pentagonal bipyramidal geometry for both of these structures. VSEPR
theory does not predict different bond distances for axial and equatorial positions in pentagonal
bipyramidal geometry. Physical characterization establishes that the axial bonds of these structures are
slightly shorter than the respective equatorial bonds. Additionally, the geometry of TeF7- in their
crystallographically characterized salts seems much distorted from the predicted pentagonal bipyramidal
geometry as the equatorial fluorine atoms are not coplanar.
2. VSEPR theory successfully predicts the geometry of simple p-block molecules but it is not
appropriate to predict structures of the d-block derivatives.
3. VSEPR theory does not take inert pair effect into account. Hence, it does not explain structures of
molecules derived from heavy elements of periodic table. Crystallographic analyses have revealed that
the species such as [SeCl6]2-, [TeCl6]2- and [BrF6]- possess regular octahedral geometry which is not
justifiable using VSEPR theory.

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1.4. WALSH DIAGRAMS

Walsh diagrams were first introduced by Prof. A.D. Walsh to rationalize the shapes adopted by
polyatomic molecules in the ground state as well as in excited states. Walsh diagrams are graphical
representations depicting the calculated orbital binding energies of a molecule plotted against bond
angles. These diagrams predict geometries of small molecules and explain why a given molecule is more
stable in certain geometry than the other. Walsh's rule states that a molecule will assume a structural
geometry which provides most stability to its highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO).
Walsh diagram is used to explain the regularity in the structures of related molecules having identical
number of valence electrons. For example, water (H2O) and sulphur dioxide (H2S) exhibit similar
structures. Walsh diagram also explains the change in geometry of molecules with the change in their
number of electrons or their spin state.
1.4.1. Walsh diagram for tri-atomic molecules
Simplified Walsh diagram for a triatomic molecule is depicted in Figure 1.7, which is energy
versus bond angle plot. It should be noted that the depicted energy levels are qualitative and for actual
system should be calculated by a suitable simulation. MO levels drawn on the left are for the bent
configuration with bond angle of 90° whereas those on right are for the linear configuration with bond
angle 180°.

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Figure 1.7. Simplified Walsh diagram for a tri-atomic molecule, AH2

The correlation lines joining the energy levels on left and right extreme depict the energy levels for bond
angle θ defined by the range 90° ≤ θ < 180°. The plot offers quick comparison of the energies for bent
and linear geometries with a given bond angle, θ. It is evident that the molecule prefers the geometry
with lower HOMO levels.
1.4.2. Walsh diagram for penta-atomic molecules
For penta-atomic molecule, an imaginary model AH4 can be considered which can assume a
tetrahedral or square planar geometry. Methane (CH4) and sulfur tetrafluoride (SF4) are the real
examples for such categories. For instance, for the formation of methane molecule one 2s and three 2p
orbitals of carbon and four 1s orbitals, one from each hydrogen atoms get involve in bonding. Above
mentioned eight orbitals result in four bonding and four antibonding orbitals out of which bonding
orbitals occupy all eight electrons involved in formation of molecule. In case of tetrahedral geometry,
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significant overlap between the orbitals of carbon and hydrogen is possible which reduces the energy of
bonding orbitals whereas in the square planar configuration the extent of overlap is very low which in
turn results in orbitals of considerably high energy as depicted in the Figure 1.8. Hence, the CH4
molecule prefers the tetrahedral geometry rather than the square planar or the intermediate distorted
geometries.
Figure 1.8. Simplified Walsh diagram for a methane like penta-atomic molecule, AH4
1.5. dπ-pπ BOND

Formation of inorganic molecules is different than that of organic molecules in many aspects, one
of which is the occurrence of dπ-pπ bonds. Generally, π bonds, as in case of organic molecules, formed
by lateral overlapping of p orbitals present on two atoms such as carbon, nitrogen or oxygen. Bonding
interactions between two d orbitals resulting in δ bonds in inorganic molecules are also prevalent.
However, bonding interactions in inorganic molecules can also make use of suitably available d and
porbitals at once. When a bond forms by lateral overlapping of p (or p*) and d orbitals present on two
different atoms, it is called dπ-pπ bond. Such bonds are frequently observed in metal complexes such as
carbonyls and nitrosyls. A simple example is sulfur trioxide (SO3). Main group compounds such as

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phosphine oxides and disiloxane can also feature the dπ-pπ bonds. Presence of dπ-pπ bonding
interactions usually result in shortening of bond length and planar configuration of involved atoms.
However, observing such molecular features should not always be attributed to dπ-pπ bonds as several
other factors may also be playing role. Hence, a careful evaluation of electronic and orbital symmetries
must be made.
Phosphine Oxide ( ) offers an example of dπ-pπ bond in molecules comprising of

nonmetallic elements (Figure 1.9). In this case, all the p orbitals present on phosphorous are utilized in
hybridization and hence, not available for lateral overlapping. Empty d orbital on phosphorous accepts
electron density from filled p orbital available with oxygen atom. This dπ-pπ bond causes tighter binding
of both involved atoms which is reflected in short bond distance (150 pm) and stability (bond energy
544 kJ/mol) of the bond.
Figure 1.9.dπ-pπ bond in phosphine oxide.
Bonding in metal carbonyls is classical example of dπ-pπ bond, where empty π* orbital present of
oxygen atom accepts electron density from the filled d orbital of metals which results in the increase in
bond order of metal-carbon bond (Figure 1.10).
Figure 1.10.dπ-pπ bond in a typical metal carbonyl system.

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1.6. BENT’S RULE AND ENERGETICS OF HYBRIDIZATION

Hybridization is the concept of mixing of atomic orbitals of different energy and shape to form same
number of new hybrid orbitals of equal energies. Hence, hybridization is the energy redistribution of
atomic orbitals realized by linear combination of atomic orbitals. As the orbital energies are of the order
of magnitude of bond energies, it is important tool to determine the structure of molecules. Bent's rule
relates the orbital hybridization of central atom in a molecule with the electronegativities of substituents
and was originally stated by Henry Bent as "Atomic s character concentrates in orbitals directed toward
electropositive substituents".
Students, you must recall that the ‘s’ orbital has lower energy than the ‘p’ orbital. Moreover, a
hybrid orbital having higher ‘s’ character has lower energy and ‘s’ orbital like shape. On the other hand,
higher ‘p’ character results in higher energy and ‘p’ orbital like shape of the hybrid orbitals. As the ‘s’
orbitals are closer to the atomic nuclei, it stabilizes the lone pair of electrons than the ‘p’ orbital does.
Hence, it is logical to say that more stable molecular model would allow the orbitals rich in ‘p’ character
for bonding purpose and those rich in ‘s’ character for accommodating the lone pairs of electrons. It can
also be stated that, electron density available on ‘s’ rich orbital is closer to the nuclei, hence, less
available for bonding. Therefore, electronegative substituents would withdraw electron density from ‘p’
rich orbitals than the ‘s’ like orbitals.
We can illustrate this using structure and bonding in PCl3F2. Formation of this molecule involves
mixing of one s, three p and one d orbitals to form five sp3d orbitals. The five hybrid orbitals are not
identical but can be grouped in set of two (axial) and three (equatorial) orbitals (Figure 1.11).
The equatorial set is resulted by the mixing of s, px and py orbitals whereas axial set is resulted by
the mixing of pz and d orbitals. Experimental evidences indicate that the fluorine and chlorine atoms in
PCl3F2 molecule are situated at axial and equitorial positions respectively, which is in agreement with
Bent’s rule.

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Figure 1.11. Position of substituents in PCl3F2 molecule (left) and the geometry of p-orbitals on phosphorous
(right).
Important implication of Bent’s rule and energetic of hybridization can be seen in the significant
difference in the bond angles of hydrides of group 15 or 16 elements. As presented in Table 1.2,
ammonia (hydride of first element in group 15) features a bond angle of 107.2°, whereas the hydrides of
subsequent elements down the group, i.e., P. As and Sb feature bond angles closer to 90°. Similar trend
can be observed for the group 16 hydrides.
Table 1.2. Formula and bond angles for group 15 and 16 hydrides.
S. Group 15 Bond angle Group 16 Bond angle

No. hydride hydride
1 NH3 107.2° OH2 104.5°
2 PH3 93.8° SH2 92°
3 AsH3 91.8° SeH2 91°
4 SbH3 91.3° TeH2 89.5°
The atomic sizes of P, As and Sb are large enough to accommodate three hydrogen atoms around
them without steric crowding. Hence, the atomic orbitals of these elements do not undergo energy
demanding hybridization while formation of respective hydrides. Thus, the lone pair of central atom in
these hydrides remains largely on s-orbital whereas s-orbitals of hydrogen atoms overlap with nearly
pure p-orbitals. On the contrary, the nitrogen being small in size, cannot accommodate three bonded
hydrogen atoms around it without steric crowding. Evidently, the steric reasons cost much energy in
case of ammonia to assume smaller bond angles than the energy required for hybridization. Hence, the
atomic orbitals on nitrogen undergo hybridization while formation of ammonia to result in bond angles
of 107.2°. Further, the shortening of bond angle from ideal value of 109.5° can be explained on the basis
of VSEPR theory. Similar arguments can explain the bond angle trend of group 16 hydrides.
1.7. SOME SIMPLE REACTIONS OF COVALENTLY BONDED

MOLECULES

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Inorganic reactions are different than the organic ones in many aspects including their structural
features. Organic reactions primarily involve sp, sp2 and sp3 hybridized carbon centres, therefore,
organic reactions usually deal with linear, trigonal planar and tetrahedral geometries. On the contrary,
inorganic molecules feature a variety of structural diversity. This poses much concerns pertaining to the
structural, configurational and dynamic changes in case of inorganic reactions. Therefore, this section
discusses two transformations involving structural changes in inorganic molecules. Subsequent reactions
are of environmental and industrial importance.
1.7.1. Atomic inversion
Atomic inversion in molecules is spatial rearrangement of atoms giving rise to the mirror image
products. Usually, the molecules involving tri-substituted N and P atoms, i.e., amines and phosphines
show such a phenomenon (Figure 1.12). It should be noted that the atomic inversion in non-chiral
molecules yields product identical to the starting substance. However, a dissymmetric molecule, gives
rise to a product with a molecular configuration that is a mirror image of that of the original molecule.
The energy barrier for atomic inversion in case for amines is usually so small that the isolation of
enantiomers cannot be affected.
Uttarakhand Open University Page 14
Figure 1.12. Atomic inversion around nitrogen and phosphorous atoms in dissymmetric amine and phosphine
molecules.
1.7.2. Berry pseudorotation

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Fluxional processes are dynamic molecular processes that interchange two or more chemically
and/or magnetically different groups in a molecule. Berry pseudorotation in case of phosphorous
pentafluoride (PF5) is classical example of fluxional processes in inorganic substances (Figure 1.13).
The Berry pseudorotation is a classical mechanism for interchanging axial and equatorial ligands in
molecules with trigonal bipyramidal geometry. PF5 is a trigonal bipyramidal molecule with D3h
symmetry. Therefore, bond angles and have the standard values of 120° and
180° respectively, where suffix ‘e’ and ‘a’ represent equatorial and axial positions. In the Berry
pseudorotation, the angle increases from 120° and the angle decreases from
180° at the same rate so that the final positions of equatorial and axial fluorine atoms mutually
exchanges. Therefore, the conversion of one trigonal bipyramidal form into other occurs through an
intermediate square pyramidal transition state. Any intermediate positions between complete flip of
axial and equatorial fluorine atoms are of higher energy, hence are not isolable. Symmetry
considerations suggest two separate peaks for equatorial and axial fluorine atoms of PF5 molecule.
19
However, at room temperature, the F-NMR spectrum offers a single peak for the molecule which
indicates that the frequency of Berry pseudorotation is higher than the NMR scale.
a ge
Figure 1.13. Schematic depiction of Berry pseudorotation in phosphorous pentafluoride.
Two trigonal bipyramidal form of PF5 interconvert via square pyramidal transition state. Note that both
axial and two of the originally equatorial fluorine atoms in the extreme left structure assume equatorial
and axial positions respectively, in the extreme right structure.
1.7.3. Lewis acid-Lewis base adduct formation
Lewis acid is a chemical species capable of accepting an electron pair in their empty orbital,
whereas a Lewis base is a species that has an orbital containing electron pair that can be donated to
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electron deficient species. Hence, Lewis acid can accept electron pair from a Lewis base to form a Lewis
adduct. For example, trialkylborane (Lewis acid) accepts electron pair from amines (Lewis base) to form
a Lewis adduct. The covalent bond between B and N atoms can also be considered as a dative bond.
1.7.4. Nucleophilic substitution reaction
Hydrolysis or solvolysis is a common reaction of inorganic substances which involves

neucleophilic substitution reactions. Hydrolysis of trimethylchlorosilane to yield trimethylsilanol is
presented below as an example in Figure 1.14. Note that the hydrolysis of a related bifunctional
compound, dimethyldichlorosilane is used to synthesize a polymeric silicone material.
Figure 1.14. Synthesis of trimethylsilanol by hydrolysis of trimethylchlorosilane.
1.7.5. Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixation is a very important reaction involving conversion of natural nitrogen, N2 (which
has a triple bond between two nitrogen atoms) into ammonia. The reaction takes place at ambient
temperature and 0.8 atm pressure of nitrogen in the Rhizobium bacteria found in the nodules on some
plant roots (legumes). The reaction and can be presented as follows:
The process of nitrogen fixation involves enzymatic catalysis which is not discussed in this book.
However, it should be noted that enzymatic processes are highly energy efficient chemical reactions in
which various enzymes act as catalysts. It is important to note that the Haber process, an industrial
procedure to synthesize ammonia requires high temperature, high pressure and an iron catalyst.
Qualitative comparison of nitrogen fixation and Haber process would allow you to assess the superiority

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of enzymatic processes which are not yet completely understood. The ammonia produced in above
reaction is used by plants for formation of essential building blocks of life such as amino acids.
1.7.6. Ozone-oxygen cycle
Ozone (O3) is found in the stratosphere in large quantities and keeps most of the Sun’s ultraviolet
radiation from reaching to the earth by absorbing it up there. Ozone molecules (O3) present in the
stratosphere photodissociate to yield oxygen atoms (O) and oxygen molecules (O2) upon absorption of
ultraviolet photons. Simultaneously, ultraviolet photons of appropriate energy also split oxygen
molecule (O2) into two atomic oxygen radicals (O). The atomic oxygen radicals (O.) combine with
oxygen molecules (O2) to regenerate ozone (O3). These cyclic processes continue to occur in
stratosphere and prevent the harmful ultraviolet radiations from reaching the atmosphere.
The above ozone-oxygen cycle terminates when an atomic oxygen radical (O) combines with ozone
molecule (O3) to yield two oxygen molecules (O2).
The cycle can be disrupted by other radicals such as hydroxyl radical (OH·), nitric oxide radical
(NO·), chlorine radical (Cl·) and bromine radical (Br·). The above reactions involve photochemical
disruption and formation of covalent bond between oxygen atoms in the discussed chemical species.
1.8. SUMMARY
This chapter had discussed some important concepts to understand the bonding and structure of
inorganic molecules. VSEPR theory offers a simple yet very useful concept to understand the geometry
of simple molecules. Walsh diagram and Bent’s rule are relatively intricate topics that complement
VSEPR theory towards complete understanding of structures of inorganic molecules. Lastly, some
important reactions of inorganic compounds had also been discussed in this unit. The discussion on
selected reactions not merely presents the chemical transformations but also touch upon the structural,
environmental and industrial importance of the same.
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1.9. TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.9.1. Reasoning based questions
1. Identify the shapes of the following molecules using concepts of VSEPR.
(a) ClF3
(b) PCl3
(c) IF7
(d)XeF2
2. Draw the Lewis dot structures for each of the following species.
(a) BH2–
(b) NI3
(c) CCl4
(d) SF5-
3. Arrange following in the decreasing order of bond angles:
4. What is the molecular geometry of NCl3?
5. Which one of the following is the correct bond angle between atoms adopting a trigonal planar
geometry?
(a) 90°
(b) 120°
(c) 109.5°
(d) 180°
1.9.2. Short answer type questions

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1. Write the statement of the Bent’s rule.
2. Write the name of geometry for a molecule with central atom having seven substituents.
3. Write full form of acronym, VSEPR.
4. Central atom in a molecule has two substituents and two lone pair of electrons. Discuss the bond
angle that you expect for molecule in question.
5. What are solvolysis reactions?
1.9.3. Long answer type questions
1. Discuss energetic of hybridization with suitable examples.zUttarakhand Open University
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2. Discuss structure of tetrachloromethane (CCl4) in light of the VSEPR theory.
3. Discuss the dπ-pπ bonding in case of a sulfur compound.
4. Why phosphine oxide exhibits shorter P=O bond length and high stability, explain.
5. Draw and discuss Walsh diagram for methane.
1.10. ANSWERS TO REASONING BASED QUESTIONS

1. Identify the shapes of the following molecules using concepts of VSEPR.
Answer:
(a) ClF3 …………………. T-shaped.
(Explanation: Chlorine trifluoride has 10 electrons around the central chlorine atom. This means there
are five electron pairs arranged in a trigonal bipyramidal shape with a 175° F-Cl-F bond angle. There are
two equatorial lone pairs making the final structure T-shaped.)
(b) PCl3 …………………….. trigonal pyramidal
(Explanation: Central phosphorous atom in PCl3 is sp3 hybridized having three bond pair and one lone
pair of electrons. Therefore, four electron pairs arranged in a tetrahedral shape and the final molecular
geometry of PCl3 is trigonal pyramidal.)
(c) IF7 ………………………… pentagonal bipyramidal

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(Explanation: Iodine heptafluoride, IF7, having seven bonding pairs around the iodine atom assumes a
pentagonal bipyramidal geometry.)
(d) XeF2 …………………………. linear
(Explanation: XeF2 has three lone pairs and two bonding pairs of electrons. Hence, the electronic
structure should assume trigonal bipyramidal geometry. The bonded pairs take the axial position,
whereas, the three lone pairs take equitorial position in the molecule in question. Hence, the molecular
geometry of XeF2 is linear.
2. Draw the Lewis Dot Structures for each of the following species.
Answer:
3. Arrange following in the decreasing order of bond angles:
Answer:
Explanation:
4. What is the molecular geometry of NCl3?
Answer: trigonal-pyramidal

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5. Which one of the following is the correct bond angle between atoms adopting a trigonal planar
geometry?
Answer: (b) 120°
1.11. REFERENCES AND FURTHER STUDIES

1. R. J. Gillespie, (2004), "Teaching molecular geometry with the VSEPR model", J. Chem.
Educ., 81 (3): 298-304
2. R. J. Gillespie, (2008). "Fifty years of the VSEPR model". Coord. Chem. Rev. 252: 1315-1327
3. Purcell, Kotz (1977), "Inorganic Chemistry", Holt-Saunders.
4. H. A. Bent, (1961), "An appraisal of valence-bond structures and hybridization in compounds of the
first-row elements", Chem. Rev., 61 (3): 275-311
5. Lehn, J. M. (1970), "Nitrogen Inversion: Experiment and Theory". Fortschr. Chem. Forsch. 15: 311-
377.
6. Frank Albert Cotton, Geoffrey Wilkinson, Carlos A. Murillo, (1999). Advanced Inorganic
Chemistry.
7. F.A. Cotton, (1990), "Chemical Applications of Group Theory", 3rd Ed. Wiley Interscience.
8. http://www.wiredchemist.com/chemistry/data/bond_energies_lengths.html
9. K. Frankcombe, K. Cavell, R. Knott, B. Yates, (1996), J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 781.
10. R.S. Berry, (1960), J. Chem. Physics, 32: 933-938.
11. M. Georgiadis, H. Komiya, P. Chakrabarti, D. Woo, J. J. Kornuc, D. C. Rees, (1992),
“Crystallographic structure of the nitrogenase iron protein from Azotobactervinelandii”, Science, 257:
1653-1659.
12. G. Tewari, (2018), “Inorganic Chemistry-I”, First Ed., S. Chand Publishers, Delhi.

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UNIT 2 PHOSPHORUS-NITROGEN AND SULFUR-

NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
CONTENTS
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Phosphazenes (phosphonitrilic compounds)
2.3 Cyclophosphazene
2.4 Structure and bonding in phosphazenes
2.4.1 Structure of (NPCl2)3
2.4.2 Structure of tetrameric phosphazenes
2.5 Uses of polyphosphazenes
2.6 Phosphorus-sulfur compounds
2.6.1 Significance
2.6.2 Synthesis
2.6.3 Synthesis of cage phosphorous sulfides
2.6.4 Structure of cage phosphorous sulfides
2.7 Sulfur nitrogen compounds
2.7.1 Significance
2.7.2 Synthesis
2.7.3 Structure and bonding
2.8 Summary

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2.9.3 Objective type questions
2.10. References and further studies
2.0. OBJECTIVES
Objectives of this unit are to introduce you with the synthesis, structure, bonding and some
applications of inorganic compounds of chalcogens (O and S) with their neighbouring group 15
members (N and P). The chapter will deal with phosphonitrilic (phosphorous-nitrogen), phosphorous-
sulfur and sulfur-nitrogen compounds. It will help to establish an understanding towards the structure
and bonding in these compounds.
2.1. INTRODUCTION
The phosphazenes (phosphonitriles) and sulfur-nitrogen compounds are an important class of
inorganic compounds which exhibit interesting structure and bonding. They may present cyclic
structural motifs which may be considered as inorganic aromatic analogues.
The reaction chemistry of these compounds is not less interesting than those of boranes. However, the
revelation of exact structures for some of the nitrogen sulfur compounds took over hundred years after
their discovery. The polymer SNx was first discovered in 1910 and further investigation revealed that it
comprises of only non-metallic elements and behaved as superconductor at 0.26 K. Such a discovery
fueled interest in (S‒N) chemistry. Their unique structure and properties continue to attract attention of
several theoretical chemists who have tried to look into the “aromatic character” of binary S‒N systems.
The reaction between phosphorous pentachloride and ammonia was described in 1834, the major
reaction product was phospham and a small quantity of compound containing, phosphorous, nitrogen
and chlorine was also obtained. Later the compound was designated as N3P3Cl6. This discovery led to
the advent of phophazene chemistry. They have several applications in material chemistry,
biochemistry, organic synthesis and polymer chemistry.

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2.2. PHOSPHAZENES (PHOSPHONITRILIC / P‒N COMPOUNDS)

The term phosphazene or phosphonitrile includes those compounds which have phosphorous and
nitrogen atom joined alternatively by single or double bonds. Overall, they may constitute a ring or a
chain motif in which nitrogen is trivalent and phosphorous is pentavalent. The empirical formula for
very first phosphazene N3P3Cl6 (white crystalline product obtained by reaction of ammonia with
phosphorous pentachloride) was derived after some errors. It was first considered to be NPCl2 but later
found out to be a trimer having a cyclic structure (proposed by H.N. Stokes). The trimer on heating
yielded an elastomer known as the “inorganic rubber”.
2.3. CYCLOPHOSPHAZENE
The cross linked ‘inorganic rubber ‘was formed by the reaction of [NPCl2]n with trace amounts of
H2O. Thus, if the reaction is carried out in the absolute absence of atmospheric moisture, non-cross-
linked and soluble macromolecules of [NPCl2]n could be prepared.
Reaction of organic nucleophiles with [NPCl2]n can result in the replacement of chlorine atom and hence
generate stable poly(organo)phosphazenes. A wide range of polymers with mixed substituents having
varied properties can be generated if two different nucleophiles are used on the same molecule
i. Poly(dichloro)phosphazene [NPCl2]n is a key precursor in the synthesis of almost all polymeric

phosphazenes (Scheme 1.1).
Scheme 1.1. Synthesis of polymeric phosphazenes

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ii. Macromolecular Substitution of [NPCl2]n
Commonly followed routes of macromolecular substitution to generate poly(organo)phosphazenes

are as depicted in Scheme 1.2.
Scheme 2.2. Synthesis of poly(organo)phosphazenes
iii. Ring opening polymerization of [NPCl2]3 (Scheme 2.3)
Scheme 2.3. Synthesis of cyclophosphazenes by ring opening reaction

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iv. Synthesis of poly(alkyl/aryl)phosphazenes
Poly(alkyl/aryl)phosphazenes, [NPR2]n, are those molecules which have an organic substituent

directly attached through a P–C bond (Scheme 2.4).
Scheme 2.4. Synthesis of poly(alkyl/aryl)phosphazenes
v. Synthesis of block copolymer
Macromolecular substitution of [NPCl2]n gives random copolymers due nonspecific nucleophilic

substitution of the chlorine atoms on the polyphosphazene backbone (Scheme 2.5). Block copolymers
have wider applications and considerable attention is given to their synthesis.
Scheme 2.5. Synthesis of polyphosphazene block copolymers

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2.4. STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN PHOSPHAZENES
Figure 2.1. Structure and bonding in phosphazenes
The P-N bonds are short in phosphazenes (ca. 1.58 Å) as compared to those in valence saturated
phosphazanes (ca. 1.77Å). These short bond lengths and absence of any significant alternation in bond
lengths in cyclic phosphazenes and to a lesser extent in polyphosphazanes indicates that these bonds are
of multiple bond character (Figure 2.1). Initially, Dewar gave the ‘island model’ according to which
delocalization occurs via dπP-pπN (3d of P and p of N) overlap resulting in an island of electron density
spread over P‒N‒P units with nodes over P centres. But now it is accepted that valence d orbitals do not
play a significant role in the bonding of the main group elements. Despite several other works and
theories (negative hyperconjugation or group theory analysis) on the structure and bonding in
hypervalent compounds, the island model still dominates the phosphazene literature.
2.4.1 Structure of (NPCl2)3
It has a planar six-membered ring. The bond angles are consistent with sp2 hybridization (118⁰ for
P‒N‒P) of nitrogen and sp3 hybridization of phosphorous (108⁰ for Cl‒P‒Cl angle). See Figure 2.2
below in which all bond lengths are reported in angstrom (Å) unit. Two of the sp2 hybrid orbitals of
nitrogen lone pair of electrons. Thus, the remaining one electron is left in the unhybridized pz orbital.
Figure 2.2. Structural details of (NPCl2)3

Page 27
In case of phosphorous, the four sp3 hybridized orbitals accommodate four electrons and are used in σ
bonding. The remaining one (fifth) electron occupies a vacant d orbital. The resonance structures similar
to benzene can also be drawn for (NPCl2)3. However, the nature of bonding here does not follow the
same resonancedelocalization and aromaticity in these inorganic cyclic molecules has been a matter of
debate since long. Despite the presence of delocalization in some phosphazenes, not all molecules
maintain the planarity of ring. This factor does not make them unstable. The ultra violet spectra of
phosphazenes does not show structural features similar to those of aromatic organic compounds and also
it is very difficult to reduce their unsaturated bonds. Furthermore, unlike benzene, the π bonds in
cyclophosphazene have contribution from both p and d orbitals. Several theories have been suggested
for the dπ-pπ bonding. Some of them are discussed below.
a) Craig and Paddock model: The overlap between dxz (gerade) orbital of phosphorous with pz
(ungerade) orbital of nitrogen results in a node due to mismatch in the orbital symmetry and signs of the
wave function. The dyz orbital which is perpendicular to the dxz orbital can overlap with the pz orbital of
nitrogen without any nodal surface. Apart from these, there may be π bonding between the nonbonding
sp2 hybrid orbital of nitrogen and dxy or dx2-y2 orbitals of phosphorous (Figure 2.3, a-d).
Figure 2.3. Craig and Paddock model of (NPCl2)3 structure

Page 28
b) Dewar and Coworkers model: As mentioned earlier, they proposed the ‘island model’. It suggested
that the dxz and dyz orbitals hybridized to give two hybridized orbitals which are oriented towards the
adjacent nitrogen atoms. This gives three centre bonds (P-N-P) about each nitrogen atom having
delocalization of electron density over them. Nodes are present over each phosphorous atom because it’s
two hybrid orbitals are orthogonal to each other (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4. Dewar model of phosphazenestructure
2.4.2 Structure of tetrameric phosphazenes
Tetrameric phosphazenes have a more flexible structure than their trimeric analogues. They may
have a planar structure or tub, boat, chair, crown and saddle conformations. The presence of a definite
structure is not very obvious, intermolecular forces play a major role in any structure. The structure of
(NPF2)4 is planar and (NPCl2)4 is known to exist in two forms. The most stable is the ‘chair form’ also
called as the T form (Figure 2.5). The other form has a tub conformation. The nonplanar structures do
not prevent extensive delocalization in the rings. Organic analogue of tetrameric phosphazene is the
cyclooctatetraene. It is a nonaromatic compound because of lack of planarity and secondly, it does not
obey the Hückel’s rule of (4n+2)π electrons. Huckle’s rule was formulated on pπ-pπ bonding and hold
well for organic compounds having n=1 to n=4. Now, these inorganic compounds do not hold organic
rules for aromaticity. Here, the d orbitals are involved which overrules the Hückel’s rule. The diffused
nature of d orbitals is suitable for bonding in nonplanar systems providing greater flexibility to the ring.

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Figure 2.5. Conformations of tetrameric phosphazenes
2.5. USES OF POLYPHOSPHAZENES
Small changes in the substituents attached can lead to significant changes in the polymer
properties. Polyphosphazenes have wide range of applications, such as high performance elastomers due
to chain flexibility and high thermal stability. They are used as flame retardants due to their side chain
functionality and limiting oxygen indices. Nowadays, they are being explored for such far reaching
applications as vaccine delivery, fuel cell membranes, matrices for tissue engineering, drug and gene
delivery etc.
Hexachlorotriphosphazene (HCCP): A significant amount of work has been done in the preparation of
novel materials and those having high molecular weight by using HCCP, [NPCl2]3 by coupling the rings
with multifunctional nucleophiles. The covalent linkage in HCCP can be used to prepare cyclolinear,
cyclomatrix or dendritic structures. In the synthesis of cyclolinear structures, only two reactive sites are
used out of the six available in cyclic [NPCl2]3 unit. Reaction of more than two sites leads to cross-link
or cyclomatrix materials.

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Figure 2.6. Formation of cyclomatrix phosphazenes
2.6. PHOSPHORUS-SULFUR COMPOUNDS
2.6.1. Significance
There is much attention directed towards the synthesis of multidentate ligands having different
donor atoms and the concept of hemilability. The presence of one strong donor (strongly bonding) and
other weak donor (weakly bonding) atom in a molecule finds application in protecting an active site at
the metal centre. These molecules serve as interesting ligand systems due to their donor properties which
may be altered through chelation. The chelate complexes are quite stable and so, the reactivity of a metal
centre for a particular reaction (eg. oxidative addition) can be studied without competing ligand
substitution reactions. The P-S compounds are less stable than their oxy-analogues and have lower
melting points. They are used as insecticides, lubricating oil additives, flotation and vulcanization
accelerators.

Page 31
2.6.2 Synthesis
Oxygen atoms from phosphorous oxides can be partially or wholly substituted with sulphur atoms
to give thio-phosphorous compounds. These may have S as a bridging atom or at terminal positions.
P4S10 and P4S9 are isoelectronic and isostructural with phosphorous oxides. P4S3 and P4S7 can be
obtained by using the appropriate stoichiometric quantities of P and S (Scheme 2.6).
Scheme 2.6. Synthesis of phosphorus-sulfur compounds
2.6.3. Synthesis of cage phosphorous sulfides (Scheme 2.7)
Scheme 2.7. Synthesis of cage phosphorous sulfides

Page 32
2.6.4. Structure of cage phosphorous sulfides

Molecular structures of some phosphorous sulfides (P4S10, P4S5, P3S3, α and β-P4S4) along with
some significant bond distances are shown in Figure 2.7. These are prepared from P4 and sulphur atoms
which are located at the edges. All distances are reported in angstrom (Å) unit.
Figure 2.7. Structures of some cage phosphorous sulfides

Page 33
2.7. SULFUR NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
2.7.1 Significance
The electron rich (SN)X compounds can serve as donors in charge transfer complexes and unlike
phosphonitriles, the cyclic (SN)X compounds follow Hückel’s rule of aromaticity. These factors have
attracted much interest to their synthesis, bonding and exploration of their overall chemistry. The S-N
compounds have been explored for their bonding with transition metals and also for their magnetic and
conducting properties.
A variety of acyclic and cyclic S-N compounds are known. S2N2, even though a strained structure,
is the smallest homoleptic ring known to exist. It is the most important precursor for the synthesis of
several polythiazyl (SN)X.
The synthesis, structure and bonding of some of these compounds is given in Scheme 2.8.
Scheme 2.8. Synthesis of sulfur nitrogen compounds
Reaction of silver metal at high temperature and low pressure with S4N4 results in thermal
decomposition and formation of silver sulfide which catalyses the conversion of remaining S 4N4 to give
cyclic S2N2 (Scheme 2.9).

Page 34
Scheme 2.9. Synthesis of strained molecule S2N2
S2N2 dimerizes rapidly into S4N4 in the presence of nucleophiles (Scheme 2.10).
Scheme 2.10. Reactions of sulfur nitrogen compounds
Some S‒N compounds show planar ring structure. It has been found that they follow Hückel’s rule
of (4n+2)π electrons. If we consider that in these planar cyclic S‒N compounds each atom contributes
one electron to the σ bond and two electrons to a lone pair, then sulfur has two π electrons and nitrogen
has one π electron. Or we can also explain the electron distribution as follows. At each S‒N unit, two
electrons are allocated for sigma bonds and two electrons for each S and N atom for non-bonding lone
pairs. Thus, one electron at N at two electrons at S are left which can be used in the cyclic π-system of
the ring.
Considering these electron’s distribution, we can say that S2N2 has 6π electrons; S3N3¯ has 10π
electrons; S4N3+ has 10π electrons and S5N5+ has 14π electrons.
However, in contrast to the stable π-organic molecules, the S‒N compounds mentioned above
have electrons in the antibonding (π*) molecular orbitals which has a weakening effect on S‒N bond.
The stability of these compounds can be ascribed to the following factors:

Page 35
(a) The higher electronegativity of nitrogen compared to sulfur or oxygen lowers the energy of
antibonding (π*) orbitals thus bringing them closer to bonding region.
(b) The longer S‒N bond lengths reduces the mutual repulsion between any other pair of electrons, this
lowers the energy of the π-system.
i) Disulfur dinitride (S2N2): It is cyclic square planar molecule with S‒N bond length of 1.65Å. The
N‒S‒N angle is 89.6° while the S‒N‒S angle is 90.4° (Figure 2.8).
ii) Trisulfur trinitride anion (S3N3¯): The structure of [nBu4N]+[ S3N3-] is well established. It has a
planar six membered ring with S‒N bond length in the range 1.58-1.63Å (Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8. Structures of some Sulfur Nitrogen Compounds
iii) Tetrasulfur tetranitride (S4N4): Cradle shape structure belonging to point group D2d (Figure 2.9).

Page 36
Figure 2.9. Structures of geometrical features of S4N4 and S4N4F4
iv) Tetrasulfur dinitride (S4N2): It has a nonplanar ring structure (Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.10. Structures of geometrical features of S4N2
2.8. SUMMARY
This chapter had discussed the important concepts to understand the bonding and structure of
some interesting inorganic molecules. Here, we learnt that these class of compounds play an important
role in the synthesis of several useful polymeric materials. The P-N and S-N compounds have unique
chemistry and bonding and are still an area of active research where new compounds have been
synthesized and their structures have been studied. The P-N compounds do not obey Hückel’s rule for
aromaticity while even though the S-N compounds follow this rule yet cannot be compared to the
aromatic organic compounds.

Page 37

Q1. What are phosphonitrilic compounds? Discuss synthesis of cyclophosphazenes.
Q2. Discuss bonding in phosphazenes. Explain the Dewar model in this regard.
Q3. Write a note on hexachlorotriphosphazene discussing its synthesis, structure and uses.
Q4. Explain bonding in S-N compounds explaining why they are not true aromatic compounds.
Q1. Give reaction for the synthesis of poly(alkyl/aryl)phosphazene.
Q2. Draw the structure of (NPCl2)3showing important bond lengths and bond angles.
Q3. What are the two conformations adopted by (NPCl2)4? Draw their structures.
Q4. Give synthesis and structure of α and β forms of P4S4.
Q5. Give reactions for synthesis of S4N4 and S4N2.
Q6. Draw the structure of S4N4 showing important bond angles and bond lengths.
2.9.3. Objective type questions
Q1. The two conformations of (NPCl2)4 are:
a) Boat and chair (b) crown and chair (c) saddle and tub (d) Tub and chair
Q2. Inorganic benzene is an aromatic compound. True or False?
Q3. Phosphazenes are aromatic but S-N compounds are non-aromatic. True or False?
Q4. Phosphazenes are non-aromatic because they:
(a) are non-planar (b) do not follow Huckle’s rule (c) they are not cyclic (d) none of the above
Q5. Some S-N compounds even though planar are not aromatic because they:
(a) lack delocalization (b) do not follow Huckle’s rule (c) they are not cyclic (d) have electrons in
antibonding (π*) orbitals
Answers: Objective type questions
Q1. (d)
Q2. False
Q3. False
Q4. (b)
Q5. (d)
Page 38

1. W. L. Jolly, (1972), "The Structures of Sulfur-Nitrogen Compounds”, Advances in Chemistry,
Chapter 6, pp. 92-102.
2. J. E. Huheey, E. A. Keiter, R. L. Keiter, (1993), “Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and

Reactivity”, fourth ed., HarperCollins College Publishers, New York.
3 . R. Gleiter, (1981), "Preparation of polyphosphazenes-molecular orbital considerations, Angew”.

Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 20: 444-452.
4. R. Rothemund, I. Teasdale, (2013), "Structure and bonding in cyclic sulfur-nitrogen compounds: a

tutorial review" Chem. Soc. Rev., 45: 5200-5215.
5. R. A. Shaw, B. W. Fitzsimmons, B. C. Smith, (1962), “The phosphazenes (phosphonitrilic

compounds), Chem. Rev., 62(3): 247-281.

Page 39
UNIT 3 ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS OF ALKALI

AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS
CONTENTS
3.1 Objective
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Organometallic compounds of Li and Na
3.3.1Synthesis of organolithium and organosodium compounds
3.3.2Structure and properties of organolithium compounds
3.3.3Properties and uses of organolithium
3.4 Organometallic compounds of Mg: synthesis, properties, structure, bonding and uses
3.4.1 Synthesis of organomagnesium compounds
3.4.3Reactions and uses of Grignard reagents
3.5 Summary
3.7.1 Multiple choice type questions

Page 40
3.1. OBJECTIVES
Objectives of this unit are to introduce you with synthesis, properties, structure, bonding and uses
of organometallic compounds of alkali and alkali earth metals. Each organometallic compound with its
special reactivity, method of synthesis and uses has been described. Their structure bonding relationship
has also been provided subsequently. At the end of this unit, students will be able to understand their
reactivity and structure along with their uses.
3.2. INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an introduction to the large area of organometallic chemistry of alkali and
alkali earth metals. In an organometallic compound, one or more metal carbon bonds are present. The
stability, reactivity and structural properties of each compound depend on periodic properties of the
respective metal.
3.3. ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS OF Li AND Na
3.3.1. Synthesis of organolithium and organosodium compounds
Organolithium compounds having particular importance among the group I organometallics and
may be synthesized by the treatment of an organic halide with lithium (Figure 3.1) or by following the
metallation reactions using n[butyllithium in presence of hydrocarbon (e.g. hexane) as a solvent.

Page 41
Figure 3.1. Synthesis of organolithium compounds
Organolithium can also remove halogen from alkyl and aryl halides proceeding via halogen-metal
exchange as depicted in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2. Synthesis of organolithium compounds
Organic compound having active hydrogen such as acetylic hydrogen form salt with alkali metals.
Figure 3.3. Synthesis of sodium salts of organic compounds possessing active hydrogen.
Organolithium compounds are more stable than other heavier group alkali metal organo
compounds. Sodium and potassium form paramagnetic organometallic compound with many aromatic
compounds. This is because of the oxidation of metal in presence of aromatic compound.
3.3.2. Structure and properties of organolithium compounds
Alkyl lithium compounds are polymeric both in solid state and in solution. In a (RLi)4 tetramer,
the Li atoms form a tetrahedral unit in ethers, while in case of a (RLi)6 hexamer, the Li atoms define an
octahedron. Weiss et al. showed that in the structure of (MeLi)4; the average Li-Li bond length is 261pm
compared with 267pm in Li2. It was also established that in the structure of the Li6C6-core of (LiC6H11)6
(C6H11 ¼ cyclohexyl); six Li-Li bond distances lie in the range 295-298pm, while the other six bonds
are significantly shorter (238–241pm). The presence of such aggregates in the solution is determined by
multinuclear NMR spectroscopy. As the organolithium compounds contain a carbon-metal bond, the
polarity of a covalent bond between two different elements can be determined by electro negativity

Page 42
difference between them. More the electronegative an element, more it attracts electron density. By
virtue of this, partial negative charge remains effective in more electronegative element while partial
positive charge remains in electropositive element. In organolithium compounds, the difference in
electronegativity is 1.5 as depicted in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4. Depiction of electronegativity of carbon and lithium.
Molecular orbital energy level diagram depicted in Figure 3.5 represents the C-Li bond having
electron density towards more electronegative carbon having less energy are in its atomic orbital. The C-
Li sigma bond is closer to energy of sp3 hybrid orbital of carbon while sigma anti bonding orbital is
closer to 2s orbital of lithium.
Figure 3.5. MO diagram of CH3Li
3.3.3. Properties and uses of organolithium
Organometallics are very reactive and need to be kept free from moisture. Organometallics act as
base and easily get protonated even in the air (Figure 3.6).

Page 43
Figure 3.6. Protonation of organolithium compound.
Organolithium compounds are of great importance as synthetic reagents. Alkyls and aryls
organolithium are used to synthesize to organoboron compounds from boron trihalides having similar
reactions with other p-block halides (e.g. SnCl4) (Figure 3.7).
Figure 3.7. Synthesis of organoboron compound from organolithium compound.
Lithium alkyls are important catalysts in the synthetic rubber industry for the stereospecific
polymerization of alkenes. Metal derivatives of alkynes can react with carbonyl and water to give
alcohols (Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.8. Use of organolithium compound in rubber industry.
Oraganolithium has advantage over Grignard reagents because Grignard reagents fail to react with
highly hindered carbonyl compounds but organolithium reacts normally with such compounds (Figure
3.9).

Page 44
Figure 3.9. Reaction of organolithium compound at highly hindered reaction site.
Addition with ketene and isocyanates give ketone and amide respectively (Figure 3.10).
Figure 3.10. Use of organolithium compound for synthesis of ketone and amide.
3.4. ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS OF Mg: SYNTHESIS,

PROPERTIES, STRUCTURE, BONDING AND USES
3.4.1. Synthesis of organomagnesium compounds
Organomagnesium halides were discovered by the French chemist Victor Grignard in 1900.
Synthesis of Grignard reagents can be done by reacting magnesium and alkyl halides in ether solvents to
form solutions of alkylmagnesium halide (Figure 3.11).

Page 45
Figure 3.11. The synthesis of Grignard reagents.
3.4.2. Structure and bonding
The Grignard reagent only observed as dimer. R2Mg Can be observed only in solid state when R is
bulky (e.g. Mg{C(SiMe3)3}2 .Grignard reagents are generally solvated, and crystal structure data shows
that the Mg centre is typically tetrahedrally sited, for example, in EtMgBr.2Et2O. Examples of 5- and 6-
coordination have been observed where the macrocyclic ligand imposes the higher coordination number
on the metal centre. Solutions of Grignard reagents may contain several species, e.g. RMgX, R2Mg,
MgX2, RMg(m-X)2MgR, which are further complicated by solvation.
3.4.3. Reactions and uses of Grignard reagents

It can act as base to by deprotonating alkynyl proton (Figure 3.12).
Figure 3.12. Basic character of Grignard reagent.
The metal derivative of alkynes can be added to carbonyl double bond; which upon hydrolysis
give corresponding alcohols (Figure 3.13).

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Figure 3.13. Reaction of RMgX with ketone.
Similarly, Grignard reagent gives addition product with carbon dioxide which upon hydrolysis
gives corresponding acid (Figure 3.14).
Figure 3.14. Reaction of RMgX with carbon dioxide.
Grignard reagents do not react normally with hindered carbonyl compounds (Figure 3.15).
Figure 3.15. Steric hindrance prevents the reaction of bulky RMgX reagents with bulky substrates.
Addition to ketene and isocyanates give ketone and amide respectively (Figure 3.16).

Page 47
Figure 3.16. Reaction of RMgX reagents with isocyanate and ketene.
3.5. ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS OF BERYLLIUM AND

CALCIUM
Beryllium alkyls and aryls are made by reaction of organopotassium with beryllium chloride in
ether medium. They are hydrolysed by water and inflame in air. In the vapour phase, Me2Be is
monomeric, with a linear C-Be-C unit having Be-C bond distance of 170 pm. The solid-state structure is
polymeric. However, the bonding in BeCl2 can be described in terms of a localized bonding scheme,
there are insufficient valence electrons available in (Me2Be)n for an analogous bonding picture. Hence,
3c-2e bonds are predicted as described for BeH2 (Figure 3.17). Higher alkyls are progressively
polymerized to a lesser extent, and the tert-butyl derivative is monomeric under all conditions.
Beryllium forms a ferrocene like sandwich compound with pi-electron rich ligands such as
cyclopentadiene (Figure 3.18).
Figure 3.17. Structure of organoberyllium compounds.

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Figure 3.18. η5 and η1 modes of bonding in sandwich type organoberyllium compounds.
The heavier group 2 metals are highly electropositive, and metal-ligand bonding is generally
considered to be predominantly ionic. While Cp2Be and Cp2Mg are monomeric and are soluble in
hydrocarbon solvents, Cp2Ca, Cp2Sr and Cp2Ba are polymeric and are insoluble in ethers and
hydrocarbons.
3.6. SUMMARY
This chapter discussed some important concepts to understand the bonding and structure and uses
of organometallic compounds of Li, Na, Mg, Be, and Ca. Synthesis structure bonding and uses of all
individual compounds have been discussed.
3.7.1. Multiple choice type questions
1. Which of the following compound is most covalent?
(a) CH3Li
(b) CH3Na
(c) CH3K
2. Which of the following compound is most reactive towards moisture?
(a) CH3Li
(b) CH3Na
Page 49
(c) CH3K
3. The colour of sodium naphthalene is?
4. Oraganolithium compounds are prepared inwhich solvent?
1. Write a short note on structure and properties of organolithium.
2. Draw MO diagram of methyl lithium.
3. Why organometalic compound kept moisture free.
4. Why oraganometallic compound of Na and K are paramagnetic in nature.
5. Why organometallic compound of Na and K are colourful.
6. Draw the structure of Cp2Mg
7. Why the σ bonding electrons are closer to sp3 hybrid orbitals of carbon.
8. Draw the structure of (MeLi)4.
9. Metalation reaction is carried in which solvent?
1. Discuss the synthesis, structure, MO diagram and uses of organolithium.
2. Discuss the synthesis, structure and reactions of Grignard reagents.
3. Complete the following reactions.

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3.8. ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following compound is most covalent.
Answer:
(a) CH3Li
(Explanation: The electropositive character increasing as Li<Na<K so K form most ionic compound
2. Which of the following compound is most reactive towards moisture?
Answer: CH3K
(Explanation: The electropositive character increasing as Li<Na<K so K form most ionic compound.
Further reactivity of organometallic compounds as nucleophile and as base depends mainly on
electropositive character of C-M bond. Thus, more will be electropositive character higher will be the
reactivity of organometallic compounds.
3. The colour of sodium naphthalene is:
Answer: Blue
Explanation: This is because of more electropositive character of Na because Na easily give its electron
to benzene and act as base to form ionic adduct which is colourful.
4. Oraganolithium compounds are prepared inwhich solvent?
Answer: (d) both b & C
Explanation: This is because Organolithium compounds highly basic in nature and are very reactive
with water to give back reaction.

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1. C. E. Housecroft, A. G. Sharpe, C. E. Housecroft, (2007). “Inorganic chemistry”, Prentice Hall, Harlow.
2. E. Weiss et al., (1990), Chem. Ber., 123: 79.
3. K.W. Nugent et.al., (1984), Aust. J. Chem., 37: 1601.
4. J. Singh, L.D.S. Yadav, (2019), “Organic Synthesis”, Pragati Prakashan.
5. Gary L. Miessler, Donald A. Tarr, (2004), “Inorganic Chemistry”, Pearson Education.

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UNIT 4 ALKYLS AND ARYLS OF TRANSITION METALS
CONTENTS
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Transition metal alkyls and aryls
4.3.1 Stability and Bonding
4.3.2 Alkyls of early transition metals
4.3.2.1 β-elimination
4.3.2.2 Stable alkyls: blocking β-elimination
4.3.3. Agostic alkyls
4.3.4 Reductive elimination
4.3.5 Halide elimination
4.3.6 Stability from bulky substituents
4.4 Synthesis of metal alkyls
4.4.1 Metathesis
4.4.2 Electrophilic attack on metal
4.4.3 Alkene Insertion or hydrometallation
4.4.4 Oxidative Addition
4.4.5 Insertion
4.5 Organocopper compounds in organic synthesis
4.5.1 Synthesis of organocopper reagents
4.5.1.1 Gilman reagent
4.5.1.2 Synthesis of homocuprate reagents
4.5.1.3 Synthesis of heterocuprate reagents
4.5.1.4 Higher order organocuprate reagents (Lipshutz reagents)
4.5.2 Uses of organocuprates
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4.5.2.1 Substitution of alkyl halides

4.5.2.2 Substitution of allylic halides
4.5.2.3 Acylation
4.5.2.4 Epoxide cleavage reactions
4.6 Summary
4.8 Answers
4.1. OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are to introduce you with the synthesis, properties, structure, bonding
and uses of organometallic compounds of transition metals. Each organometallic compound with its
special reactivity, method of synthesis and uses has been described. You will understand the role played
by ligands in stabilizing the organometallic compounds and certain factors which destabilize these
compounds.
4.2. INTRODUCTION
Organometallic chemistry is the chemistry of compounds containing metal-carbon bonds. Metal
carbonates and metal carboxylates are not counted as organometallic compounds because they do not
have metal-carbon bonds. Metal cyanides and metal carbides have metal-carbon bond but they are not
organic compounds so not considered as organometallic compounds. The organometallic chemistry of
the d and f blocks has been developed much more recently. In nineteenth century, few d-block
organometallic compounds were synthesized and partially characterized. One example is prepared by
W.C. Zeise in 1827, with the first metal carbonyls. Later on in 1868, [PtCl2(CO)2] being reported by P.
Schutzenberger. The next major discovery was tetracarbonylnickel, which was synthesized by L. Mond,
C. Langer, and F. Quinke in 1890. The discovery of the remarkably stable organometallic compound
ferrocene, Fe(C5H5)2, occurred in 1951 when IR and NMR techniques were available. The ‘sandwich’

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structure of ferrocene was soon correctly inferred from its IR spectrum and then determined
unambiguously by X-ray crystallography.
In general, the distinctions between the coordination compounds and organometallic compounds
are: 1. Coordination complexes normally are charged, with variable d-electron count, and are soluble in
water; 2. While organometallic compounds are often neutral, with fixed d-electron count, and are
soluble in organic solvents such as tetrahydrofuran. Most organometallic compounds have properties
that are much closer to organic compounds than inorganic salts, with many of them having low melting
points.
Metal alkyls and aryls are very simple organometallic compounds. Their transition metal complexes
came to be known somewhat later.
4.3. TRANSITION METAL ALKYLS AND ARYLS

Metal alkyls are formed by bonding between metal and alkyl radicals however, metal aryls are
formed by bonding between metal ion and aryl radical. Transition metal alkyls play an important role in
numerous organic synthesis reactions. Lithium alkyl compounds are one of the most widely used
organic reagents. The advent of organometallic chemistry was rather dramatic when a cadet accidently
synthesized very foul smelling Me2As-O-AsMe2 from As2O3 and CH3COOK. In another incident
Edward Frankland wanted to synthesize free ethyl radicals from metallic zinc and ethyl iodide.
However, instead of the desired radicals, he obtained a colorless liquid which was found out to be
diethyl zinc. Thus, ZnEt2 is the first organometallic compound synthesized and Frankland is known as
the father of organometallic chemistry. Later it was Victor Grignard who discovered alkyl magnesium
halide (RMgX) compounds and known as the Grignard reagent.
4.3.1. Stability and bonding
The stability and reactivity of a metal complex depends on the number and type of coordinating
ligands. The ligands can bind to metal in various bonding modes. They may be only sigma donor type or
if they are capable of forming multiple bonds, they may be σ donor/π acceptor type. Alkyls can also
bridge two metals centres which is well established in Al alkyl complexes, eg. Al2Me6. The various
bonding modes in metal alkyls are depicted in Figure 4.1 below.

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Figure 4.1. Various bonding modes in metal alkyls
On the basis of their stability and the phenomenon leading to their decomposition, metal alkyls can
be classified under following heads and their salient features are also discussed.
4.3.2. Alkyls of early transition metals
Alkyls of early transition metals such as Ti or Zr are very air and moisture sensitive but moving
right and down the periodic table, the M‒C bond becomes much stable and less reactive. The overall
stability of the alkyl complexes also depends upon the inherent stability of the alkyl group attached. For
example, as we move from sp3 CH3- to sp2 C6H5- to sp hybridized RC≡C-; the lone pair of the anion is
stabilized by increasing ‘s’ character and hence, reactivity decreases.
Much difficulty was found in the synthesis of stable transition metal complexes with d block
metals as compared to the main group metal alkyl complexes. It was found that the difficulty arose from
the existence of several decomposition pathways which made the M‒C bond in transition metal-alkyls
unstable. Since, the metal carbon bond in these compounds are strong enough having E = 30-65
kcal/mol, the instability might be due to kinetic factors rather than thermodynamic factors. Thus, if we
know the factors causing thermodynamic instability, they can be countered by making certain changes in
the structure of the organometallic complex. This is much easier to handle than increasing the bond
strength if the instability was due to kinetic factors. Here, we first discuss the factors causing
thermodynamic instability in these complexes.
4.3.2.1. β-Elimination
β-Elimination is the major factor behind the decomposition of metal alkyls into hydridometal
alkene complex. For β-elimination to occur, the following conditions should be fulfilled:
i) The β-carbon of the complex should bear a β-hydrogen substituent.

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ii) The orientation of the M‒C‒C‒H should be nearly coplanar so that the β-hydrogen is in proximity
with the metal atom.
iii) The metal should have a vacant site for interacting with the hydrogen atom. The term vacant site has
a wider meaning than simply implying at the gap in the coordination sphere of the metal atom to
accommodate the incoming ligand. The metal must also have an empty orbital to accept the β-H or to
say a pair of electrons which will make up the β C‒H bond. So, the product alkene hydride has 2e- more
than the alkyl starting material.
iv) The phenomenon of β-elimination is found to be more prominent in case of d2 system than in d0 and
main group metal alkyls.
Factors (i) and (iii) play an important role in the generation of metal hydride from metal alkyl. Thus, the
overall geometry should be such that the vacant site on the metal should be cis to the -R group on the
metal and M‒C‒C‒H in the ligand should be coplanar. The mechanism is concerted that is the breaking
C‒H bond and formation of M‒C and M‒H bonds occur simultaneously (Scheme 4.1).
Scheme 4.1. Schematic reperesentation of β elimination
Some main group alkyls also show elimination but the process is much slow. This is because the
d-block metals stabilize the transition state. Sometimes β-elimination can be reversible as shown in
example below (Figure 4.2).

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Figure 4.2. Nb complex as an example of reversible β-elimination
4.3.2.2. Stable alkyls: blocking β-elimination
To have stable transition metal alkyls, the phenomena of β-elimination can be blocked by
following ways;
1. Using alkyls having no β-hydrogen. Examples: W(Me)6, Ti(CH2Ph)4, Pt(C≡CCF3)2L2,

TaCl2(CH2CMe3)3, C2F5Mn(CO)5 etc.
2. Alkyls in which β-hydrogen is unable to reach the metal centre due to the bulk of the ligand or the
geometry of the ligand is such that it hinders proximity between β-hydrogen and metal. eg.
PtH(C≡CH)L2, PdPh2L2, Cr(CMe3)4, Cr(CHMe2)4
3. Alkyls having structure such that the M‒C‒C‒H unit cannot become syn-coplanar.
4. Metal alkyl having 18 electrons with firmly bound ligands (see cobalt complex below) will not
dissociate easily to generate an open coordination site and hence, the phenomena of β-elimination can
not occur. In the Ti(IV) complex as depicted below, there are no d electrons that is d0 configuration at
the metal centre makes β-elimination extremely slow (Figure 4.3).

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Figure 4.3. Co complex,example of an 18 electron system; Ti(IV) complex example of a d0 system
4.3.3. Agostic alkyls
Intramolecular interaction (weak bonding) of C‒H proton with metal centre is known as agostic
interaction. In certain metal alkyl complexes, it appears that β-elimination should occur however, they
do not undergo the process. One such example is the Ti(PMe2)2(CH2CH3)Cl3. Here, the β C-H bond
appears to approach the metal effectively for β-elimination but the reaction does not occur. It happens
because d0 Ti has no electron density for back donation into σ* orbital of the C‒H bonds. This back
donation is important for breaking C‒H bond similar to the process of oxidative addition. Agostic
interaction of C‒H proton with the metal centre also imparts stability to the complex having a vacant
coordination site. Thus, we now know that for β-elimination, we not only need a vacant 2e- site on d
orbital (an empty d orbital) but we also need a filled d orbital (an available electron pair) for breaking
C‒H bond. Most common organometallic reactions require a σ acidic and π base bifunctional character.
Transition metals with their partially filled d orbitals fulfill these conditions and hence, give β-
elimination reactions readily.
4.3.4. Reductive elimination

Another very common decomposition pathway shown by metal alkyls is reductive elimination
(Figure 4.4). This results in the decrease of electron count and oxidation state by two. This phenomena
can occur in any metal alkyl (d0 or 18e-) in which the metal can exist in the oxidation state two units
lower than that in the original complex. Metal alkyl complexes having a halide functional group do not
undero reductive elimination because the equilibrium lies on the left in the reaction due to their
thermodynamic stablility.

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If X=H, then reductive elimination is kinetically facile and thermodynamically favourable. If X=CH3,
the elimination may still occur but it is not very favourable kinetically. The elimination reaction is most
favourable when X=H because H has only 1s electrons which are bonding and capable of making or
breaking bonds in any direction in the transition state. The CH3 has sp3 orbitals directed in space which
may not be favourably oriented to give efficient overlap in the transition state.
Figure 4.4. An example of reductive elimination
4.3.5. Halide elimination
Similar to β-elimination of H, metal alkyls having halide substituents may also undergo β-
elimination of halide. Fluoro alkyls of early transition metals, lanthanides and actinides are not very
stable due to high M‒F bond strength undergo β-elimination of halide. However, late transition metals
have weaker M‒F bond and form stable fluoro alkyls. The M‒C bond strengths are very high. CF3 acts
as π acceptor through the σ* orbitals of the C‒F bond which contributes to the strengthening of M‒C
bond for the π basic late transition metals. Eg. C6F5 forms very stable alkyls with late transition metals.
Here π* orbitals act as electron acceptor.
4.3.6. Stability from bulky substituents
It has been well known that bulky substituents can be used to stabilize several kinds of metal
complexes with organic ligands ranging from alkyls to carbenes. Decomposition pathways occuring

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through association of the organometallic complex with solvent or with another molecule of the complex
are also known specially with 16e- metals. These can be suppressed by introducing bulky coligands. eg.
The diphenyl nickel(II) complex is less stable than its p-tolyl analogue (Figure 4.5). This is because the
square planar Ni(II) complex is more vulnerable to attack from other species in the ‘z’ direction
perpendicular to the plane of the molecule. Bulky alkyl groups such as adamantyl, norbornyl, neopentyl
(‒CH2CH3) or trimethylsilylmethyl (‒CH2Si(CH3)3) are commonly used in organometallic chemistry.
Figure 4.5. Structure of diphenyl nickel(II) and p-tolyldiphenyl nickel(II) complex
The above listed reasons inhibit β-elimination however, there is sometimes possibility of α-
elimination. This leads to the formation of carbenes having M=C bonds. For example, in thermal
decomposition of Ti(CH2t-Bu)4, the first step is α-elimination leading to the formation of Ti(=CHt-
Bu)(CH2t-Bu)2. The synthesis of complex Ta(CH2t-Bu)5 intead led to the formation of carbene complex
t-Bu(CH)=Ta(CH2t-Bu)3.
4.4. SYNTHESIS OF METAL ALKYLS
4.4.1. Metathesis
Reaction of metal halides with organomagnesium, organolithium, organotin, organozinc and

organoaluminium reagents. Grignard or organolithium reagents react with metal halide or cationic metal
complex to give an alkyl usually by nucleophilic attack on the metal. Transfer of alkyl group from one
metal to another transition metal is known as transmetalation.

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4.4.2. Electrophilic attack on metal
4.4.3. Alkene insertion or hydrometallation
In this type of reaction insertion takes place between metal hydride and alkene. They are useful
in certain homogeneous catalytic processes.
4.4.4. Oxidative addition
In the process of oxidative addition, a A‒B bond is broken followed by insertion of metal
fragment LxM into A‒B bond. AB could be any group such as CH3‒H, H2, RCO‒Cl, CH3‒I etc. Thus, if
MLn has M in zero oxidation state, coordination number (CN) is ‘n’ and has 16 electrons, the complex

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after insertion of AB will have M in +2 oxidation state, coordination number of ‘n+2’ and becomes a 18
electron system.
The insertion of AB is analogous to some carbene insertion such as CH 2 into C‒H, Si‒H and
O‒H bonds. This can be understood on the basis of isolobal principle.
4.4.5. Insertion
The process of insertion is useful in making an alkyl from an alkene and metal hydride. Olefin
insertion is the reverse of β-elimination.
As we had mentioned earlier that alkyls having β-hydrogen are kinetically unstable and it might
look improbable to make alkyls in this way. Thus, it is observed that usually a small equilibrium
concentration of alkyl is obtained through insertion reaction. This amount is enough to help a catalytic
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reaction to proceed if the alkyl formed is trapped rapidly by some method. For example, in catalytic
hydrogenation, the alkyl group is trapped by reductive elimination with a second hydride to give the
product alkane. On the contrary, if the alkene is a fluorocarbon, the product obtained from insertion is
fluoroalkyl which in turn is thermodynamically very stable (as mentioned earlier). Thus, the C2H4
insertion undergoes reversibly whereas C2F4 insertion product forms irreversibly because of high M‒C
bond strength in the latter case (Scheme 4.2).
Scheme 4.2. Depiction of difference in insertion reaction when done with C2H4 and C2F4
Another way to capture alkylmetal complex is to fill the vacant site on the metal that is formed
during insertion with another ligand as depicted in Scheme 4.3 below:
Scheme4.3. Depicting capturing alkyl metal complex by using a different ligand at the vacant site generated on
metal.
Oxidative addition can be viewed as insertion of LnM into A‒B, but the term “insertion” in
organometallic chemistry is reserved for insertion of ligand into a M‒X bond.

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4.5. ORGANOCOPPER COMPOUNDS IN ORGANIC SYNTHESIS

Organocopper complexes are the class of organometallic compounds in which copper is bonded
to the carbon atom. The isolation of a phenyl copper compound although impure from phenyl Grignard
reagent and copper iodide can be called as the start of organocopper chemistry. The importance of
organocopper complexes in synthetic organic chemistry was highlighted by Gilman in 1936. It was
observed that catalytic amounts of organocopper reagents favor 1,4-addition over 1,2-addition in the
reaction between Grignard reagents and α, β-unsaturated ketones gave impetus to further interest and
development of these reagents. In present time, organocuprates are the most frequently used reagents in
synthetic organic chemistry.
Oxidation states of copper: Copper belongs to group 11 along with silver and gold. Copper can exhibit
following oxidation states: Cu (0), Cu (I), Cu (II), Cu (III) and Cu (IV), out of these Cu (0) and Cu (IV)
species are rare. In inorganic and coordination chemistry, Cu (II) state is the most abundant. However, in
the synthesis of organocopper compounds Cu (II) reduced to Cu(I). Thus, the oxidation of state of
copper in organocuprates is Cu (I).
Stability of organocopper compounds: Organolithium compounds are more reactive than

organocuprates. Organocopper compounds are intrinsically thermally unstable. The R in organocuprates
acts as nucleophiles and attacks the various organic electrophiles.
Alkyl copper compounds decompose below 0⁰ C. The stability of these compounds is generally found to
follow the following order, alkyl < aryl ≈ alkenyl < alkynyl. Thermal stability of organocopper
compounds can be increased by, (i) substitution of hydrogen atoms by fluorine in the organic moiety (ii)
addition of other ligands such as phosphines or amines, and (iii) use of substituents having heteroatoms
which can provide additional intramolecular coordination sites to the metal. These complexes are
generally found to possess linear, trigonal or T-shaped geometries however, they may be some other
possible geometries too.
4.5.1. Synthesis of organocopper reagents

4.5.1.1. Gilman reagent
It is a lithium and copper containing reagent. The methods of preparation and their use in
coupling reactions are depicted in Scheme 4.4 below

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Scheme 4.4. Synthesis and uses of Gilman’s Reagent
The method has some limitations such as it works well for mostly methyl and primary alkyl halides,
vinyl and aryl halides. Elimination occurs with secondary and tertiary alkyl halides.
4.5.1.2. Synthesis of homocuprate reagents
The resultant organocuprates are thermally labile and hence prepared at low temperature.
4.5.1.3. Synthesis of heterocuprate reagents
These cuprates are thermally more stable and less prone to β-elimination.
4.5.1.4. Higher order organocuprate reagents (Lipshutz reagents)

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Cyanocuprates or Lipshutz reagents possess the reactivity of homocuprates and thermal stability
of heterocuprates. The cyanocuprates are particularly useful for substitution reactions of secondary
halides and epoxides.
4.5.2. Uses of organocuprates
Organocopper compounds are used in cross-coupling reactions to form higher alkanes. Cross
coupling reactions are those in which two different alkyls R and R′ couple to form a new alkane R‒R′.
This type of reaction is used to make new C‒C bonds between alkyl groups. Organocopper reagents
offer efficient methods for coupling of two different carbon moieties. Copper is less electropositive than
Li and Mg thus the C‒Cu bond is less polarized than Li‒C or Mg‒C bonds. This difference brings in the
following changes in reactivity:
(i) organocopper reagents react with alkyl, alkenyl and aryl halides to yield alkylated products.
(ii) organocopper reagents are more selective and they can be acylated with acid chlorides without
attacking ketones, alky halides and esters.
(iii) In reaction with α, β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, the organocopper reagents prefer 1,4-
addition over 1,2-addition.
4.5.2.1. Substitution of alkyl halides
Coupling of alkyl halide with homocuprate is more economical than with heterocuprate.

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The homocuprates have a limitation that is they do not couple well inactivated secondary halides.
They readily undergo substitution reactions at primary positions. However, cyanocuprates undergo
substitution reactions even at inactivated secondary carbon centres.
4.5.2.2. Substitution of allylic halides
4.5.2.3. Acylation
4.5.2.4. Epoxide cleavage reactions

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4.6. SUMMARY
The role of ligands is extremely vital in determining the stability of organometallic compounds.
There are several methods to synthesize these complexes. The two main phenomena which control the
stability of these compounds are β-elimination and bimolecular decomposition reactions. Thus,
designing of such complexes in which these factors are minimised, can be achieved by altering the
substituents and some other factors discussed above. The role of organocopper complexes is extremely
widespread in synthetic organic chemistry. These complexes can be synthesized by various methods as
discussed.

Q1. In which direction would you expect a late transition metal hydride to undergo insertion with
CH2=CF2 to give the most stable alkyl product?
Q2. Suggest an efficient method for preparing IrMe3L3 from IrClL3, LiMe, and MeCl.
Q3. Give product of the reaction between Cp(CO)2Fe(H) and 1,3-butadiene. Here Cp stands for
cyclopentadiene ring.
Q4. Give product of the reaction between Cp(CO)3Mo(H) and CH2N2 (diazomethane). Here Cp stands
for cyclopentadiene ring.
Q5. What is Gilman Reagent? Give one example
Q6. Write short note on role of bulky substituents in increasing the stability of metal alkyl/aryl
complexes.
Q7. Write short note on reductive elimination

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Q1. Discuss in brief factors causing thermal instability in transition metal alkyl complexes.
Q2. What factors are necessary for β-elimination and what factors can reduce the possibility of β-
elimination in metal alkyls?
Q3. What are agostic alkyls and why don’t they undergo β-elimination?
4.8. ANSWERS
A 1. M−CF2−Me (σ-acceptor substituents, especially F strongly stabilize an alkyl).
A 2. Oxidative addition of MeCl, followed by reaction of the product with LiMe, which acts as a Me−
donor and replaces the Ir−Cl by Ir−Me.
A3. Cp(CO)2Fe(CH2CH=CH‒CH3)
A4. Cp(CO)3Mo‒CH3
A5. It is a lithium and copper containing organometallic reagent. Eg. Lithium dimethylcuprate.

1. R. H. Crabtree, (2005), "The Organometallic Chemistry of Transition Metals”, Fourth Ed.; pp. 53-85,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
2. J. E. Huheey, E. A. Keiter and R. L. Keiter, (1993), “Inorganic chemistry: Principles of Structure and
Reactivity”, fourth ed., HarperCollins College Publishers, New York.
3. J. T. B. H. Jastrzebski and G. van Koten, (2002), “Modern Organocopper Chemistry”; Chapter 1,pp.
1-44, (N. Krause, Eds.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Block II: Metal pi-Complexes and Metal Clusters
UNIT 5 METAL–π COMPLEXES – I
CONTENTS
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Classification of metal carbonyls
5.3.1 Classification on the basis of type of ligands
5.3.2 Classification on the basis of number of metal atoms
5.4 Preparation of metal carbonyl
5.4.1 From CO gas
5.4.2 Reductive carbonylation (reducing agent plus CO gas)
5.4.3 From iron pentacarbonyl
5.4.4 Dinuclear carbonyls from mononuclear carbonyls
5.4.5 Mixed-metal carbonyls by salt metathesis reaction
5.5 Properties of metal carbonyl
5.5.1 General properties
5.5.2 Toxicity
5.5.3 Magnetic properties
5.6 Structure and bonding in metal carbonyl
5.6.1. Effective Atomic Number (EAN) Rule
5.6.2 The 18 Electron Rule
5.6.3 Counting of electrons in complexes
5.6.4 Determination of total number of M-M bonds in a cluster
5.7 Vibrational spectra of metal carbonyls
5.8 Important reactions of metal carbonyls
5.8.1 Substitution reactions
5.8.2 Reduction
5.8.3 Nucleophilic reactions
5.8.4 Reaction with electrophiles
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5.8.5 Reaction with nitric oxide

5.8.6 Reaction with hydrogen
5.9 Transition metal nitrosyls
5.10 Dinitrogen complexes
5.11 Dioxygen complexes
5.12 Tertiary phosphine as ligand
5.13 Summary
5.14.3 Objective type questions
5.15 Answers to objective type questions
5.1. OBJECTIVES
Objectives of this unit are to introduce you with important and basic concepts to understand the
bonding and structure of inorganic metal complexes with some very important small molecules such as
the carbonyl, nitrosyl, dinitrogen, dioxygen and tertiary phosphines as ligands. They are neutral ligands
and are extensively used in the synthesis of inorganic complexes in conjunction with other ligands. This
chapter will take you through the detailed chemistry of metal carbonyls including their electronic
structure, bonding, synthesis and some applications. The chapter will also provide you with the general
understanding of other mentioned neutral ligands and their inorganic complexes.
5.2. INTRODUCTION
Coordination complexes of transition metals with carbon monoxide (CO) ligand are called ‘metal
carbonyls’. Technically, any coordination complex that has at least one carbon monoxide (CO) ligand in
its coordination sphere is termed as metal carbonyl. Carbon monoxide is a weak Lewis base, even then it
forms stable complexes with transition metals. Stability of metal carbonyls relies on the existence of
back-bonding between the metal and the carbon monoxide ligand. Since, the ability of metal to

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participate in back bonding is directly related to availability of electron density in its orbitals, hence, the
stable metal carbonyls often comprise metals in their lower oxidation states.
Metal carbonyls are used as homogeneous catalysts in organic syntheses and as precursors for the
synthesis of other organometallic complexes. Mononuclear metal carbonyls, i.e., those containing only
one metal centre are usually colorless or pale yellow volatile liquids or solids that are flammable and
toxic. Hence, skin contact, inhalation or ingestion of metal carbonyls must be avoided while in
laboratory by employing adequate laboratory techniques and safety equipments.
Nitric oxide or nitrosyl (N≡O) ligand binds to metals in a very different manner than that of
carbonyl. It is interesting to study the structure, bonding and catalytic reactivity of metal nitrosyl
complexes. They find applications as homogeneous catalysts in dimerization reactions, olefin
disproportionation and hydrogenation reactions.
Furthermore, tertiary phosphine (PR3) ligands are one of the favorite ligands of inorganic
chemists. This is because of the strong σ donor and π acceptor properties in their complexes with
transition metals. The electronic and steric properties of phosphines and hence, their metal complexes
can be altered as per need by varying the –R group on PR3. They are capable of stabilizing transition
metal complexes in low oxidation states and hence, constitute an important class of homogeneous
catalysts.
We know that both N2 and O2 are present in abundance in the atmosphere and hence, they have
become important raw materials for large scale industrial synthesis of compounds. In the production of
ammonia through nitrogen fixation, nitrogen is reduced while reduction of oxygen gives energy. The
electronic distribution, geometries and bonding modes of these molecules as ligands in metal complexes
has been extensively studied and discussed in literature.
5.3. CLASSIFICATION OF METAL CARBONYLS

The metal carbonyls are a class of organometallic compounds where the metal atom is bound to
the carbon atom of CO which is a small molecule acts as a neutral ligand in these complexes. There are
several schemes to classify various metal carbonyls, some of which are illustrated ahead:
5.3.1. Classification on the basis of type of ligands

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Metal carbonyls are classified as homoleptic or heteroleptic on the basis of type of ligands present
in the coordination sphere of the metal.
5.3.1.1.Homoleptic carbonyls
The metal complexes those contain only one type of ligands are called homoleptic complexes. Hence,
homoleptic carbonyls are those having only carbon monoxide (CO) molecules as ligands. For example,
Ni(CO)4, Fe(CO)5, Cr(CO)6, Co2(CO)8 etc.
5.3.1.2. Heteroleptic carbonyls
The metal complexes those contain more than one type of ligands are called heteroleptic complexes.
Hence, heteroleptic carbonyls are those having carbon monoxide (CO) as well as other molecules as
ligands. For example, Ni(CO)3(PPh3), Cr(CO)3(NO)2 etc.
5.3.2. Classification on the basis of number of metal atoms
Metal carbonyls are classified as mononuclear or polynuclear on the basis of number of ligands
present in the coordination sphere of the metal.
5.3.2.1. Mononuclear carbonyls
The metal carbonyl complexes those contain only one atom of metal are called mononuclear
carbonyls. For example, Ni(CO)4, Fe(CO)5, Cr(CO)6 etc.
5.3.2.2. Polynuclear carbonyls
The metal carbonyl complexes those contain two or more than two atoms of metal are called
polynuclear carbonyls. For example, Mn2(CO)10, Fe2(CO)9, Co2(CO)8, Fe3(CO)12, MnCo(CO)4 etc. The
CO ligand can be bridging or terminal. The bridging CO has a bond order of nearly two which is similar
to the carbonyl in organic compounds whereas the terminal CO has a bond order of three. The IR
stretching frequency of free CO is 2143 cm-1, for terminal carbonyl, it is 2125-1850 cm-1 and for
bridging CO, it lies between 1850-1700 cm-1.
Polynuclear carbonyls are further classified as homonuclear metal carbonyls or heteronuclear

metal carbonyls depending on whether the complex contains only one kind of metal or more than one
kind of metal. For example, MnCo(CO)9 is a heteronuclear carbonyl complex because it contains two
types of metals, viz., Mn and Co.

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5.4. PREPARATION OF METAL CARBONYL
5.4.1. From CO gas
Treatment of carbon monoxide with metals or their simple salts under the conditions of high
pressure and high temperature yields corresponding carbonyl complexes. Few examples are presented
below:
5.4.2. Reductive carbonylation (reducing agent plus CO gas)
Treatment of carbon monoxide with simple metal salts in the presence of reducing agent such as
hydrogen gas yields corresponding carbonyl complexes. Few examples are presented below:

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There are some reports where CO acts as carbonylating as well as reducing agent. Few examples:
5.4.3. From iron pentacarbonyl

The carbonyl group in iron pentacarbonyl are labile and can be replaced by chloride to give a different
metal carbonyl.

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5.4.4. Dinuclear carbonyls from mononuclear carbonyls

Photolysis or thermolysis of mononuclear carbonyls yields bi- and multimetallic carbonyls such as diiron
nonacarbonyl (Fe2(CO)9). On further heating, the products decompose eventually into the metal and carbon
monoxide.
Synthesis of higher osmium carbonyl clusters such as Os4(CO)13, Os6(CO)18 up to Os8(CO)23 can be
achieved from the thermal decomposition of triosmium dodecacarbonyl (Os3(CO)12).
5.4.5. Mixed-metal carbonyls by salt metathesis reaction
5.5. PROPERTIES OF METAL CARBONYLS
5.5.1. General properties

Metal carbonyls are coordination complexes of transition metals with carbon monoxide. They are also
classified as organometallic compounds since they contain a metal-carbon bond. Most metal carbonyls are volatile
liquids or solids. They are colorless or pale yellow and are flammable. Vanadium hexacarbonyl (17 e metal
carbonyl) is a bluish-black solid. Di- and polymetallic carbonyls are darker in color. Triiron dodecacarbonyl
(Fe3(CO)12) crystals are deep green in colour. Metal carbonyls are soluble in carbon tetrachloride, benzene,
acetone, ether and glacial acetic acid.
5.5.2. Toxicity
They are toxic by inhalation, ingestion or skin contact. They carbonylate haemoglobin to form

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carboxyhaemoglobin and it loses its ability to bind oxygen and form oxyhaemoglobin. They are carcinogenic over
long-term exposure.
5.5.3. Magnetic properties

All metal carbonyls except vanadium hexacarbonyl are diamagnetic. Metals having even atomic number
form mononuclear carbonyls having all paired electrons. Dinuclear metal carbonyls comprising of metals with
odd atomic number have metal-metal bonds that utilize the unpaired electrons.
5.5.4. Thermodynamic stability

Metal carbonyls are thermodynamically unstable. When exposed to air, they undergo oxidation at different
rates. Some are oxidized in air when heated.
5.6. STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN METAL CARBONYLS

It is important to notice that there are not many ligands those form homoleptic complexes like the
carbon monoxide. Moreover, carbon monoxide is a neutral ligand with weak Lewis basic character that
forms stable complexes with metals, usually in their low oxidation state. In order to understand the
structure of and the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls, it is very important to understand the structure
of carbon monoxide. Figure 5.1 represents a schematic molecular orbital diagram for the carbon
monoxide molecule, where the middle shaded part represents the molecular orbitals of the CO molecule
whereas 2s and 2p orbitals of carbon and that of oxygen are presented on the left and right hand side of
the central shaded portion respectively. Note that the 2s and the 2p orbitals of oxygen are drawn at
slightly lower energy levels than the respective orbitals of oxygen atoms which is attributed to the
difference in their electronegativity. It is evident from the Figure 5.1 that the highest occupied
molecular orbital (HOMO) of the CO is closer to the 2p orbitals of the carbon. Hence, the CO ligand
coordinates through the molecular orbital (MO) primarily localized on the carbon atom which suggests
that the carbon monoxide ligand connects through its carbon atom with the metal centre. Additionally,
the MO diagram also reveals that there are vacant antibonding molecular orbitals (top three anti bonding
orbitals) available on the CO molecule which may accept electron density from suitable electron rich
species.

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Figure 5.1. Molecular orbital (MO) diagram of carbon monoxide molecule.
Figure 5.2. Molecular orbital (MO) diagram of carbon monoxide molecule.
Figure 5.2 depicts the formation of sigma and pi bonds between metal atom or ion and a carbonyl
ligand. The upper half of the figure shows that the overlapping of HOMO localized on carbon with a
suitable vacant orbital present on the metal centre, resulting in a L to M sigma bond. It is interesting fact
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that the formation of ML sigma bond allows close proximity between the vacant anti bonding orbitals of
carbonyl molecule and the filled d-orbitals available with metal center. Such proximity facilitates
transfer of electron density from filled d-orbitals to the vacant ligand antibonding orbitals resulting in
the formation of M to L back-bond. Transfer of any electron density from ligand to metal causes
strengthening of L to M bond and makes metal centre rich in electron density which in turn allows
transfer of more electron density from filled d-orbitals to the vacant anti-bonding orbitals situated on
ligand and thus, resulting in the strengthening of M to L back-bond. This phenomenon is called
‘synergistic effect’ and eventually causes mutual strengthening of L to M bond as well as M to L back-
bond. M to L back-bond is an example of dπ-pπ* overlap attributable to the nature of overlapping
orbitals.
5.6.1. Effective Atomic Number (EAN) Rule
The rule states that “total number of electrons on the zero valent metal atom including those
gained after sigma donation of electron pairs by CO molecules becomes equal to the atomic number of
the next closest inert gas.”
Thus,
Where a equals to the total number of electrons or atomic number of the metal atom and b equals
to the total number of sigma bonds between metal atom and CO groups or ligands present in the
complex. It is multiplied by 2 since, each CO or other ligand contributes to 2 electrons. Some examples
are as follows:
(i) Cr(CO)6 : 24 + 2x6 = 36 [Kr]
(ii) Fe(CO)5 : 26 + (2x5) = 36 [Kr]
(iii) W(CO)6 : 74 + (2x6) = 86 [Rn]
(iv) Ru(CO)5 : 44 + (2x5) = 54 [Xe]
(v) Mn2(CO)10 : (25x2) + (2x10) + 2 (for 1 M-M bond contributes 2 e) = 72; EAN of each metal atom =
72/2 = 36 [Kr]

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Remember that the mononuclear metal carbonyl having odd atomic number do not follow EAN
rule. Examples:
(vi) V(CO)6 : 23 + (2 x 6) = 35
(vii) Mn(CO)5 : 25 + (2 x 5) = 35
(viii) Co(CO)4 : 27 + (2 x 4) = 35
5.6.2. The 18 Electron Rule
The 18 electron rule was postulated to categorize stable metal complexes. Those complexes which
have 18 outer shell electrons or where the sum of d electrons, electrons donated by ligands and overall
charge on the complex is equal to 18 are considered to follow this rule and are expected to be stable in
nature. However, it has been found in several examples which do not follow the rule and several
exceptions do exist. Complexes with 14 or 16 electron count were also found to be stable. The stability
of an octahedral complex weather following this rule or not can be rationalized by looking into their
molecular orbital description. The most stable arrangement will correspond to a fully occupied bonding
molecular orbitals (a1g, t1u, eg and t2g) and vacant anti bonding molecular orbitals (Figure 5.3). Thus,
these nine MOs will require a total of eighteen electrons. The antibonding orbitals will be vacant when
the energy gap (Δo) between the highest bonding MO and the lowest antibonding MO is large which
makes occupation of antibonding eg* unfavorable. Such complexes will follow the 18 electron rule,
particularly the second and third row transition metals, which do not have more than 18 electrons
beyond the core MOs. The largest Δo splitting is also consistent with strong σ donor and π acceptor
ligands such as CO, PF3, olefins and arenes which are located at the upper end of electrochemical series.

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Figure 5.3. Simplified MO diagram for an octahedral transition metal complex depicting sigma interactions only.
There are complexes having less than 18 electrons where the ligands (such as Cl, F) do not
contribute in extra stabilization of t2g orbitals by π bonding. Example: [WCl6]2- has 14 electrons,
[TcF6]2- has 15 electrons, [OsCl6]2- has 16 electrons and [PtF6] ¯ has 17 electrons. We know in
spectrochemical series CO and NO lie at the higher end as they are good π acceptors and hence stabilize
the t2g orbitals. This in turn increases the (Δo) value and hence, octahedral complexes with CO and NO
ligands are mostly found to follow the 18 electron rule. Generalizing, we can say that electron rich or
metals in low oxidation states and ligands that are good π acceptors adhere to the 18 electron rule.
Having more than 18 electrons in certain complexes can be attributed to small Δo and so occupation of
eg* orbitals is probable. Examples: {[Co(H2O)6]2+} has 19 electrons, {[Ni(en)3]2+} has 20 electrons,
{[Cu(NH3)6]2+} has 21 electrons and {[Zn(NH3)6]2+} has 22 electrons.
5.6.3. Counting of electrons in complexes
To count the number of electrons in the complexes, there are two popular methods viz. neutral
atom method and oxidation state method. Here, we will be discussing only the neutral atom method as it
is easier to follow. For this, we need to know the number of electrons each ligand donates to the metal in
the complex (Table 5.1). Metal is taken as in zero oxidation state in this method and overall charge on
the complex is also considered; an overall positive charge say +x will be subtracted whereas a negative
overall charge of say –y will be subtracted from the total electron count.
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Table 5.1. Electrons donated by various ligands.
Ligand Electrons Donated
1. Carbonyl (M‒CO) 2
2. μ‒CO (Bridging Carbonyl) (M‒CO‒M) 2
3. Carbene (M=CR2) 2
4. Phosphine (M‒PR3) 2
5. μ Phosphide (M‒PR2‒M) 3
6. Amine (M‒NR3) 2
7. Amide ((M‒NR2) 1
8. μ Amido (M‒(NR2)‒M) 3
9. Hydrogen (M‒H) 1
10. 2
Dihydrogen;
11. Dinitrogen; (M‒N=N) 2
12. Isocyanide; (M‒CNR) 2
13. Halide (M‒X) 1
14. μ Halide (M‒X‒M) 3
15. Alkyl (M‒R) 1
16. Aryl (M‒Ar) 1
17. Thiolate (M‒SR) 1
18. Alkoxide (M‒OR) 1
19. μ Alkoxide (M‒(OR)‒M) 3

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20. Acyl (M‒C(O)‒R) 1
21. Nitrosyl (Linear; M‒N≡O) 3
22. Nitrosyl (Bent) 1
23. 2
Alkene (sidewise); η2
2 or 4 if it functions
24.
as π electron donor
Alkyne (sidewise); η2
25. μ-alkyl (M‒CR3‒M) 1
26. 4
μ-alkyne(bridging );
27. 1
η1allyl
28. 3
η3allyl
29. 1
η1 cyclopentadienyl
30. 5
η5cyclopentadienyl
31. 6
η benzene
6

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32. 7
η7 cycloheptatrienyl
33. 8
η8cyclooctatetraenyl
Note: μ = Indicates bridging ligand; η = indicates hapticity of the ligand
5.6.4. Determination of total number of M-M bonds in a cluster
First determine the total number of valence electrons in the complex that is the number of valence
electrons in the metal plus the electrons from each ligand plus the charge (Table 5.2). Say it comes out
to be ‘x’. Now, suppose ‘n’ is the number of metals in the complex. Subtract ‘x’ from n*18 i.e. (n*18)-x;
suppose the value comes out to be ‘y’. The ‘y’ divided by 2 i.e. (y/2) gives the number of metal-
metalbonds in the complex. ‘x’ divided by ‘n’ gives the number of electronsper metal atom. Now if this
number comes out to be 18 it implies there are no metal-metal bonds; for 17, there will be one metal-
metal bond and if it is 16, there will be two metal-metal bonds and so on.
Table 5.2. Stepwise determination of number of M-M bonds
Example number of Total Valence y= M-M No of bonds Theoretical

metal Electrons (x) (n*18)-x bonds per metal Structure
atoms (n) (y/2) atom
(18 – x/n)
(18*3)-48
Fe3(CO)12 3 8X3 + 12*2 = 48 3 18 - 48/3 = 2
=6
(18*2-30)
[η5-CpMo(CO)2]2 2 (5+6+4)*2 = 30 3 18 - 30/2 = 3 Mo≡Mo
=6
(η4- 4*2 + 8*2 + 2*3 (18*2-30)

2 2 18 - 30/2 = 3 Fe≡Fe
C4H4)2(Fe2(CO)3 = 30 =4

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Note: asterisk mark (*) represents mathematical operation of multiplication.
The 18 electron rule allows predicting the number of M-M bonds; it however does not give any
information about bridging or terminal carbonyl. Structures of some common metal carbonyl complexes
are depicted in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4. Chemical structures of some common metal carbonyl complexes.

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5.7. VIBRATIONAL SPECTRA OF METAL CARBONYLS

Vibrational spectroscopy is one of the most commonly used method of characterizing metal
carbonyls. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy or vibrational spectroscopy deals with the absorption of energy in
the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The C‒O vibration of a carbonyl group is denoted
as CO and is observed at 2143 cm-1 in the free CO molecule. This frequency of absorption changes as
the CO coordinates with a metal atom; it may shift upwards or downwards. The change in the frequency
directly depends upon the C‒O bond strength (bond order) and inversely varies with the strength of π
back bonding between metal and carbon. The acceptance of electrons in π* orbitals has a significant
effect and decreases the bond order and hence, the bond strength. Here are some of the factors which
effect the number of CO bands observed and CO.
(i) Charge on the metal centre and role of other ligands: A negative charge on metal centre or
presence of another ligand with greater σ donation and poor π accepting behavior will decrease the CO
stretching frequency whereas the increase of a positive charge on metal centre and poor σ donation and
strong π accepting behavior will increase the CO stretching frequency. As the electron density on metal
increases, more π back bonding to the CO ligand(s) takes place. As more electron density goes into the
formally empty π* antibonding orbital the C‒O bond further weakens but M‒CO bond strengthens
making it more double bond like in nature (Table 5.3). Examples: [Ag(CO)]+ has CO = 2204 cm-1,
[Ni(CO)4] has CO = 2060 cm-1 and [Co(CO)4]¯ has CO = 1890 cm-1.
Table 5.3. Vibrational frequencies of CO ligand in some common complexes
Compound [Ti(CO)6]2- [V(CO)6]1- [Cr(CO)6] [Mn(CO)6]1+ [Fe(CO)6]2+
CO (cm-1) 17481 1859 2000 2095 2204
The coordination of CO to metal itself decreases its vibrational frequency from 2143 cm -1 that is
for free CO due to the π back bonding between empty metal orbitals of π symmetry with antibonding
(π*) orbitals of CO. This results in increase of M‒CO bond but a decrease in C‒O bond. The
coordination of other ligands which compete with CO for π back bonding will decrease CO.
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(ii) Bonding Modes: The number and intensity of carbonyl bands observed depends on the number of
CO ligands present and symmetry of complex. As the CO bonding is shifted from terminal to bridging,
μ2 or μ3bridging, the CO goes on decreasing (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5. Depiction of various bonding modes exhibited of carbonyl ligand.
(iii) Ligand donation effects: As mentioned before, the ability of ligands to donate electron density to
metal has significant effect on the overall electron density about the metal centre which in turn affects
the CO stretching frequency. For example, two transπ back bonding ligands will compete for the same d
orbital electron density thus, weakens the M‒L π back bonding by each one of them. If both trans
ligands are carbonyls, they will make equally strong bonds with the metal. If the trans ligand is a σ
donor, it will increase the M‒CO bond strength also allowing for CO π back bonding. For example, the
pyridine and amines are not strong σ donor but they are even poor π back bonding ligands. Thus, we can
generalize that if any ligand say L is trans to CO and is weak π accepting ligand (such as pyridine), most
of the electron density will be taken up by the CO and hence the stretching frequency will be lower. If
the ligand (L) trans to CO is a strong π donor such as the PPh3, the competition for π electron density
increases and hence, CO will increase slightly. If the trans ligand is PF3, the CO is almost same as that
of the complex having all CO ligands. This implies that π accepting nature of PF3 and CO are similar
(Figure 5.6).

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Figure 5.6. Depiction of ligand donation effect in terms of vibrational frequencies.
5.8. IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF METAL CARBONYLS

Metal carbonyls serve as precursors in the formation of other carbonyl compounds. Some of the significant
reactions are summarized below:
5.8.1. Substitution reactions

The carbonyl ligands can be substituted by other mono- and bidentate ligands under thermal or
photochemical conditions. Ligands that can be used to substitute carbonyl are phosphines, cyanide (CN-), N-
donating ligands, chelating ligands and ethers.
Substitution reactions occur via dissociative mechanism except 17 electron metal carbonyls which proceed
via associative mechanism. The later mechanism is rare and incorporates a 19 electron intermediate species.
Dissociative mechanism
Associative mechanism
Some examples

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Bidentate ligands can replace carbonyl in multiples of two. Some bidentate ligands and their
reactions with metal carbonyls are given below. Please note that o-phenylene-bis(dimethyl arsine) and o-
phenanthroline ligands are abbreviated as diars and o-phen respectively.
5.8.2. Reduction
Metallic sodium or sodium amalgam are used to reduce metal carbonyls to give carbonylate
anions.
In above reactions Mn(0), Fe(0), Cr(0) are oxidized to Mn(I), Fe(II) and Cr(II) oxidation states
respectively.
5.8.3. Nucleophilic reactions
In the reaction of carbonyl compounds with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide anion (nucleophile)
attacks the CO ligand to form a metallacarboxylic acid which is followed by release of carbon dioxide to
give metal hydrides or carbonylmetalates. This reaction is known as Hieber base reaction.
Protonation of hydrido anion gives the neutral compound.
5.8.4. Reaction with electrophiles

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Metal carbonyls are relatively unreactive towards electrophiles even though they exist in low
oxidation states. They do not react with alkylating agents, weak acids and weak oxidizing agents.
However, they have been found to react with halogens as shown in some of the reactions given below.
Some polynuclear carbonyls undergo metal-metal bond cleavage in presence of halogens.
5.8.5. Reaction with nitric oxide
Metal carbonyls react with nitric oxide to give metal nitrosyls.
5.8.6. Reaction with hydrogen
Metal carbonyls can be reduced to hydrides upon reaction with hydrogen to give metal hydrides.
Even though the above neutral compounds are called hydrides. They have been found to act as
proton donors thus, behaving as acids.
The anionic hydrides such as [HFe(CO)4]¯ behave as true hydrides (reducing agents) and can
reduce the alkyl halides.

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5.9. TRANSITION METAL NITROSYLS

The chemistry of transition metal nitrosyls though gained significant attention somewhat later to
that of metal carbonyls but in present times, the work done in this field runs parallel to that of metal
carbonyls. Nitric oxide or the nitrosyl ligand can bind to the metal in a manner quite different from that
of carbonyls. The two common binding modes of NO can be represented as shown below (Figure 5.7):
Figure 5.7. Depiction of linear and bent coordination modes of nitrosyl ligand.
In the linear binding mode, the N behaves as a three electron donor in NO+ and M‒N has a
multiple bond character. It donates one electron to the metal before donating an electron pair for the
formation of coordinate covalent bond. The nitrosyl NO+ is isoelectronic with CO ligand. It is the most
common bonding observed. In the bent coordination mode, the N acts as a single electron donor towards
the metal and the M‒N‒O bond angle is 120°. Here, the M‒N bond is longer than that in the linear
bonding mode, it is still somewhat shorter than the single σ M‒N bond distance. In most of the nitrosyl
complexes, NO+ (nitrosyl or nitrosonium ion) acts as the ligand by donating a pair of electrons. In some
complexes, nitric oxide is also known to exist as anion NO- such as in [Co+3(CN)5(NO)]-3 and
[Co+3(NH3)5(NO)]+2.
The free nitric oxide has an IR stretching frequency of 1870 cm-1. The nature of other ligands
present in the complex, charge and structure of the complex affect the NO stretching frequency (NO).
The nitrosyl ligand is linear when it coordinates as NO+ and NO is observed in the range 1720-1400 cm-
1
. The role of metal nitrosyls has been much explored as homogeneous catalysts. They find their biggest
application in olefin disproportionation reactions.
5.10. DINITROGEN COMPLEXES

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Transition metal coordination compounds containing dinitrogen molecules (N2) as ligands are
called dinitrogen complexes. Such complexes are of interest because dry air in earth’s atmosphere
contains nearly 78% nitrogen by volume that reflects reluctance of dinitrogen towards chemical
reactions in ordinary conditions. Dinitrogen is converted to its organic and inorganic derivatives via a
process called ‘nitrogen fixation’, which primarily involves the binding of dinitrogen to metal centers
present in the enzyme nitrogenase followed by a series of other steps. Ruthenium
complex, [Ru(NH3)5(N2)]2+ is the first synthetic complex that contains a dinitrogen ligand. It is an
octahedral paramagnetic complex in which five of the hexacoordinated sites are occupied by ammine
ligands and the sixth position is occupied by dinitrogen molecule, N2. The presence of N2 as a ligand in
these compounds cause a strong vibrational band in the FTIR spectra of the compound around 2170–
2100 cm−1.
Alike acetylene (C2H2) and carbon monoxide (CO) molecules, dinitrogen (N2) also possess a triple
bond. Similar to these acetylene and carbonyl ligands, dinitrogen also offers mononuclear (terminal) and
bridging bonding modes. If the N2 molecule is shared by two or more metal centers in a complex, the
manner of bonding is termed as the bridging modes. Based on the geometric relationship between the N2
molecule and the metal center, the complexes are also differentiated to have end-on or side-on modes
(Figure 5.8). In the end-on bonding mode of transition metal-dinitrogen complexes, the N-N vector can
be considered in line with the metal ion center, whereas in the side-on modes, the metal-ligand bond is
known to be perpendicular to the N-N vector.
Figure 5.8. Depiction of various coordination modes of dinitrogen ligand.

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5.11. DIOXYGEN COMPLEXES

Transition metal coordination compounds containing dioxygen molecules (O2) as ligands are
called dioxygen complexes. As the biological process of ‘nitrogen fixation’ motivated the study of
synthetic dinitrogen complexes, biological oxygen carrier proteins including
myoglobin, hemoglobin, hemerythrin, and hemocyanin has inspired the studies pertaining to the
transition metal complexes of dioxygen molecules. These proteins reversibly bind with the oxygen
molecules. Hence, reversibly bound oxygen containing transition metal complexes are of particular
interest for their capability to mimic natural respiratory systems. The first synthetic oxygen complex was
reported in 1938 with cobalt (II) complex reversibly bound O2. O2 ligand can bind to a single metal
center through two coordination modes namely, “end-on” (η1-) where the ligand is connected to metal
center at one point only and the other one is “side-on” (η2-) mode, where the ligand connects to the same
metal centre through two sites, i.e., forms η2- chelates (Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9. Depiction of various coordination modes of dioxygen ligand.
Dioxygen derivatives of cobalt (II) and iron (II) complexes of porphyrin (and related anionic
macrocyclic ligands) usually exhibit η1-bonding mode. On the other hand, η2-bonding mode is the most
common motif through which dioxygen ligand coordinates to the metal centres. Reacting low-valent
metal complexes with oxygen yields η2-adducts. For example, Vaska's complex reversibly binds O2 as
presented below (Figure 5.10):

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Figure 5.10. Binding of dioxygen ligand with Vaska’s complex.
Dioxygen ligand can also bridge two metal centres at once as in case of the hemocyanin. Each of
the oxygen atom of bridging dioxygen ligand can bind either to one metal center each or η2-chelate the
metal centers. Hence, there are three possible bonding modes namely, μ2-η1,η1-, μ2-η1,η2- and μ2-η2,η2-.
The exact bonding mode is often characterized by the x-ray crystallographic studies (Figure 5.11).
Figure 5.11. Various binding modes of dioxygen ligand.
5.12. TERTIARY PHOSPHINE AS LIGAND

Phosphines are two electron donor ligands which coordinate through the lone pair of electrons
available on the phosphorous atom. Phosphine ligands, particularly triphenylphosphine is an excellent
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ligand as it shows good solubility in organic solvents and tend to bind with transition metals in a range
of oxidation states. Important examples of triphenylphosphine containing metal complexes include
Vaska’s complex, Wilkinson's catalyst (Rh(PPh3)3Cl), Grubbs' catalyst, and [Pd(PPh3)4] (Figure 5.12).
Figure 5.12. Some important transition metal complexes comprising phosphine ligands.
Triphenyl phosphine complexes are prepared by the treatment of metal halides with
triphenylphosphine as depicted below for the synthesis of bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) chloride.
As stated earlier, phosphine molecules are two electron donors, i.e., Lewis bases which interact
with metal centres as σ donor ligands. Additionally, phosphorous atoms possess empty d orbitals as well
as the σ* anti-bonding orbitals those can accept electron density from filled d orbitals available with
metal centre. This back-bonding causes tighter binding of metal and phosphine ligand (Figure 5.13).

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Figure 5.13. Schematic depiction of bonding and back-bonding interactions in transition metal complexes
comprising phosphine ligands.
Phosphine complexes are mainly used as catalysts for organic conversations. Wilkinson's catalyst
is used for hydrogenation of olefins with molecular hydrogen. The mechanism of hydrogenation of
olefins catalyzed by Wilkinson's catalyst involves initial dissociation of one or two PPh3 ligands to give
14- or 12-electron complexes, respectively. The initial step is the oxidative addition of H2 to the metal
center which further followed by π-complexation of alkene, migratory insertion and reductive
elimination yielding the formation of the alkane as depicted in Figure 5.14.

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Figure 5.14. Schematic depiction of mechanism of hydrogenation of alkenes catalyzed by Wilkinson’s catalyst.
5.13. SUMMARY
This chapter provides an account of important aspects of organometallic chemistry particularly in
context of metal carbonyls. Several methods of synthesis and chemical reactions or carbonyls are
presented in this unit. Molecular and electronic structural aspects have been discussed to make students
understand the basics of bonding in carbonyl and other organometallic complexes. Detailed account and
implications of effective atomic number rule and 18 electron rules are also presented. Later sections of
the chapter elucidate the important aspects of transition metal complexes of nitrosyl, dinitrogen,
dioxygen, and triphenyl phosphine ligands.

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Q1. What are carbonyl compounds? Discuss synthesis of metal carbonyls.
Q2. Discuss bonding in carbonyls. Explain using MO theory why only the carbon atom of the ligand CO
donates electrons in metal carbonyls.
Q3. Write a note on chemical properties of metal carbonyls.
Q4. Explain back-bonding in transition metal complexes of triphenyl phosphenes.
Q1. Give two methods for the synthesis of metal nitrosyl complexes.
Q2. Draw structure of Vaska’s complex.
Q3. What are the uses of Wilkinson’s catalyst? Explain with a reaction.
Q4. Give schematic account of μ2-η1,η1-, μ2-η1,η2- and μ2-η2,η2- bonding modes of dioxygen.
Q5. What are side-on and end-on bonding modes of dioxygen ligand.
Q6. Draw two bonding modes of dinitrogen ligand.
Q7. Calculate the oxidation state of the metal centre and the total valence electron count of the following
species. (i) TiF62-; (ii) Ni(en)32+ (iii) Cu(NH3)62+ (iv) W(CN)84- (v) CH3Co(CO)4.
[Hint: Q7. (i) +4 and 12; (ii) +2 and 20; (iii) +2 and 21; (iv) +4 and 18; (v) 0 and 18]
5.14.3. Objective type questions

Q1. State the oxidation state of the metal and the total valence electron count of the complex,
V(C2O4)33−.
(a) +3 and 14 (b) +3 and 16 (c) +5 and 17 (d) 0 and 18
Q2. State the oxidation state of the metal and the total valence electron count of the complex, Mn(acac)3.
Q3. State the oxidation state of the metal and the total valence electron count of the complex, W(CN)83−.
Q4. State the oxidation state of the metal and the total valence electron count of the complex,
CpMn(CO)3 .

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Q5. State the oxidation state of the metal and the total valence electron count of the complex, Fe2(CO)9.
5.15. ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

Q1. (a)
Q2. (b)
Q3. (c)
Q4. (d)
Q5. (d)

Reactivity”, 4th ed., HarperCollins College Publishers, New York.
3. C. A. McAuliffe, ed. (1973), “Transition Metal Complexes of Phosphorus, Arsenic, and Antimony
Ligands”, J. Wiley.
4. F. A. Cotton, (1990), “Chemical Applications of Group Theory” 3rd Ed. Wiley Interscience.
5. G. L. Miessler, D. A. Tarr, (2011), “Inorganic Chemistry”, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice
Hall. pp. 109-119, 534-538.
6. C. Elschenbroich, (2006), “Organometallics”, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
7. R. H. Crabtree, (2005), Carbonyls, phosphine complexes, and ligand substitution reactions", In: “The
Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals”, 4th Ed. pp. 87-124.
8. S. J. Lippard, J. M. Berg, (1994), “Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry”, University Science Books,
Mill Valley, CA.

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Block II : METAL π-COMPLEXES AND METAL CLUSTERS
UNIT 6 METAL π-COMPLEXES
CONTENTS
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Hapticity
6.4 18 Electron rule
6.5 Organometallic carbene, carbyne, carbido complexes
6.5.1 Transition metal carbene complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.5.2 Transition metal carbyne complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.5.3 Transition metal carbido complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.6 Transition metal π-complexes
6.6.1 Transition metal alkene complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.6.2 Transition metal alkynyl complexes (Structure, Synthesis and Reactions)
6.7 Transition metal allyl complexes
6.7.1 σ−allyl transition metal complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.7.2 π−allyl transition metal complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.7.3 Bridging / -allyl metal complexes
6.8 Transition metal butadiene complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.8.2 Synthesis of butadiene metal complexes

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6.8.3 Reactions of diene complexes
6.9 Transition metal cyclobutadiene complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.9.1 Synthesis
6.9.2 Reactions
6.10 Transition metal cyclopentadienyl complexes
6.10.1 Structure and bonding in ferrocene
6.10.2 Cyclopentadienyl-metal interaction in ferrocene
6.10.3 Bent metallocenes (Cp2MXn)
6.10.4 Synthesis of cyclopentadienyl metal complexes
6.10.5 Reactivity and properties of cyclopentadienyl metal complexes
6.11 Some other organometallic complexes
6.12 Transition metal arene complexes
6.12.1 Dibenzene complexes
6.12.2 Synthesis of some other arene complexes
6.13 Cycloheptatriene complexes
6.14 Cyclooctatetraene complexes
6.15 Summary
6.17 Answers
6.18 References

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6.1. OBJECTIVES
In this chapter, synthesis, bonding, structure, reactions and various structural aspects of
organometallic compounds with various σ donor/ π acceptor ligands will be discussed. These types of
ligands are alkenyl, allyl, aryl, akynyl, diene, cyclopentadiene etc. This chapter will first cover some
basic concepts and terminologies of organometallic chemistry and proceed to organometallic complexes,
their synthesis, reactions and properties. The chapter aims to provide an insight into the structure and
bonding of metal atoms with π molecular orbitals of the organic ligands such carbene, carbyne and
carbide along with some other relevant aspects.
6.2. INTRODUCTION
It is the study of organometallic compounds. These compounds contain metal element bond of largely
covalent character. It is a combined aspect of organic and inorganic chemistry.
Organometallic compounds: Compounds of metal ions with organic ligands in which metal is bound to
the ligand via metal-carbon bond are known as organometallic compounds. The bonding interaction in
these complexes is defined, as it must be “ionic or covalent, localized or delocalized between one or
more carbon atoms of an organic group or molecule and a transition, lanthanide, actinide, or main group
metal atom. This M―C bond may be single, double or triple bonded (M―C, M═C, M ≡ C). The study
on metal carbon single bonds was one of the earliest starting in about nineteenth century when
compounds such as the Grignard reagent were in focus. Organometallic compounds have acted as a
connecting link between organic and inorganic chemistry. These complexes have found wide range of
applications in the field of catalysis.
This chapter will deal with metal alkenyl, allyl, aryl, akynyl, diene and cyclopentadiene complexes
along with some arene and alicyclic ligand complexes covering their synthesis, stability, chemical
reactivity, nomenclature, applications and some other aspects.

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6.3. HAPTICITY
The term hapticity describes the manner in which group of contiguous atoms of a ligand are
coordinated to the metal center. It is indicated by Greek letter eta (η). In the symbol ηx, x represents the
number of contiguous atoms of the ligand that are coordinated to the metal. The term is usually
employed to describe ligands having extended π-conjugation. eg. Ferrocene: bis(η5-
cyclopentadienyl)iron, Zeise’s salt: K[PtCl3(η2-C2H4)].H2O
6.4. THE 18-ELECTRON RULE
This rule helps in predicting the stability of metal complexes. In thermodynamically stable
transition metal complexes, the sum of number of ‘d’ electrons and the electrons provided by the
conventional ligands should equal 18. The rule is generally found to be followed by electron rich metal
center (low oxidation state) and π-accepting ligand.
Method of counting electrons using neutral atom method
Ligand Neutral atom
electron count
Amine (M-NR3) 2
Amide (M-NR2) 1
μ-amido (M–(NR2)–M; bridging –NR2 3
Alkene (sidewise; η2) 2
Alkyne (sidewise; η2) 2
Alkoxide (M–OR) 2

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μ-alkoxide (M–(OR)–M; bridging –OR 3
η1-allyl 1
η3-allyl 3
μ-alkyne 4
μ-alkyl 1
η3-Allenyl 3
η2-Butadiene 2
η4-Butadiene 4
Alkyl (M–R) 1
Aryl (M–Ar) 1
acyl (M–C(O)–R 1
Carbonyl (M-CO) 2
η1-cyclopentadienyl 1
η5-cyclopentadienyl 5
η6-benzene 6
η2-Benzene 2
η7-cycloheptatrienyl 7
η8-Cyclooctatetraenyl 8
Carbene (M=CR2) 2
Carbyne (M≡CR 3
μ-CO (M–(CO)–M); bridging 2
Hydrogen (M-H) 1
μ-H; bridging 1
Halogen (M–X) 1
μ-X (M–X–M); X = bridging halogen 3

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Phosphine (M-PR3) 2
μ-phosphido (M–(PR2)–M 3
Nitrosyl bent 1
Nitrosyl linear 3
Thiolate (M–SR) 1
Some examples:
In neutral atom method, metal is taken in zero oxidation state and any positive or negative charge
on the coordination sphere is added if positive and subtracted if negative.
1. Fe(Cp)2(CH2NMe)2: (Fe; 8 e) + (2 η5- Cp; 10 e) = 18 electrons
Determination of total number of metal-metal bonds
i. First determine the total number of valence electrons (VE) in the molecule that is the valence electrons
contributed by the metal plus valence electrons from each ligand plus the charge suppose it comes out to
be X.
ii. Now subtract this number (X) from the product of (n x18), where n=total number of metal atoms in
the complex, say {(n x 18)-X} comes out to be Y.
iii. Y divided by 2 gives the total number of M-M bonds.

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iv. X divided by n gives total number of electrons per metal atom. If the total number of electrons come
out to be 18 that implies there are no M-M bonds; if it comes out to be 17, this indicates presence of 1
M-M bond; if it is 16 it would indicate 2 M-M bonds and so on.
Some examples:
Complex TVE (18 x n)-X M-M bonds Bonds per Geometry

(X) =Y (Y/2) metal (X/n) about metal
Fe3(CO)12 48 (18 x 3)-48 6/2=3 48/3 = 16;
=6
2 bonds per
metal
Co4(CO)12 60 72-60 =12 12/2=6 60/4=15; 3
(η4-C4H4)2Fe2(CO)3 30 36 – 30 = 6 6/2 = 3 30/2 = 15; 3 Fe≡Fe
6.5. ORGANOMETALLIC CARBENE, CARBYNE, CARBIDO COMPLEXES
6.5.1. Transition metal carbene complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
Transition metal carbene complexes are those which show bonding with divalent organic ligand
known as the carbene (M=CR2). One of the most initial class of compounds containing metal carbon
double bonds are carbene complex, first reported by Fischer and Maasböl in 1964.
Hexacarbonyltungsten reacts with methyl or phenyl lithium followed by reaction with diazomethane
generates metal carbene complex.

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Carbenes are those species, which contain a neutral divalent carbon having only six electrons. Out
of these, two electron pairs are involved in bonding with other substituents while the remaining electron
pair is nonbonding. This lone pair of electrons may be paired (singlet) or unpaired (triplet) giving rise to
singlet and triplet forms respectively. Singlet carbenes are also known as Fischer carbenes. In both types
of carbene, carbon is sp2 hybridized.
6.5.1.1. Synthesis of complexes
6.5.1.2. Structure and bonding
The metal-carbon bond can be represented by several resonance structures as shown below.
The coordinated carbene is sp2hybridized and has trigonal planar geometry. The pair of electrons
in sp2orbital may participate in the formation of metal carbon sigma bond, and the empty pzorbital may
participate in accepting pi-electron density. Metal carbon double bonds may result if the filled metal d
orbitals donate electrons to the empty pz orbital of carbene. Fischer carbenes are found with low
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oxidation state metal centres usually middle and late transition metals such as Fe(0), Mo(0), Cr(0),
W(0), π-electron acceptor metal and π-donor substituents on carbon such as alkoxide and amino groups.
Later, Schrock discovered second type of carbenes, which are nucleophilic in nature (see reaction
below). These were called “Schrock” carbenes to differentiate them from Fischer carbenes.
These carbenes are found with early transition metal complexes existing in high oxidation states,
non-π accepting auxiliary ligands and non-π donating substituents on carbon. Schrock carbenes have two
unpaired electrons existing in triplet state. Each unpaired electron of carbene overlaps with two metal
orbitals, which provide an electron. The role of carbene carbon in accepting or donating electrons
depends directly on the extent of π bonding involving metal and substituents present on carbon. The IR
data reveals that the carbene carbon is weak π-acceptor and stronger σ-donor than carbonyl.
6.5.1.3. Reactions of transition metal carbenes
1. The nucleophilic nature of Fischer carbene is shown in the reaction given below. The functionalized
Ru Fischer-type complexes are used in a variety of olefin metathesis reactions.
(η5-C5H5)2MeTa=CH2 + AlMe3 (η5-C5H5)2MeTa–CH2AlMe3
2. Electrophilic nature of Fischer carbene is shown in the reaction given below. Here, NH3 acts as a
nucleophile forming the intermediate and eliminates a molecule of methanol in the product. The reaction
is favorable because electronegativity of nitrogen is less than oxygen also; the π-electron donor
capability is more than oxygen.
3. Carben metal complexes can undergo reaction similar to Wittig reaction

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6.5.2. Transition metal carbyne complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
After a decade of discovery of metal-carbon double bonds, first report of a metal-carbon triple
bond was published.
The carbyne ligand is considered as a three electron donor having a pair of electron in a sp
hybridized orbital and a single electron in p orbital. These sp electrons are donated to form the σ-bond
while the p electrons pair up with one metal atom to form the π-bond respectively. The second π-bond is
formed by the donation of an electron pair from the metal atom to the empty p orbital of the ligand.
They exhibit almost linear geometry. The M―C bond is shorter than those found in metal carbene
complexes.
6.5.3. Transition metal carbido complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
In carbido complexes, atomic carbon functions as a ligand. Carbon bound solely to metal atoms
are called carbido complexes. As such, these complexes are not very reactive however, if one or more
metal atom(s) is/are removed exposing the carbon atom, it becomes a highly reactive species. They are
useful in the synthesis of more complicated carbides. In [Fe6C(CO)16]2- oxidation causes removal of two
Fe2+ ions exposing the carbon atom which can react with nucleophiles such as carbon monoxide. The
carbido complexes are used as precursors for the synthesis of carbides and other organic synthesis.
RuC(PCy3)2Cl2 is an example of terminal carbide complex with Ru–C distance lying in the range of
metal carbon triple bond. Here, PCy is tricyclohexylphosphine ligand. Some examples of metal carbide
complexes are shown below.

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The carbon atom in carbide complexes is inert but when it is exposed after removal of one or more
metal atoms, it becomes reactive. An example explaining this, is given below.
6.6. TRANSITION METAL π-COMPLEXES

Transition metal π complexes are frequently observed with alkene, allyl, diene and arene ligands.
These ligands have unsaturation and hence, rich in π electrons which have the ability to participate in
various types of bonding; σ donation, π donation or π back bonding. The formation of metal ligand bond
with these unsaturated ligands changes their properties greatly which plays a crucial role in their
important synthetic applications. The metal π complexes can be divided into various types on the basis
of their electron donor capability.
i. Alkenyl and alkynyl complexes; alkene and alkyne-two electron donors
ii. Allylic complexes: Allyl - three electron donor
iii. Dienyl complexes: Diene - four electron donor
iv. Cyclopentadienyl complexes - five electron donor
v. Arene complexes – Aryl - six electron donor

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6.6.1. Transition metal alkene complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
The first metal olefin complex was synthesized by Danish chemist Zeise. The complex
K[PtCl3(C2H4)]•H2O is known as Zeise’s salt. Here, the metal Pt is bound to ethylene.
Alkenes are neutral two electron donors (per C=C double bond). Due to the presence of empty π*
antibonding orbitals, there is the possibility of some π-backbonding. Alkenes are weakly coordinating
ligands and important substrates for catalytic reactions. The metal-olefin bonding interaction can be
explained by Dewar Chatt model.
The π bond in alkene (two electron donor) binds in a σ fashion to the metal. The Dewar Chatt
model takes into account two mutually opposing electron donation. One sigma donation occurs from
C=C π-electrons to an empty dπ metal orbital of metal followed by π-back donation from filled metal dπ
orbital into empty C=C π* orbital. Thus, it is obvious that metal with d0 configuration will not form
metal-olefin complexes. This type of electron donation mentioned above affects the C=C bond of the
olefinic moiety bound to metal bringing about a change in hybridization as well as in the C−C bond
distance. The amount of π back bonding depends upon how electron rich the metal center is and whether
or not electron withdrawing groups are present on alkene so as to increase its electron accepting
capability. For example, in the complex shown below the presence of electron withdrawing fluorine
groups make it a better π acceptor. This results in weakening of C=C bond but strengthening of alkene
metal bond. [Rh(Cp)(ƞ2-F2C=CF2)2

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In case of smaller metal to ligand π−back donation compared with the ligand to metal σ−donation,
lengthening of the C−C bond in the metal bound olefin moiety is observed. This happens because the
alkene to metal σ−donation removes the C=C π−electrons away from the C=C bond of the olefin moiety
and towards the metal center, thus,, decreasing its bond order and increasing the C−C bond length. Also,
as the metal to ligand π−back donation increases, the electron donation from the filled metal dπ orbital
to the π* orbital of the metal which is bound to olefin moiety increased. This results in an increase in the
C=C bond length. This lengthening of the C=C bond in the olefin bound to the metal can be correlated
to the π−basicity of the metal. For example, for a weak π−basic metal, C=C bond lengtheningis expected
to be small while that for a strong π−basic metal, C=C bond lengthening would be significant.
As a result of ligand−metal π−back donation, change of hybridization at olefinic carbon is

observed. The sp2 olefinic carbon in complexes with no metal to ligand π−back donation changes to sp 3
carbon in complexes having metal to ligand π−back donation. This change in hybridization can be easily
detected by 1H and 13
C NMR spectroscopy. Electronic effects in alkenes can be easily monitored by
using IR spectroscopy. The greater the π−back bonding, the weaker the C=C double bond and the lower
the C=C stretching frequency in the IR. Note that both σ−donation and π−back bonding weaken the C=C
bond and lower the stretching frequency, but π−back bonding has a more pronounced effect.
The metal to ligand π−back donation is also responsible for stronger binding of strained olefin
system to the metal centre such as observed in the case of cyclopropane and norbornene. The stronger
bonding of these systems arises from the relief in strain achieved upon binding to the metal. In the
metal-olefin complexes having insignificant π−back bonding, the chemical reactivity of the olefin bound
to the metal is reverse to the free olefin. A free olefin is electron rich due to the presence of π−electrons
in its outermost valence orbital and hence, it undergoes electrophilic attack. But in the olefin bound to
the metal (olefin-metal complex), the complex has significant σ−donation of the olefinic π−electrons and
metalto-ligand π−back donation is negligible, the olefinic C becomes positively charged and hence,
undergoes a nucleophilic attack. This nature of reversal of olefin reactivity is called umpolung character.
Overall, the thermodynamic stability of alkene complexes depends on nature of alkene and
metal.
1. Electron withdrawing groups on alkene generally increase the strength of metal alkene bond
while electron donating groups decrease the stability.

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2. If an alkene can form cis and trans isomers in almost all cases, the cis-alkene forms the more
stable complex.
3. Metal complexes with strained ring alkene system (eg. cyclopropene) exhibit higher stability.
The ring strain raised the energy of cycloalkene ring system making it a better donor to metal
centre.
4. Chelating dienes show better stability due to the chelate effect such as norbornadiene and
cyclooctadiene. These can be easily substituted at the metal centre by phosphines.
5. Third row metals form the strongest bonds and most stable complexes.
6.6.1.2. Synthesis
Metal alkene complexes are synthesized by the following methods:
1. Reduction of metal in presence of olefin
2. Substitution

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3. Reduction in presence of an olefin
6.6.1.3. Reactions
1. Insertion reactions
Alkenes insert into M-X bonds where X is any other atom. The reaction is most common when X
is hydrogen. For other atoms, the reaction becomes rare. Alkenes with strained system also undergo
insertion reactions readily.
2. Nucleophilic attack
3. Hydrogenation
This reaction is useful in the role played by olefins in catalytic reactions.

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4. Carboxylation
5. Hydroformylation (oxo reaction)
Conversion of alkenes to aldehydes RCH2CH2CHO (major) and RCH(CHO)R (minor) in presence

of cobalt catalyst.
6. Olefin metathesis
Alkene metathesis or alkene dismutation are reactions in which carbon-carbon double bond is
broken and rearranged in a statistical manner to give new products
6.6.2. Transition metal alkynyl complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
Alkynes differ from alkenes in having an extra pair of pi electrons. They can act as two or four
electron donors depending on the need of the metal involved. The extra pair of pi electrons make them
excellent bridging ligands.

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Alkynes can combine as sigma bonding (ƞ1) and /or π bonding (ƞ2) giving rise to many
coordination modes. Transition-metal alkynyl complexes can be regarded as complexes of the HC≡C¯
ligand, which is isoelectronic with CN¯, CO and N2. Alkynes are categorized as strong-field ligands in
spectrochemical series and good σ and π donors and poor π acceptors, compared to other ligands in the
series. Alkynes are better donors than alkenes and coordinate more readily to metal for steric and
electronic reasons. They are also more reactive towards undergoing C-C coupling among other
reactions. Whenever, alkynes act as bridging ligands as they almost always bridge parallel to M-M axis.
They can bridge more than two metals in cluster compounds.
After coordination, substantial changes are seen in the structure of alkyne moiety such as
distortion from linearity (change in angle theta ϴ) and increase in carbon–carbon bond length (L).
Here also, the bonding can be understood based on Dewar Chatt Duncanson
model. That is the ligand to metal electron donation takes place via interaction of
filled π bonding alkyne orbital with a suitable acceptor orbital on metal. And electron back donation
from filled metal d orbital into π* antibonding of alkyne which causes weakening of C≡C bond. The
ligand to metal electron donation predominates in high oxidation metal ions and electron rich alkynes.
Whereas, the back donation occurs in low oxidation state metals and electron poor alkynes. The net
effect of these two electron donating phenomenon is the decrease in carbon–carbon bond order and
gives multiple bond character to metal-alkyne linkage. Thus, they are sometimes represented as
metallocyclopropenes.

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In case of electron deficient metals, the metal alkyne linkage is additionally strengthened by
secondary-(π)-alkyne to metal interactions, resulting in alkyne acting as four electron donor.
6.6.2.2. Synthesis
1. From metal carbonyls
M(CO)6 + RC≡CR’ M(CO)5 (RC≡CR’) + CO
(M= Mo, W)
Fe(CO)5 + RC≡CR Fe(CO)5 (ƞ2 −RC≡CR) + CO
V(CO)4(ƞ5−C5H5)2 + RC≡CR V(CO)2 (ƞ2 −RC≡CR)(ƞ5−C5H5)2+ 2CO
2. From transition metal halide salts
3. From alkali metal or alkaline earth metal salts of alkyne
Until recently, most of σ-alkynyl complexes were prepared by the interaction of either an alkali-
metal or an alkaline-earth-metal alkynyl complex (M =Li, Na, Mg, etc.) with a transition-metal halide
LnM X (X=Cl, Br, I), or the neutral alkyne itself with a transition-metal complex. The first method is of
displacement reaction, in which the alkynyl anion acts as a nucleophile and the metal center as an
electrophilic substrate.
RC≡CM + LnM’X (RC≡C)LnM’ + MX
(M = Li, Na. Mg; M’= transition metals, X = Cl, Br, I, Ln= any neutral ligand)
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4. Dehydrohalogenation
In this process, a cuprous halide is used as a catalyst. Dehydrohalogenation occurs between di-
terminal alkynes and transition metal halides. Amine acts as an acid acceptor and solvent.
6.6.2.3. Reactions
A. Reactions at C−C triple bond
Nucleophilic addition
This type of reaction may result in the formation of cis or trans adduct when direct attack of
nucleophile (Nu) occurs at alkyne. It is observed with coordinatively saturated nonlabile complexes.
Formation of cis adduct probably occurs via initial attack at the metal or at some auxiliary ligand
followed by migration of Nu to alkyne. In the reaction shown below, the trans adduct is formed which
then undergoes oxidative carbonylation.
Electrophilic addition

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These types of reactions result in formation of metal-vinyl complexes or final formation of

substituted olefins. Because of net electron withdrawal by organometallic fragment, metal alkyl
complexes are less reactive than free alkynes towards electrophilic attack.
1. A good exception is found in the complex NbCl3(THF)2(alkyne) owing to its strong nucleophilic
character. It reacts with 1,2-aryldihalides in a regioselective manner to yield 2,3-disubstituted-1-
naphthols
2. Pt(PPh3)2(ƞ2-PhC≡CPh) Pt(PPh3)2Cl + PhCH=CHPh
M-H addition / hydrogenation
Trans-hydrogenation of alkynes proceeds via a vinyl species
M−C addition
In the reaction of L2PtClMe with electrophilic alkynes, cis-M−C addition is observed.
Coupling reactions with other unsaturated molecules

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Alkynes undergo several metal assisted coupling reactions with olefins, alkynes and other
unsaturated species leading to cyclization, oligomerization and polymerization. Some of the most
common metal-assisted intermolecular cyclo coupling reactions with various species are shown below.
Displacement reactions
Displacement of one alkyne by another has been used for synthesis of new alkyne complexes.
Pt(PR3)2(HC≡CH) + RC≡CH Pt(PR3)2(RC≡CH) + HC≡CH
Displacement reaction is shown by some other ligands also such as the phosphines.
Pt(PR3)2(HC≡CH) + 2PPh3 (excess) Pt(PR3)4 + HC≡CH
Reactions on π bond of alkyne

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6.7. TRANSITION METAL ALLYL COMPLEXES

Metal allyl complexes can be classified as σ allyl (σ-C3H5) complexes, π allyl (π-C3H5) complexes
and allyl bridged (-C3H5) complexes. In σ allyl complexes (η1, monohapto form), the allyl radical
(CH2=CHCH2˙) contributes only one electron to the metal-allyl bond giving a conventional carbon-
metal electron-pair linkage. Whereas in π allyl complexes (η3, trihapto form), the allyl radical
contributes three electrons to metal-allyl bond. This results in a stronger metal-allyl bond in σ
complexes. There are some reports where allyl ligand binds in a bridging manner.
6.7.1. σ−Allyl transition metal complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
6.7.1.1. Synthesis
These complexes can be synthesized via following methods.
i. Treatment of sodium salt of desired metal carbonyl with allyl halide gives σ allyl complexes
Na+[Mn(CO)5]¯ + ClCH2CH=CH2 (CO5)Mn(σ-C3H5) + NaCl
ii. Addition of metal hydrides to conjugated dienes
π-C5H5Fe(CO)2H + CH2=CHCH=CH2 π-C5H5Fe(CO)2(σ-CH2CH=CHCH3)
6.7.1.2. Reactions
σ-allyl complexes are generally yellow oils insoluble in water but soluble in polar solvents.
i. Exposure of σ-allyl metal carbonyl complexes to UV light results in the displacement of carbon
monoxide from the metal and formation of a π-ally1 derivative.
ii. Carbonyl insertion
iii. Protonation with acids gives π-ethylenic metal complexes.

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(a)
(b)
6.7.2 π−Allyl transition metal complexes (structure, synthesis and reactions)
The structure of π−allyl transition metal complexes was revealed by X ray diffraction studies on
π−allylpalladium dichloride (π-C3H5PdCl)2. It revealed that the terminal carbons are equivalent, having
equal C−C bond length and the three carbons are in plane facing the metal. The molecular orbitals of
allyl ligand (Ψ1, Ψ2, Ψ3) interact with the metal in metal allyl complex. The energy of these orbitals
increases with increase in number of modes. Usually Ψ1, and Ψ2 molecular orbitals participate in ligand
to metal σ-donation, where Ψ1 is involved in dative L-type bonding and Ψ2 is involved in covalent
bonding with metal d-orbitals.
6.7.2.1. Synthesis
Experimental precautions in the synthesis of these complexes are essential such as exclusion of air
from reaction mixture.
1. Reaction of salts of transition metal carbonyls with allyl halides similar to the one discussed for σ-
allyl complexes can be used to obtain π-allyl complexes.
Na[Mn(CO)5] + CH2=CH−CH2−Br (CO)5Mn(η1-C3CH5) + NaBr
2. Direct reaction between an allyl halide or alcohol and a metal halide or a metal carbonyl.

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3. Reaction of allyl Grignard reagents with metal salts
4. Reaction of olefins or allenes (eg. CH2=C=CH2) with metal salt also result in formation of allyl
complexes. The reaction is believed to proceed via olefin-metal complex intermediate.
5.Protonation of diene metal complexes

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6.7.2.2. Reactions
The stability of π−allyl transition metal complexes varies greatly. Some palladium complexes are
stable above 200 deg C while some are very unstable. Most of these complexes undergo oxidation; some
are highly sensitive (such as bis(π-allyl)nickel) and ignite in air.
1. Hydrolysis
2. Displacement reactions
π-allyl groups can be displaced by other ligands such as tertiary phosphines, carbon monoxide,
alkenes etc. However, the allyl complexes offer varied degree of resistance to displacement by other
ligands.
In a similar nickel complex, [π-C3H5NiCl]2the π-allyl system is not displaced by

triphenylphosphine instead (NiCl)2 bridge is cleaved
In contrast bis(π-allyl)Ni is very reactive and undergoes displacement of both π-allyl groups.
3. Insertion reaction

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4. Reaction with nucleophile
5. Reaction with Electrophile
6. Catalytic properties of π-allyl nickel complexes
The 16 electron complex of cyclododecatrienyl-nickel reacts catalytically with butadiene at 20 C.

Here, cyclotrimerization of diene results in the formation of cis and trans isomers of cyclododecatriene.
The cyclododecatriene ligand readily “slips-off” nickel.
6.7.3 Bridging / μ-allyl metal complexes
Murdoch and Weiss found on the basis of proton magnetic resonance studies that the complex
C3H5Fe(CO)3I exists as in a monomer-dimer equilibrium in solution. It was then suggested that the
dimeric species involved bridging allyl groups. However, it is not yet certain that bridging allyl
complexes exist but still there is a strong possibility of their existence.

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6.8. TRANSITION METAL BUTADIENE COMPLEXES (STRUCTURE,

SYNTHESIS AND REACTIONS)
6.8.1. Structure and bonding
The diene ligands discussed here are 4 (hapticity ) electron donors. The most studied complexes are
of 1,3-butadiene which is a 4-electron donor. It binds to the metal in a cis manner. The Dewar-Chatt
model predicts that the ligand may bind to metal as L2 (π2) donor type (eg. (butadiene)Fe(CO)3), similar
to alkene or as LX2 (σ2π) donor type. The L2 type bonding is less common than LX2 type. As a
consequence of LX2 type of bonding, C2-C3 bond length (1.45 Å) becomes shorter (1.40 Å)

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In the above complexes, it can be observed that π back donation from iron (in Fe(ƞ4-C4H6)(CO)3) and σ
donation from alkenes to iron weaken and lengthen the C=C bond (becomes 1.46 Å from 1.36 Å). But in
the zirconium complex (Cp2(ƞ4-C4H6(CO)3), an interesting reversal is observed. Here the single bond
across the back of the butadiene is shortened (becomes 1.40 Å from 1.45 Å). This happens here because
Zr is in low +2 oxidation state (it prefers +4 oxidation state) and thus, electron rich; so, it transfers its
two electrons to butadiene via π−back donation.
The molecular orbitals of butadiene comprise of two filled Ψ1 (HOMO-1) and Ψ2 (HOMO)
orbitals and two vacant Ψ3 (LUMO) and Ψ4 (LUMO+1) orbitals. In their metal complexes, ligand to
metal σ-donation occurs from the filled Ψ2 orbital of the 1,3-butadiene while the π-back donation occurs
from metal to the empty Ψ3 orbital of butadiene.
As mentioned above, the cisoid form is more prevalent in 1,3-butadiene complexes however, few
transoid forms are also known such as in dinuclear Os3(CO)10C4H6 andmononuclear complexes
Cp2Zr(C4H6), shown above.

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6.8.2. Synthesis of butadiene metal complexes
1.
2.
3.Fe(CO)5 + CH2=CH−CH=CH2 Fe(CO)3(η3-C4H6) + 2CO
4.Fe(CO)5 + CH2=CH−CH=CH2 Fe(CO)(η4-C4H6)2 + 4CO
5. Using metal vapour
Cr + CH2=CH−CH=CH2 Cr(CO)4(η4-C4H6)
6.8.3. Reactions of diene complexes
1.Substitution
Fe(CO)5 + CH2=CH−CH=CH2 Fe(CO)(η4-C4H6)2 + 4CO
2. Substitution/addition reactions with nucleophile

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3. Addition of proton (electrophilic addition)
6.9. TRANSITION METAL CYCLOBUTADIENE COMPLEXES
(STRUCTURE AND BONDING)

Cyclobutadiene ligand shows interesting behavior because its neutral form is anti-aromatic (4π
electrons) and so, unstable as a free molecule. But its dianionic form is stable because it now becomes
aromatic having 6π electrons. Electronic structure of cyclobutadiene ligand is shown below.
The cyclobutadiene ligand is stabilized by significant π-back donation from metal orbitals to
vacant ligand orbitals. It must be remembered that complexation between cyclobutadiene and metal will
occur when both the metal and ligand orbitals have similar energies along with matching signs of their
wave functions. On complexation, cyclobutadiene acquires a square planar shape.
6.9.1. Synthesis
The first cyclobutadiene complex synthesized is [{NiCl(µ-Cl)(ƞ4-C4Me4)}2], since then a large

number of complexes have been synthesized.

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1.
2.
3.
6.9.2. Reactions
Cyclobutadiene in itself is highly reactive and unstable species. Some of the reactions of its metal
complexes are shown below.

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6.10. TRANSITION METAL CYCLOPENTADIENYL COMPLEXES

Dienyl ligands formally contribute five electrons in bonding to transition metals. The most
common dienyl is cyclopentadienyl (C5H5) abbreviated as Cp. This ligand comprises a wide variety of
organometallic compounds. It is inert to most nucleophiles and electrophiles and stabilizes the
organometallic complexes. They may be “piano-stool”CpMLn (n= 2, 3 or 4), metallocene Cp2M type,
bent metallocene Cp2MXn(n= 1, 2 or 3). In the “piano-stool” structure the Cp ring is designated as the
“seat” of the stool and the remaining ligands as its legs. Some other metallocenes are called “sandwich”
compounds where the metal atom is present between two carbocyclic rings.
The common binding form to metal is in η5 form but some lower hapticities are also seen such as
η3 in (η5-Cp)(η3-Cp)W(CO)2 and η1 (monohapto) binding in (η5-Cp)(η1-Cp)Fe(CO)2 which are rare. The
binding modes of Cp are also ascertained by 1H NMR spectroscopy. A singlet is observed between 5.5-
3.5 ppm for Cp-protons. The complex (π-C5H5)2Fe is commonly called as ferrocene and other similar
transition metal complexes are called by their trivial name analogous to ferrocene. The name arose
because they participated in reactions similar to those of aromatic compounds. Out of several
metallocenes, only ferrocene shows high thermal stability of up to 500⁰ C and does not oxidize in air.
Some examples of known metallocenes are presented below.

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6.10.1 Structure and bonding in ferrocene
In 1952, G. Wilkinson and R. B. Woodward deduced the sandwich structure of ferrocene: two
anionic cyclopentadienyl (Cp) rings each donating 6 π electrons to the Fe 2+ cation between them. The
structure of ferrocene as revealed by single crystal X ray diffraction studies confirm iron to be
sandwiched between two cyclopentadiene rings. These rings are arranged in an eclipsed manner. All
C−C distances are in the range 1.40±0.02 Å. The pentagonal ring of Cp is analogous to hexagonal ring
of benzene having sp2 hybridized carbon. Five electrons from five carbons and one electron from the
formation of Cp- contribute total of six electrons which are present in three of the five π-bonding orbitals
while the remaining two π-bonding orbitals are vacant. In the Fe complex, ferrocene, Fe(II) is d2sp3
-
hybridized, each Cp coordinates giving three electron pairs. Below is a depiction of electron filling in
hybridized orbitals of ferrocene.
The filled t2g orbitals of Fe(II) are involved in π-back bonding with vacant π* orbitals of the ligand
Cp-. Thus, each Cp- acts as a π-donor and π-acceptor in the formation of a sandwich compound.
6.10.2. Cyclopentadienyl-metal interaction in ferrocene
The frontier molecular orbitals (FMO) of cyclopentadienyl ligand contain five orbitals (Ψ1-Ψ5)
distributed within three energy levels. The lowest energy state (Ψ1)does not contain any node and so

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represented by a1 state. Following a1, the next higher energy states are Ψ2 and Ψ3 which are doubly
degenerate and represented as e1 states. They have one nodal plane containing the principal axis. Above
them lie doubly degenerate Ψ4 and Ψ5, designated as e2 states which have two nodal planes and are even
higher in energy. This pattern of doubly degenerate orbitals of increasing energy and nodal planes
continues until the number of molecular orbitals is equal to the number of atomic p orbitals that is the
number of carbon atoms in the ring. If this number is odd, the highest antibonding orbital is degenerate
and if it is even then the highest anti bonding orbital is non degenerate.
The orbitals on two ligands may interact in addition or in subtraction giving rise to ligand group
orbitals (LGO). The wave functions (Ѱ) of these five molecular orbitals are derived from the linear
combination of the five pπ atomic orbitals wave function () of the C5H5- ring. These combine with
atomic orbitals of matching symmetry on the metal to form the molecular orbitals (MO). For better
understanding, consider the lowest energy ligand bonding orbital. If the wave function of this orbital
from the two ligand metallocene rings are added, a gerade ligand group orbital having symmetry (a1g)
similar to atomic s orbital is formed. Conversely, if the two wave functions are subtracted, an ungerade
LGO is produced having same symmetry as that of an atomic p orbital (a2u). Thus, in a similar fashion,
other LGOs can be constructed by adding or subtracting the higher MOs of the two rings. Overall
molecular correlation diagram of Cp2M type of complexes is generated from the orbitals which
subsequently interact with the metal orbitals as shown below.

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The Cp2M type complexes are formed by the entire first row of transition metal ions fromSc to Zn.
The number of unpaired electrons correspond to the number of unpaired electrons present in the valence
orbitals of the metal.
From the first-row transition metal metallocenes, manganocene exists in two forms. First, is a high
spin form having five unpaired electrons as in Cp2Mn and the second is a low spin form with one
unpaired electron as in Cp2*Mn in which Cp* has higher field strength. Cobaltocene, Cp2Co has 19
valence electrons and thus gets oxidized to diamagnetic Cp2Co+ which now has 18 valence electrons.
Similarly, Cp2Fe is also diamagnetic with 18 valence electrons. MO diagram of ferrocene is shown
below. A total of 18 electrons are filled coming from Fe(II) (6 electrons) and from two C 5H5¯ rings
(2x6=12). Fe(C5H5)2 is more stable than Co(C5H5)2 and Ni(C5H5)2 having 19 and 20 electrons
respectively. This is due to the fact that in ferrocene there are no electrons in antibonding molecular
orbitals (ABMO) whereas in cobaltocene there is one electron and in nickelocene there are two electrons
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in antibonding molecular orbitals. These electrons are easily removed and thus, cobaltocene and
nickelocene are easily oxidized. Similarly, Cr(C5H5)2and V(C5H5)2 have 16 and 15 electrons
respectively thus they have empty bonding molecular orbital-nonbonding molecular orbitals which
makes them susceptible to being reduced.
6.10.3. BENT METALLOCENES (Cp2MXn)

These are called bent metallocenes since the two Cp rings are bent at an angle and X represents
some other auxiliary ligand. They are generally formed by members of group 4 and heavier members of
group 5-7. Here frontier doubly degenerate e2g orbitals of Cp2M moiety interact with the filled lone pair
orbitals of the ligand.

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6.10.4. Synthesis of cyclopentadienyl metal complexes
6.10.5. Reactivity and properties of cyclopentadienyl metal complexes
6.10.5.1. Reactions on C5H5 rings
The reactions on Cp ring of ferrocene are indicative of its aromatic properties. These include
electrophilic substitution reactions and Friedel Crafts reactions.
(a) Electrophilic substitution reactions: These include nitration, halogenation carboxylation etc.

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(b) Friedel Crafts reactions
2. Reaction with NO

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3. Reaction with PR3
4. Reaction with CO
5. Reaction with H+
6.11. SOME OTHER ORGANOMETALLIC COMPLEXES

Among other organometallic compounds, those of Ti, Cr, Nb and Mo are well known. Some
important ones are discussed here.
The Zeigler Natta catalyst is an organometallic compound of titanium. When TiCl4 is added to
triethylaluminium {Al(C2H5)3} in hexane, it yields the catalyst which is employed in conversion of
ethane to its straight chain polymer polyethene.

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Titanocene was discovered in 1956 by Wilkinson group as a bright green paramagnetic solid
which soon turned brown. But they could not establish its structure correctly. It was much later that the
correct structure of titanocene was established as a dimer having Ti−H bonds which were bridging. The
structure is shown below.
Some of the known compounds of Nb, Ta with Cp rings are [Nb(C5H5)2Cl2], [Nb(C5H5)2Cl3] and
[Ta(C5H5)2Cl2].
6.12. TRANSITION METAL ARENE COMPLEXES
6.12.1 Dibenezene complexes
The arene ligands discussed here are mostly benzene and substituted benzene which are 6
electrons donor (exhibiting hapticity η6). They form sandwich compounds where the arene ring acts as
the flat π-system between which a metal atom is present. These complexes are soluble in organic
solvents and are stable upto 200-300⁰ C.
Preparation and properties of dibenzene chromium
Dibenzene chromium is a black solid which melts at 280⁰ C. Chromium is d2sp3 hybridized.
Dibenzene chromium was first synthesized by using Grignard reagent. PhMgBr was made to react with
CrCl3 to form mono-hapto complex [CrPh3(Et2O)3] which rearranges to form [Cr(η6-C6H6)2]+ along with
some other products.
Fischer-Hafner method of arene complex synthesis is adapted more frequently. Here, aluminum is
used to reduce the metal salt and AlCl3 is used to assist binding of chromium to benzene. The cation
[Cr(η6-C6H6)2]+(AlCl4)- formed in first step is reduced to dibenzyl chromium with sodium dithionate

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(Na2S2O4). The Fisher-Hafner method has some limitations and does not work well for all metals such
as manganese and vanadium. The limitation also extends to substituted benzene. If the substituent has
lone pair of electrons such as in chloride or amino group, the lone pair complexes with AlCl3 and stops
the reaction.
3CrCl3 + 2Al + AlCl3+ 6C6H6 3[Cr(ƞ6- C6H6)2]+ [AlCl4]¯
2[Cr(ƞ6- C6H6)2]+ [AlCl4]¯ + Na2S2O4 + 4NaOH 2[Cr(C6H6)2] + 2Na2SO3 + 2NaCl + 2AlCl3 +

2H2O
Complexes of dibenzene with Cr, Mo and W are air sensitive. The benzene rings in these
complexes are eclipsed and have small rotational barrier that is their orientation can be altered easily.
Furthermore, these rings are labile and so can be substituted easily which is unlike Cp rings in ferrocene.
The reaction shown below also holds for dibenzene Mo and W complexes.
6.12.2. Synthesis of some other arene complexes

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6.13. CYCLOHEPTATRIENE COMPLEXES

Cycloheptatriene is also six electrons donor similar to benzene but differs in delocalization of
electrons in C7H8. It is non aromatic since it lacks planarity. In C7H8Mo(CO)3, the double bonds are
arranged trans to carbonyl ligands.
Synthesis of some cycloheptatrienyl complexes
6.14. CYCLOOCTATETRAENE COMPLEXES
Cyclooctatetraene or Cot has four π-bonds and hence, total of 8 eight electrons. Since, it does not
follow Huckel’s rule of (4n+2) electrons and is non planar, it is non aromatic compound. Cot is twisted
into a “tub-shape” which is 18 kcal more stable than the flat anti-aromatic form. However, its dicationic
form is planar and aromatic.

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The Cot dianion like Cp¯ anion reacts with actinides in their tetrapositive state (U4+, Np4+, Th4+,
Pu4+) and forms neutral metallocenes. The sandwich compound with uranium was the first metallocene
synthesized with Cot2- and called as uranocene.
UCl4+ 2Cot2¯ U(Cot)2
6.15. SUMMARY
This chapter provides understanding of a very important area of inorganic chemistry that is
organometallic chemistry. The unit builds the concept of synthesis, bonding and chemical reactivity of
organometallic complexes. It brings about a connection between organic and inorganic chemistry. The
concept of σ-bonding and π-back donation is the highlight of many organometallic complexes. The
study of these compounds is crucial because they play an important role in as catalysts in many organic
synthetic reactions.

Q1. The………….. of C−C bond distance in the metal bound olefin moiety is observed as a result of
ligand to metal …………
Q2. What is the oxidation state of Pt in Zeise’s salt?
Q3. Mention the type of orientations displayed by butadiene ligands for binding to metal

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Q4. The number of π−electrons present in the cyclobutadiene moiety of a metal cyclobutadiene
complex.
Q5. What different hapticitiesare exhibited by cyclopentadienyl ligand?
Q6. Specify the hapticities of the cyclopentadienyl ligands in Cp2W(CO)2
Q7. Specify the hapticity of the cyclopentadienyl ligands in CpRh(CO)2(PMe3)
Q8. What is the hybridization of carbon in carbene.
Q9. Give the formal oxidation state of the metal and the number of d-electrons in(η6 -C6H6)2Cr
Q10. Calculate and suggest if the given compounds follow 18 electron rule.
(i) [ReCl(H2C=CH2)(dppe)2] + ; [dppe = Ph2PCH2CH2PPh2]
(ii) CpMo(PMe3)2(C≡CMe)(CO)
(iii) Cp2Rh2(μ-NHMe)2
6.17. ANSWERS
A1. lengthening, σ− donation
A2. Pt(II)
A3. Cisoid (common) and transoid (rare).
A4. Six
A5. 1, 3, and 5
A6. 5 and 3
A7. 3
A8. sp2
A9. Cr(0), d4
A10.(i) Re(+2) = 5e; Cl- = 2e; CH2=CH2 = 2e; 2dppe= 8e

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Total= 17 electrons
(ii) Mo(+2)= 4e; Cp¯= 6e; CCR¯= 2e; CO= 2e; 2PR3= 4e
Total= 18 electrons
(iii)Rh(+2)= 6e; Cp¯= 6e; 2µ-NHMe¯= 4e; Rh-Rh= 1e
Total= 18 electrons
6.18. REFERENCES
1. C. Elschenbroich, A. Salzer, (1992), “Organometallics”, 2nd ed., Weinheim, VCH.
2. W.B. Jensen. (2005), J. Chem. Educ., 82: 28.
3. G. G. Melikyan, K. M. Nicholas, (1995), “Modern Acetylene Chemistry” (Eds.: P. J. Stang, F.

Diederich), Wiley, Weinheim, pp. 99-138.
4. M. L. H. Green, P. L. I. Nagy, (1965), “Allyl metal complexes”, Adv. Organomet. Chem,2: 325-363.

Reactivity” fourth ed., Harper Collins College, New York.

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Block II : METAL π-COMPLEXES AND METAL CLUSTERS
UNIT 7 METAL CLUSTERS
CONTENTS
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Boranes
7.3.1 Boron
7.3.2 Boron hydrides or boranes
7.3.2.1 Nomenclature
7.3.2.2 Classification
7.3.2.3 Styx numbers
7.3.2.4 Diborane
7.3.2.5 Structure and bonding7.3.2.6 Reactions
7.4 Carboranes
7.4.1Synthesis and reactions
7.4.1.1 Synthesis
7.4.1.2. Reactions
7.4.1.3 Carborane ligands
7.5 Wade’s rule
7.6 Metalloboranes
7.6.1 Synthesis
7.7 Metallacarboranes
7.8 Compounds with metal-metal multiple bonds
7.8.1 Dinuclear compounds
7.8.2 Some other metal clusters
7.9 Polyoxometalates (isopoly and heteropoly acids)\
7.9.1 The isopolyoxometalates or isopoly acids
7.9.2 The heteropolyoxometalates
7.9.3 Classification of polyoxometalates on the basis of structure
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7.9.4 Nomenclature of heteropolyoxometalates

7.9.5 Detailed structure of Keggin type polyoxometalate
7.9.6 Properties of heteropoly acids
7.9.7 Catalytic applications of heteropoly acids
7.10 Summary
7.12 Answers
7.13 References
7.1. OBJECTIVES
The chapter covers boranes, carboranes, metalloboranes, metallocarboranes along with various
aspects of isopoly and heteropoly acids. This chapter aims at providing a good understanding of metal
cluster compounds with respect to their synthesis, structure and properties. Types of boranes,
carboranes, their synthesis and various bonding aspects in these class of compounds will be focused.
Metal clusters have multiple metal atoms which have extensive coordination environment. It draws the
attention of the reader towards the change in chemistry of these materials from that of the bulk metal.
7.2. INTRODUCTION
Clusters are a collection of atoms or molecules which are intermediate in size between a molecule
and bulk solid. They may have varied nuclearities and stoichiometry and can be considered as link
between atoms, molecules and bulk material. The properties of clusters change with size. Metal clusters
have metal-metal bonds. This chapter first deals with boron compounds and then gradually leads to
clusters such carboranes, metalloboranes, metallocarboranes and isopoly-heteropoly acids. These
complex materials find various applications in the synthesis of various organic derivatives and industry.
7.3. BORANES
7.3.1. Boron
Boron occurs naturally as borax Na2B4O5(OH)4.8H2O and as kernite Na2B4O5(OH)4.2H2O. Some

other ores of boron are Colemanite, Urexite and Kernite. Borate minerals contain trigonal BO 3 or
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tetrahedral BO4 units. Boron has two stable isotopes, 5B11 (80.4% abundance) and 5B10 (19.6%), of
which 5B10 has a very high neutron absorption cross section. Boron is a non-metal belonging to group 13
(III A) whereas the other elements of this group show metallic properties. Thus, the chemistry of boron
is quite different from other elements of the group. Boron resembles carbon and silicon in its tendency to
form covalent compounds using its sp2 hybridized orbitals. No ionic compounds containing B3+ cations
are formed because the energy of ionization is very high. All BX3 compounds are coordinatively
unsaturated and behave as Lewis acids with Lewis bases generally forming adducts.
7.3.2. Boron hydrides or boranes
Boron forms several hydrides known as Boranes, composed solely of boron and hydrogen bonds
and may be neutral or ionic. They are electron deficient species possess fewer valence electrons than are
required for a localized bonding scheme. Their chemistry was first studied by Alfred Stock. Typical
boranes are B2H6, B4H10, B9H15, B10H14, and B20H16.
7.3.2.1. Nomenclature
The nomenclature of boranes is somewhat simple. As mentioned before boranes exist as neutral
and ionic species.
Neutral Boranes: For neutral boranes, prefix di, tri etc. are used before ‘borane’ to indicate the number
of boron atoms. The number of hydrogen atoms are indicated by writing the Arabic numeral in the
parentheses at the end. For example:
BH3 borane (3)
B2H6 diborane (6)
B3H7 triborane (7)
B4H10 tetraborane (10)
B5H9 pentaborane (9)
B5H11 pentaborane (11)
B6H10 hexaborane (10)
B10H14 decaborane (14)
B10H16 decaborane (16)

B20H16 icosaborane (16)
It is to be noted that these names are based on the molecular formula and not on their structures.
Generally, the numbers in the bracket are not written.

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Anionic Boranes: For anions the name ends with ‘ate’ and the number of hydrogen and boron atoms are
specified along with the charge. Example:
Na[B2H7] sodium heptahydrodiborate(1 -)

Na2[B2(C6H5)6] sodium hexaphenyldiborate(2 -)
Ca[B3H8]2 calcium octahydrotriborate(1 -)
Na2[B10Cl10] sodium decachlorodecaborate(2-)
Na2[B10H10] sodium decahydrodecaborate(2-)
Na[B10H9NH3] sodium amminenonahydrodecaborate(1-)
B10H8(NH3)2 diammineoctahydrodecaboron
[B10H7(NH3)3]+ triammineheptahydrodecaboron(1+) ion
[B10H8(COOH)2]2- dicarboxyoctahydrodecaborate(2-) ion
Na2B4O7 sodium heptaoxotetraborate(2-) or

sodium tetraborate
Certain prefixes such as ‘closo, nido and arachno are used. This classification will also be discussed. Eg.
Na2[B10H10] sodium decahydro-closo-decaborate(2-), [B12H11Clchloroundecahydro dodecaborate(2-)ion.
Substituted Boranes

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7.3.2.2. Classification
Higher boranes or borane clusters possess deltahedral structures which are somewhat complex in
terms of their 3c-2e bonding (Figure 7.1). A deltahedron is a polyhedron that possesses only triangular
faces, e.g., an octahedron. The boranes are mainly classified as:
1. closo-BnHn+2 (closo-Greek for cage), Closo pertains to the most symmetrical form that is a closed
polyhedra
2. nido-BnHn+4 (nido-Greek for nest), nido has one of the vertexes removed from a regular polyhedral; (n
+ 1)-cornered polyhedron.
3. arachno-BnHn+6 (arachno-Greek for spider web). Arachno is a higher version of nido, with most
highly connected boron vertex on the open face removed. Thus, the arachno form has two vertices
missing; (n + 2)-cornered polyhedron.
4. Hypho- BnHn+8 (Greek: net like): They have the most open clusters in which the B atoms occupy n
corners on an (n + 3)-cornered polyhedron.
5. Conjuncto- BnHn+10 (Latin: join together): They have structures formed by linking together of two or
more of the above-mentioned type of clusters.
They can also be written as having the general formula BnHn2‒, BnHn4‾, BnHn6‾, BnHn8‾, BnHn10‾ for closo,
nido, arachno, hypho and conjuncto respectively. That is formally subtracting the number of H+ ions
from the formula to make the number of boron and hydrogen atoms equal.

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Figure 7.1. Structure of various types of boranes
7.3.2.3. STYX number
The Styx rules were given by Lipscomb to determine what type of bonds are possible for a given
formula of boron hydride. It is assumed that one B‒H bond is present for each boron atom.
i. The centre 3c-2e, B‒H‒B bond is labelled as ‘S’
ii. Closed or open 3c-2e B‒B‒B bond is labelled as ‘T’
iii. The 2c-2e B‒B bond is labelled as ‘Y’
iv. The B‒H terminal bond (2c-2e) labelled as ‘X’ or simply we
can say number of BH2units
The B‒B‒B bond may be open or closed but it is the closed bonds that are always considered.

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7.3.2.4. Diborane(6)
Synthesis
Diborane(6), B2H6 is a gas and like most boranes it is air-sensitive and catches fire. It is
spontaneously hydrolyzed by water into hydrogen and boric acid.

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One of the simplest methods is hydride abstraction from BH4-.
BH4- + BX3 ½ B2H6 + HBX3- (X = Cl, Br)
3 NaBH4 + 4 BF3 2 B2H6 + 3 NaBF4
2 NaBH4 + I2 B2H6 + 2 NaI + H2
At industrial scale, diborane is prepared by reduction of BF3 with sodium hydride
2 BF3 + 6 NaH B2H6 + 6 NaF
Diborane acts as a very versatile reagent in synthesis of organoboranes. It also acts as a reducing
agent for certain functional groups such as nitriles and aldehydes.
Synthesis of some higher borane and their ions
Most of the higher boranes can be prepared from diborane by controlled pyrolysis reactions.
B10H14 + R3N 2(R3NH)+ + B10H102¯ + H2
6 B2H6 + R3N 2(R3NH)+ + B12H122¯ + 11 H2
7.3.2.5.Structure and bonding
In the earliest stages of decoding the structure of diborane, many errors and contradictions led to
the establishment of the structure known today. The imminent deficiency of electrons in their structural
formula indicates that there cannot be conventional 2c-2e (two center-two electron, two electrons are
shared between two atoms) bonds. Thus, in the efforts to rationalize the structure of boranes, earliest
concepts of multicenter bonding were developed. Languet-Higgins proposed the theory of 3c-2e (three
center-two electron) bonds which greatly helped in the understanding of bonding in boranes. This
implies that a pair of electrons can share more than two atomic centers.

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The simplest borane i.e. diborane B2H6, is two electron short species for bonding when compared
with its electron-precise analogue C2H6. Thus, diborane is two electron short of conventional 2c-2e
bonding. It was proposed that BH3 exists as dimer to form B2H6. This was later confirmed by X-ray
diffraction studies. These studies revealed the presence of terminal and bridging hydrogen atoms. The
two-terminal hydrogen atoms present on each boron atom form the conventional 2c-2e bonds; thus,
utilizing eight electrons out of the total of 12 electrons. The remaining two H atoms are bridging in
nature. They link together the two boron centers (B-H-B) as shown in Figure 7.2. The bridging bonds
are electron deficient utilizing only 4 electrons and form 3c-2e bonds. Thus, the deficiency of two
electrons is compensated by the formation of the electron deficient B‒Hµ‒B bridging bonds (Figure
7.2). The higher boranes acquired a deltahedral structure and involve formation of several 3c-2e bonds.
Figure 7.2. Bonding of diborane
Various types of bonds found in boranes are shown below.

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7.3.2.6. Reactions
Diborane
1. Reaction with oxygen
B2H6 + 3 O2 B2O3 + 3 H2O; Exothermic reaction ∆H= -2160 kJ/mol
2. Reaction with water

B2H6 + 6 H2O 2 B(OH)3 + 6 H2
3. Reaction with acids

• Diborane is hydrolyzed by weak acids such as alcohols.
B2H6 + 6 ROH (weak acid) 2 B(OR)3 + 6 H2
• With HCl, a terminal hydrogen is replaced with chlorine
B2H6 + HCl B2H5Cl + H2
4. Reaction with chlorine

B2H6 + 6 Cl2 2BCl3 + 6 HCl
5. Reaction with nucleophile

The electron deficient 3c-2e B-H-B sites are prone to attack by nucleophiles such as NH3,
(CH3)2NH, CH3NH2
B2H6 + 2 NH3 [H2B(NH3)2]+[BH4]¯
• Boronium ions formed above of the type [H2BL2]+ undergo substitution by other bases such as PR3
[H2B(NH3)2]+ + 2 PR3 [H2B(PR3)2]+ + 2 NH3
• Large amines cause symmetrical cleavage of diborane giving Lewis base adducts of BH3
B2H6 + 2 N(CH3)3 2H3B N(CH3)3
• Reactions with NH3 and N(R)3 reveal that Soft Lewis bases induce symmetrical cleavage of diborane,
while hard Lewis bases induce asymmetrical cleavage.

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5. Reduction
2 B2H6 + 2 Na NaBH4 + NaB3H8
B2H6 + NaBH4 NaB3H8 + H2
5 B2H6 + 2 NaBH4 Na2B12H12
7.4. CARBORANES
Carboranes are large family of clusters which contain boron and carbon atoms. They are mixed
hydrides of carbon and boron having electron deficient molecular structure. The carboranes are
considered to be derived from BnHn2¯ by replacement of BH¯ unit(s) with isoelectronic (since C atom
has one more electron than B so CH moiety is isoelectronic with BH¯) and isostructural CH unit(s).
Each C-H group is regarded as donating 3 electrons to the framework electrons. So, a replacement
of two BH¯ will give a neutral molecule having general formula Bn-2C2Hn. Carboranes having n =5 to n
= 12 are known. They have delocalized electrons in the boron framework having one or more carbon
atoms. Carboranes with higher boron content are dominant. The most studied boranes are B10H102- and
B12H122-;thus, for carboranes, the best studied system is C2B10H12 that is isoelectronic with [B12H12]2-.
Some other boranes and their corresponding carboranes are listed below:
Pentaborane(5) B5H52- [C2B3H5], Hexaborane(6)B6H62- [C2B4H6]

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Heptaborane(7) B7H72- [C2B5H7], Octaborane(8) B8H82- [C2B6H8],
Nonaborane(9)B9H92- [C2B7H9] , Decaborane(10) B10H102-[C2H8H10]
Dianions B11H112- [C2B9H11].
Similar to boranes, carboranes are also classified as closo, nido and arachno which can be
regarded as derivatives of BnHn+2 (or related anion BnHn2¯), BnHn+4 and BnHn+6 respectively.
i. Closocarboranes: General formula is CxBn-xHn-x+2 bonded by n+1 skeletal pair of electrons. Eg. Most
common with x=2, C2Bn-2Hn. One or both C atoms can be replaced by isoelectronic B¯ ion to give CBn-
1Hn+1.
ii. Nidocarboranes: General formula is CxBn-xHn-x+4 bonded by n+2 skeletal pair of electrons. Here also
C can be replaced by B¯ or BH to give compounds that have their skeleton isostructural with BnHn+4
iii. Arachnocarboranes: General formula is CxBn-xHn-x+6 bonded by n+3 skeletal pair of electrons. These
are structurally related to BnHn+6 (i.e. x =0); for example C2B7H13 is related to B9H15 and B9H14¯
7.4.1. Synthesis and reactions
7.4.1.1. Synthesis
7.4.1.2. Reactions
1. Pyrolysis

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2. Cluster Expansion
7.4.1.3. Carborane ligands
The carborane anion or dicarbollide anion [B9C2H11]2− has been used as ligand and numerous
studies have been done on its derivatives. This anion forms sandwich compounds with many metal ions
known as bis(dicarbollides). When the 1,2-and 1,7-dicarba-closo-dodecaboranes are heated with
alkoxide ions, degradation of parent carborane occurs to form isomeric nidocarborane anions
(B9C2H12)−.
The (B9C2H12)− anions are very strong bases and readily acquire H+ to give B9C2H112− anion which
can be further protonated to give neutral nido-carboranes B9C2H13. The B9C2H13 is a strong acid which
on heating gives closo-carborane (B9C2H11) with loss of hydrogen.

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7.5. WADE’S RULE

A set of rules were laid down by Kenneth Wade to predict the shape of boron clusters. These rules
correlate skeletal structures of boranes, carboranes, heteroboranes and their anions (closo, nido, arachno,
hypho) with the number of skeletal electron pairs present in them.
According to the rule, suppose a cluster has say ‘n’ skeletal atoms (that is the vertices) then it will
adopt closo structure if it contains n+1 skeletal bonding electron pairs. Similarly, nido if n+2, arachno if
n+3 and hypho if n+4 skeletal bonding electron pairs respectively and so on.
To determine this, one needs to know the number of skeletal electron pairs in a cluster which can
be determined by following the electron count for various donating units as given below.
Each BH unit gives 2 skeletal bonding electrons.
B as such gives three skeletal electrons.
Each C-H unit of a carboranecontributes 3 skeletal bonding electrons.
Each additional H furnishes 1 skeletal bonding electron.
Ionic charges must be included in the electron count.
For borane clusters with other hetero-elements,
C, Si, Ge and Sn of a cluster is replaced with a BH unit;
N, P and As with a BH2 unit and
S andSe with a BH3 unit for counting purpose
Examples:
B5H9 B2H7¯ C2B10H12 C2B9H112¯

5 BH = 5x2 =10e 2 BH = 2x2 = 4e 2 CH= 3x2 = 6e 2 CH= 2x3= 6e
4 H = 4x1 = 4e 5 H = 5x1 = 5e 10 BH= 2x10 = 20e 9 BH= 9x2 =18e
14 e = 7pair 1(-) = 1e 26e = 13 pair 2(-) = 2e
n = 5; n+2 = nido 10 e = 5 pair n= 12; n+1 = closo 26 e = 13 pair
n = 2; n+3= arachno n= 11; n+2 = nido

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(MeSi)2B10H10 CPB10H11
2 MeSi = 2x3 = 6e Consider C≡BH; PB11H12
10 BH = 10x2 = 20e Consider P≡BH2; B12H14
26 e = 13 pair 12BH = 12x2= 24e
n = 12; n+1 = closo 2H = 2e
26e = 13 pair; n= 12; n+1= closo
7.6. METALLOBORANES
Compounds in which metal atom bound with boron hydride group form the class of compounds
known as metalloboranes. They can be classified into following categories:
1. Ionic hydroborates: Such as NaBH4, Ba(BH4)2

2. Metal hydroborates: Contain hydrogen bridge bonds, M‒H‒B. Eg: Al(BH4)3, (Ph3P)2CuBH4.
3. Metal Carbaboranes: Include π-bonded ‘sandwich compounds’.
4. Compounds containing metal-boron bonds except those in the above category (3).
Like boranes and carboranes, metalloboranes can also be structurally classified as closo, nido,
arachno, crypto and commo. Some of them are depicted below.
7.6.1. Synthesis
1. Metathesis of borane anion

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2. Polyhatpto coordination complexes which may or may not have cluster arrangement
3. Oxidative insertion of metal leading to formation of expanded cluster
4. Partial degradation of borane anion
5. Deprotonation of metalloborane followed by metallation
6. Borane as a 2-electron ligand
7. Borane as a bronsted Acid

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8. Reaction of boron with atomized metal
9. Oxidative addition of B‒H to Ir+1
10. Cluster expansion using diborane
11. Synthesis of small clusters from mononuclear units
12. Metathesis of halogen containing polyboranes with anionic metal complexes
13. Thermally or photolytically induced cluster isomerization of a previously synthesized

metalloborane cluster
14. Ligand exchange reactions
15. Cluster expansion (reaction of a borane anion with a metal halide in the presence of a ligand)
7.7. METALLACARBORANES
Metallacarboranes or metallacarboboranes are metal complexes where carboranes or

heteroboranes act as ligands with at least one metal atom incorporated in the cage framework. They are
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inorganic polyhedral clusters which contain carbon, boron, hydrogen and metal ion in different
combinations. Hawthorne and co-workers first synthesised metallacarboranes in the mid-1960s. A
typical example of metallacarborane is the [C2B9H11]2− (dicarbollide) cluster having a metal atom
sandwiched between two dicarbollide units. Here, the dicarbollide, binds as η5 and thus, considered to be
isolobal with cyclopentadienyl ligand, somewhat similar to ferrocene. Hawthrone suggested that
[C2B9H11]2−is isoelectronic with C5H5- and therefore, it should be capable of acting as the π ligand in
similar metallocenes compounds.
The other highly investigated metallacarborane is nido-[2,3-R2C2B4H4]2(R=H or a cage carbon

substituents), having pentagonal bipyramidal structure.
There are two different types of metallacarboranes, endo- and exo. In endo- type, the metal
centre is sandwiched between two carborane clusters. Whereas, in exo- type, a metal fragment is linked
to the periphery of the carborane skeleton, generally through B-H···M interactions.
Synthesis
1. Preparation of [C2B9H11]2− (dicarbollide)
2. Preparation of metallacarboranes

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7.8. COMPOUNDS WITH METAL-METAL MULTIPLE BONDS
Metal clusters are those compounds which have metal-metal bonds. They are as old as chemistry
itself. The halide and oxide metal clusters will be discussed here. In these clusters, the metal ion is in
higher formal oxidation state +2 to +3 and frequently comprise of transition metals on the left side of
periodic table (early second row and third row of transition metals). Such as Zr, Nb, Tc, Ru, Rh, Hf, Ta,
W, Re, Os, Ir and Pt.
The d orbitals play a crucial role in the formation of these clusters since effective overlap of d
orbitals is necessary for the stability of metal cluster. Contraction of d orbitals will cause destabilizing
effect on the cluster. It is owing to these reasons that the transition metals of first row even in +2 or +3
oxidation states are unable to extend the d orbitals sufficiently for effective overlap.
7.8.1. Dinuclear compounds
A typical example of dinuclear metal compound is [Re2X8]2- ion. It can be synthesized as shown
below. Reducing agents such as H2, H3PO2 or PhCOCl can be used. The ion is formed as a royal blue
colored product.
These compounds show two very interesting structural features. Firstly, the Re-Re distance in the
compound is 224 pm which is shorter than the average Re-Re distance in rhenium metal (at 275 pm) or
in Re3Cl9 (248 pm). Secondly, the chlorine atoms are present in eclipsed configuration at 330 pm from
Re which less than the sum of their van der Waals radii (340-360 pm). So, in such situation, a staggered
form would be preferable. Both the above features were explained by F. A. Cotton by proposing a
quadruple bond.
Cotton suggested that the metal-metal bonds lay about the z axis and each Re atom was bonded to
four chlorine atoms in an almost square planar arrangement. The Re-Cl bonds are dsp2 hybridized
utilizing the dx2-y2 orbitals. He proposed that the metal dz2 and pz orbitals lie along the bond axis and
may be hybridized. One of the corresponding hybridized orbitals is directed towards the rhenium atom
and the second orbital directed in the opposite direction. The former makes an σ bond with the orbital of

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similar symmetry on the second rhenium atom while the latter hybridized orbital forms an
approximately nonbonding orbital. The dxz and dyz orbitals of each metal atom are obliquely oriented
towards their counterpart on the other rhenium atom. These orbitals overlap to form two π bonds; one in
the xz plane and other in the yz plane. The fourth bond that is a δ bond is formed by the sideways
overlap of the two dxy (or dx2-y2) orbitals on each rhenium atom. The overlap of dxy orbitals is possible
only when the chlorine atoms are eclipsed. In case they are staggered the metal dxy orbitals will also be
staggered resulting in zero overlap.
The Re-Cl bonds are regarded as dative bonds between the Re3+ and Cl- ions. Overall, the eight d
electrons from two metal atoms are involved in an σ bond, two π bonds and a δ bond to constitute the
overall quadruple bond. Hence, the complex is diamagnetic. This model also explains the short metal-
metal distance and eclipsed orientation of chlorine atoms (Figure 7.3).

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Figure 7.3. Bonding of [Re2X8]2- ion
[Mo2Cl8]2- is isoelectronic with and has structure similar to the [Re2X8]2- ion. Both of them form a
large series of carboxylate complexes with carboxylic acids.
7.8.2. Some other metal clusters

7.8.2.1. Dinuclear clusters with metal-metal triple bonds
Other examples of metal-metal quadruple bonding are dinuclear complexes of tungsten and
molybdenum of the type [M(OR)6] (M= Mo, W). The alkoxide functions as the stabilizing ligand for 12
electron clusters. It has two filled p orbitals which can donate π electron density to metal centers. These
complexes are coordinatively unsaturated and contain metal-metal triple bonds which are somewhat
analogous to carbon-carbon triple bonds. The isolobality of CR and W(OR)3 is eminent from the
synthesis of (t-BuO)3W≡WCR. This is clear from the reactions given below.

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It has been found that W2(O-i-Pr)6 shows dimerization existing in equilibrium with W4(O-i-Pr)12,
having structure which may be thought of as cyclobutadiene analogue. The cluster resonates about the
symmetrical rhomboidal core known as “The Bloomington Shuffle”.
Reactions:
7.8.2.2. Trinuclear clusters
A typical example of noncarbonyl cluster containing three metal atoms is [(ReCl3)3] and its
derivatives. Each Re (III) has a d4 configuration. The complexes are diamagnetic and not paramagnetic
which would have been the case if each Re atom was singly bonded to other Re atoms. Since, the metal
atoms are engaged in double bonds to the neighboring metal atom the complexes are paramagnetic.

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7.8.2.3. Tetranuclear clusters
One of the typical examples is the dimer W4(O-i-Pr)12 of W2(O-i-Pr)6 , the structure of which is
shown above. W4(OR)16 has also been synthesized having W‒W single bonds. It can be considered as
the saturated version of W4(OR)12. Quadruply bonded dinuclear compounds can dimerize to form
tetranuclear clusters.
The above cluster has alternating single and triple Mo‒Mo bonds.
7.8.2.4. Hexanuclear clusters
Transition metals such as molybdenum, niobium, and tantalum along with rhenium are known to
form extensive metal clusters with multiple metal-metal bonds. Eg. [Mo6Cl8]Cl4, six metal atoms
coordinated with eight chloride ions on each face of an octahedron. Each Mo(II) atom can use its four
electrons to form four bonds with neighboring metal atoms and are engaged in dative bonds with the
four chloride ions.
7.9. POLYOXOMETALATES (ISOPOLY AND HETEROPOLY ACIDS)

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Acid catalysis is an important area of heterogeneous catalysis. Among several acid catalysts,
polyoxometalates (POM) also known as heteropoly acids (HPAs) hold an important position owing to
their catalytic properties. HPAs are used as catalysts in different reactions as acid, redox and
bifunctional catalysts in homogeneous and heterogeneous reaction systems owing to their high solubility
in polar solvents and thermal stability. They are also used as heterogeneous and homogeneous catalyst in
medicine as antiviral and antitumoral agents.
Polyoxometallates is a generalized term used for a large number of nanosizedanionic clusters

which are built from transition metal oxoanions linked via shared oxide ions. Most of the
polyoxometalates are polyoxoanions of transition metals such as V, Mo and W. The POMs can be
classified into large group of anions based on their composition namely (i) isopolyoxometalates and (ii)
heteropolyoxometalates. The isopolyoxometalates consist of metal-oxide cluster with d0 metal ions such
as Mo6+, W6+or V5+ having general formula [MmOy]p-. These do not contain any additional heteroatom.
The heteropolyoxometalates include additional p, d or f block elements along with the metal-oxide
framework. They have the general formula [XxMmOy]q- and here x ≤ m.
7.9.1. The isopolyoxometalates or isopoly acids
Some important isopolymetalates are discussed in this section. The basic unit of isopolychromate
is CrO4 tetrahedra. They exist both in solution & as solids. Chromates are stable only at high pH, on
lowering the pH protonation and dimerization occurs and (Cr2O7)2-. In acidic solution (Cr2O7)2-,
predominates whereas in basic solution (CrO4)2- predominates.
The CrO3 structure consists of infinite linear chains of CrO4 tetrahedra.

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There are certain reports of polymerization such as the Tri chromates (Cr3O10)2- and tetra chromates
(Cr4O13)2- . Polymerization does not go beyond (Cr4O13)2-. These anions as well as dichromate ion are
formed by corner sharing CrO42-tetrahedra. The tendency for Cr to form large number of polyacids is
limited. The small size of Cr6+ evidently limits it to the tetrahedral rather than octahedral coordination
with oxygen.
The vanadate anion VO43- exists in strongly alkaline solution. On lowering the pH, protonation
occurs. Protonation and dehydration occur as pH is reduced from 13 to 8 in more concentrated solutions
forming [V2O7]4- and higher vanadates. Polymerization continues at low pH resulting in precipitation of
hydrous V2O5. At about pH 6,decavanadate [V10O28]6- is formed. The ion is protonated to [HV10O28]5 –
and [[H2V10O28]4- as the pH is lowered to 3.5. Alkali salts of isopolyvanadates nay be colourless or
coloured. The salts with alkali metal to vanadium ratio at least unity are usually colourless, while salts
with alkali metal to vanadium ratio less than unity are coloured.
Tetrahedral [MoO4]2- is formed when the trioxide of molybdate is dissolved in aqueous alkali.
Under strongly acidic pH, precipitate of yellow molybdic acid MoO3.2H2O is obtained. The first stable
isopolymolybdate is [Mo7O24]6-, the heptamolybdate or paramolybdate. When this solution is further
acidified to pH of about 1.8 – 2.9, the octamolybdate ion [Mo8O26]4-is obtained.

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The polymerization of vanadate, molybdate and tungstate ions forms the isopoly anions whereby
the coordination number of metal ion may vary from four to six. The basic building unit is an
octahedron of six oxygen atoms surrounding each metal ion. The octahedra may link sharing an apex or
edge but rarely a face. The larger octahedral motif provides relaxation to the electrostatic repulsions.
Some common edge sharing polyanions are [V10O28]6-, [Mo8O26]4-, [W6O19]2-, [W7O24]6-, [Nb6O19]8- and
[Ta6O19]8-. To form larger polyanions, edge sharing is converted to apex sharing. The isopoly anions
may be considered as a closed packed array of oxide ions with metal ions present in the octahedral
holes. In the edge sharing array of [V10O28]6-, ten octahedral are stacked in an edge sharing manner. The
sharing of edges between MO6 octahedra causes repulsion between the metal ions which is reduced
partially by displacement of M from the centre of the octahedra. The repulsion increases with increase in
the ionic radius viz. V5+> Mo6+> W6+> Nb6+> Ta6+.
It is noteworthy that polymerization ceases for isopoly anions. A possible explanation for which
lies in the position of oxygen atoms. A terminal oxygen atom is strongly π bonded to the transition metal
(such as Mo (VI), W(VI)). These terminal oxygen atoms are never located trans to one another which
prevents their competition for the same vacant t2g orbital. Instead, they are present opposite to a bridging
or internal oxygen. This results in the metal ion being displaced towards the terminal oxygen and away
from the oxygen opposite to it which is what we encounter in trans effect. On the contrary, metal ions
such as Al (III) or Ga (III) are poor π acceptors. Thus, they do not stabilize their terminal oxygen atoms
which can therefore attack other units and result in continuing polymerization.

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7.9.2. The heteropolyoxometalates
Their general formula is [XxMmOy]n-(x ≤ m); M isusually Mo or W and sometimes V, Nb or Ta. X

is the heteroatom which may be located at the centre of polyanion. The heteroatom can be any element
in the periodic table some of the most frequently encountered ions are P5+, As5+, Si4+, Ge4+, B3+ etc.
Heteropolyanions are very important for catalysis and other applications hence, they are discussed
in detail. Molybdenum and tungsten polyoxometalates are extensively studied and most easily formed
because of the accessibility of their d orbitals forming metal-oxygen π bonds. The structure of the
related phosphotungstate anion was determined in 1934, and is generally called the Keggin structure
after its discoverer. In the period following thisother fundamental structures, e.g. the Wells-Dawson ion,
were discovered, and their chemistry and applications as catalysts were determined.
7.9.3. Classification of polyoxometalates on the basis of structure

The first example of POM is ammonium phosphomolybdate containing the [PMo12O40]3− ion. The
polyoxometalates are classified taking into account a few highly symmetrical ‘parent’ polyanions and on
the basis of these many other polyoxometalate structures can be considered as their derived forms.
Broadly, the three such parent structures can be as a tetrahedron, an octahedron and an icosahedron
polyhedron XOn (n = 4, 6 or 12) placed at the centre. These structures are discussed below:
1. Keggin structure (Td symmetry): This type of structure is most stable and easily available and very
important for catalysis. The Kegginheteropoly anions are represented by the formula [XM12O40]x-8;here

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X is the heteroatom (eg. P), x is the oxidation number. The M6+ ion can be Mo6+ or W6+, one or more of
these can be substituted by V5+, Co2+, Zn2+. The type of structure contains a central XO4 tetrahedron
surrounded by twelve edges and corners sharing metal-oxygen MO6 octahedra which are arranged in
four M3O13 groups. Each group is formed by three MO6 octahedra sharing edges and having a common
oxygen atom which is also shared with the central tetrahedron XO4.
A complete structure contains forty oxygen atoms which are of four types: twelve terminal M=O,
twelve edge-bridging angular M-O-M shared by the octahedra within a M3O13 group, twelve corner-
bridging quasi-linear M-O-M connecting two different M3O13 groups and four internal X-O-M. These
different types of oxygen atoms were revealed by 17O NMR spectroscopy. Rotation of M3O13 groups by
60⁰ about the three-fold axis leads to the formation of the geometrical isomers. Rotation of oneM3O13
group produces β isomer and rotation of two, three or all four M3O13 groups produces the γ, δ and ε
isomers respectively. If one or more metal atoms are removed, lacunary derivatives of Keggin anions are
formed.
The examples of Keggin type heteropoly acids are:

H3PMo12O40- 12-phosphomolybdic acid
H3PW12O40- 12-phosphotungstic acid
H4SiMo12O40- 12-silicomolybdic acid
H4SiW12O40- 12-silicotungstic acid
2. The Well-Dawson structure: The dimeric Well-Dawson heteropoly anion is [X2M18O62]2x-16. Here
M = Mo6+ or W6+; X = P5+ or As5+; x = charge on ‘X’ atom. This anion has two trivacant lacunary
Keggin species. The Well-Dawson structure contains two M3O13 groups. Rotation of one of these groups
by 60° about the 3-fold axis gives the β-isomer. The molybdenum anion is chiral because of a
displacement of the molybdenum atoms within their MoO6 octahedral unit. However, the tungsten
complex does not exhibit chirality probably because of the greater rigidity of thetungsten framework.
3. The Anderson-Evans structure: This is another structural type with an octahedron as the central
polyhedral. This structure is adopted by the 6-heteropoly anions such as [TeMo6O24]6-. This structure
contains six coplanar edges sharing MO6 octahedra arranged in closed ring. The heteroatom is present in
the octahedra at the centre of the ring.

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4. The Dexter-Silverton structure: Somewhat less common, containing 12 heteropoly anions

[XM12O42]x-12; where M = Mo6+; X = Ce+4, U+4, Th+4. In this anion, the central atom is surrounded by
twelve O atoms. Thus, an icosahedron forms the central polyhedron. MO6 polyhedra are arranged in
face-sharing fashion unlike edge sharing in other types of structures.
7.9.4. Nomenclature of heteropolyoxometalates
A systematic nomenclature scheme for polyoxometalates has been developed. It uses a labelling
system for the metal atoms and sometimes for the oxygen atoms to avoid ambiguity. The resulting
names, however, are too long and complicated; these are practically never used for routine purposes.
The current nomenclature that treats polyoxometalates (also referred to as heteropoly anions,
heteropoly compounds, polyoxoanions or polyanions) as quasi coordination complexes.
i. The heteroatom, if present is considered as the central atom of the complex and the addenda as the
ligands.
ii. The heteroatoms are placed before the heteroatoms
iii. Heteropoly anion is placed in square brackets and thus separated from the countercation
iv. Examples: [SiW12O40]4-12-tungstosilicate or dodecatungstosilicate
H3[PMo12O40]: 12-molybdophosphoric acid
Na5[PMo10V2O40]: Sodium decamolybdodivanabdophosphate
7.9.5 Detailed structure of Keggin type polyoxometalate
I) Primary structure: The heteropoly acids are ionic crystals in solid state consisting of large
polyanions linked together. The α-type Keggin structure has a tetrahedral (Td) symmetry and consists of
a centrally located XO4 tetrahedral structure which is surrounded by twelve edges and corners sharing
MO6 octahedra (M = addenda atom). These octahedrals are arranged on four M3O13 groups. Each of
these groups is composed of three octahedral sharing their edges and having a common O atom which is
also shared with the central tetrahedral XO4.
The oxygen atoms in Keggin structure are classified into four classes on the basis of symmetry
equivalence. (i) X‒Oa‒M, M‒Ob‒M: act as inter-bridges between corner sharing octahedral; (ii)

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M‒Oc‒M: ‘intra-bridges’ between edge sharing that is within a M3O13 unit; (iii) M‒Od: these are the
terminal oxygen atoms (M is the addenda atom and X is the central atom).
II) Secondary structure: The overall three-dimensional structure composed of large polyanions,
cations, water of crystallization and other molecules constitutes the secondary structure of HPAs. The
acid form of heteropoly anions in the solid state contains counterprotons or cations. These play an
important role in linking the neighbouring heteropoly anions. For example, in H3PW12O40.6H2O, the
protons are present as H5O2+ species, these link the four neighbouring heteropoly anions via hydrogen
bonding with the terminal W‒Od. Secondary structure may also contain organic molecules.
III) Tertiary Structure: The complete assembled structure of the heteropoly acid (HPA) constitutes the
tertiary structure. That is, it includes size of the particles, pore structure and distribution of protons.
7.9.6. Properties of heteropoly acids
The general characteristics of heteropoly ions are as following:
i) Heteropoly acids are usually very strong acids.

ii) They are highly soluble in water and often very soluble in organic solvents.
iii) The lattice energies of heteropoly compounds are low thus the solvation energies of
heteropolyanions are also less. The solubility of the HPAs depends on the solvationenergy of the cation.
iv) In aqueous medium, they are stable at lower pH values but undergo hydrolysis at higher pH values.
v) Heteropoly anions are multi electron oxidants. Those having Mo and V are relatively stronger
oxidants. Heteropolymolybdates are strong oxidizing agents and are readily converted to their reduced
form called ‘heteropoly blues’.
Acidic properties of heteropoly acids: The aqueous solution of heteropoly acids behave as strong
acids. They are sometimes called as ‘super-acids’ because they are stronger than the commonly found
mineral acids such as H2SO4, HCl, HNO3, etc. This can be attributed to the presence of ‘mobile protons’
in the secondary structure of HPAs. Also, in HPAs the negative charge is spread over much larger
anions as compared with mineral acids. The acidity is generally determined by dissociation constants
and the Hammet acidity function.
The acid strength depends upon the structure of polyanion, the constituent elements as well as the
extent of hydration and reduction. The acid strength of crystalline heteropoly acids decrease in the order

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H3PW12O40>H4SiW12O40> H3PMo12O40> H4SiMo12O40. HPAs containing tungsten are more acidic than
those having molybdenum.
7.9.7. Catalytic applications of heteropoly acids
The application of HPAs as catalysts is determined by several factors such as size, mass, electron
and proton transfer and storage ability, thermal stability, mobility of lattice oxygen and Bronsted acidity.
The catalytic reactions can be performed in homogeneous as well as heterogeneous (gas-solid, liquid-
solid orbiphasic liquid-liquid) systems. HPAs can serve as efficient catalysts owing to the following
properties.
i) Their multifunctionality and structural mobility.
ii) They are strong Bronsted acids as well as efficient oxidants exhibiting fast reversible multi-electron
redox transformations under mild conditions.
iii) Their acid-base properties can be tuned by varying their chemical composition
iv) Solid heteropoly compounds possess a discrete solid state ionic structure unlike the network of
zeolites or metal oxides. The structure of heteropoly compounds is not disturbed upon substitution or
after undergoing oxidation/reduction and exhibits high proton mobility.
v) The HPAs are highly soluble in polar solvents and have high thermal stability in solid state.
HPAs have been used as catalysts in different types of reactions, such as formation of carboxylic
acids from the corresponding aldehydes, as well as the dehydrogenation of alcohols, aldehydes and
carboxylic acids to form C=C and C=O bonds. HPAs have been developed and commercialized for
oxidation of methacrolein to methacrylic acid, hydration of olefins such as propene and butene,
polymerization of tetrahydrofuran etc. In the oxidation of alkenes and the coupling of aromatics
(Wacker process), molybdovanadates are employed as catalysts. Polyoxomolybdates are widely used in
hydrodesulfurization and hydrodenitrification of fossil fuels.
7.10. SUMMARY
This chapters provide a good understanding of metal clusters those involving boron hydrides, their
transition metal derivatives i.e. metalloboranes also including carboranes and metallacarboranes. Their
synthesis, nomenclature and structural details give an important understanding of metal clusters.
Another aspect of metal clusters is the unique multiple bonds between metal atoms in certain transition

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metal clusters. The chapter deals with polyoxometallates which brings the focus on isopoly and
heteropoly acids of chromium, molybdenum and tungsten having potential applications in catalysis.
Q1. Sketch the molecule B2H6 and show the different bonding between the hydrogen and boron atoms?
Q2. Which structures (closo, nido, arachno) do the molecules B5H8, B4H42- and B10H14 have?
Q3. What are boron hydrides or boranes? Write a short note on the classification of boranes with
examples.
Q4. What are metal clusters? Explain the structure of [Re2X8]2- ion.
Q5. Give some examples of metal clusters having metal-metal multiple bonds. Draw structure of any
two.
Q6. What are polyoxometallates? Write short note on isopoly and heteropolyoxometallates.
Q7. Explain why polymerization stops in isopoly acids?
Q8. Write short note on Keggin type polyoxometalate.
7.12. ANSWERS
Q2.
B5H8 B4H42- B10H14

Count valence Count valence Count valence
electrons electrons electrons
5x3e (B) = 15 e 4x3e (B) = 12 e 10x3e (B) = 30 e
8x1 (H) = 8 e 4x1 (H) = 4 e 14x1 (H) = 14 e
+ 2 charge
Total =23 e Total =18 e Total =44 e
4n+3= nido 4n+2= closo 4n+4= arachno

Here n=5 (no. of B Here n=4 (no. of B Here n=10 (no. of B
atoms atoms atoms)

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Q7. It is noteworthy that polymerization ceases for isopoly anions. A possible explanation for which lies
in the position of oxygen atoms. A terminal oxygen atom is strongly π bonded to the transition metal
{such as Mo(VI), W(VI)}. These terminal oxygen atoms are never located trans to one another which
prevents their competition for the same vacant t2g orbital. Instead, they are present opposite to a bridging
or internal oxygen. This results in the metal ion being displaced towards the terminal oxygen and away
from the oxygen opposite to it which is what we encounter in trans effect. On the contrary, metal ions
such as Al(III) or Ga(III) are poor π acceptors. Thus, they do not stabilize their terminal oxygen atoms
which can therefore attack other units and result in continuing polymerization.
7.13. REFERENCES
1. N. N. Greenwood, (1983), Pure and Applied Chemistry, 55: 1415.
2. F. A. Cotton, (1983), J. Chem. Edu., 60: 713.
3. M. H. Chisholm, (1991), Pure Appl. Chem., 63: 665.

Reactivity”, Fourth ed., HarperCollins College Publishers, New York.
5. B. R. Puri, L. R. Sharma, K. C. Kalia, (2014), “Principles of Inorganic Chemistry”, Ed. 32, Milestone
Publishers.

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Block II: METAL π-COMPLEXES AND METAL CLUSTERS

___________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 8 METAL-LIGAND EQUILIBRIA IN SOLUTION

___________________________________________________________________________
CONTENTS
8.1 Objective
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Stepwise and overall formation constants and relation between them
8.3.1 Thermodynamic stability
8.3.2 Kinetic stability
8.3.3 Stepwise and overall/cumulative formation constants
8.3.4 Stepwise formation constant
8.3.5 Cumulative or overall formation constant
8.3.6 Relation between stepwise and overall stability constants
8.4 Factors affecting the stability of metal complexes with reference to the nature of metal ion and
ligand.
8.4.1 Chelate effect
8.4.1.1 Factors influencing stability due to chelation
8.4.1.2 Chelate effect and its thermodynamic origin
8.4.2 Macrocyclic effect
8.4.3 Nature of central metal ion
8.4.3.1 Class A and B metals
8.4.3.2. Ionic radius of metal ions
8.4.4 Nature of the ligand
8.4.4.1 Size and charge
8.4.4.2 Basic character
8.4.4.3 Ligand concentration
8.5 Methods of determining the binary formation/stability constants
8.5.1 Potentiometric method
8.5.1.1 Bjerrum method

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8.5.1.2 Irving-Rossotti method

8.5.2 Spectrophotometric method
8.5.2.1 Job’s method
8.7 Answers
8.8 References
8.1. OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to answer the following questions:
What is thermodynamic and kinetic stability?
Chelate effect.
Factors affecting stability of complexes.
Different methods for the determination of stability constants.
8.1. INTRODUCTION
Addition of metal ions to an aqueous solution containing other species such as ligands with which
the metal ions can interact lead to the formation of complexes. These complexes bear metal ligand bonds
and several weak and strong intra-intermolecular interactions. After a certain time lapse, the system
attains equilibrium between the reactants and new species formed. It is important to study such metal-
ligand systems and their equilibrium because they play a vital role in bio-organic, bio-inorganic systems,
industrial processes etc.
In order to understand chemical behavior of systems in solution, where an assumption is made that
the system is in equilibrium (equilibrium exists between various chemical species in the system), it
becomes pertinent to know about the equilibrium constants. In a system involving formation of
complexes in metal ligand solution, these are called stability constants or formation constants.

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8.3. STEPWISE AND OVERALL FORMATION CONSTANTS AND

RELATION BETWEEN THEM
When referring to the stability of compounds, it implies that the compound exists in a stable
condition under suitable conditions and can be stored for appreciable time. The stability constant
(formation constant, binding constant) is an estimate of the strength of interaction between metal and
ligands leading to the formation of the complex. The formation of complexes in solution can be
understood qualitatively in terms of kinetic and thermodynamic stability.
8.3.1. Thermodynamic stability
It is the measure of the extent to which formation of complex occurs or the extent of
transformation under a given set of condition at equilibrium. Thermodynamic stability depends on the
strength of bond between metal and ligand. The strength of bond between metal and ligand shows great
variation. For example, in [Co(SCN)4]2+, the strength of bond metal and thiocyanate is very weak and
breaks immediately in aqueous solution. On the contrary, in [Fe(CN)6]3-,the bond between ferric ion and
nitrile anions is very strong and does not break in aqueous solution. Thus, thermodynamic stability deals
with metal ligand bond energy and other thermodynamic parameters. Tetracyanonickelate(II)
{[K2Ni(CN)4]} ion is a good example of a thermodynamically stable complex but kinetically labile
whereas hexa amine cobalt(III) cation [Co(NH3)6]3+ in acid solution is kinetically inert and
thermodynamically unstable.
[Co(NH3)6]3+ + 6H3O+ → [Co(H2O)6]3+ + 6NH4+
Stability and inertness can be expressed thermodynamically in terms of free energies of reaction
ΔG°. A stable complex has large negative ΔG°. The following relation relates the standard enthalpy
change ΔH ° for the reaction to equilibrium constant βn:
ΔG°= -RT ln βn
ΔG° = ΔH° - TΔS°

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ΔS° values for similar complexes of metal ions of a particular transition series with a particular
ligand will not differ significantly and hence, ΔH° value will be related to βn values. Therefore, order of
values of ΔH° will be order of βn values.
8.3.2. Kinetic stability
Kinetic stability refers to the reactivity or ligand substitution in general. It is the speed with which
transformation of reactants occurs leading to attainment of equilibrium. Thus, substitution may take
place rapidly with some ligands while slowly with others. The former type is called labile ligands and
the latter are known as inert. In kinetic studies, time factor plays an important role in deciding the
stability of the complex. It deals with rate and mechanism of complex formation.
8.3.3. Stepwise and overall/cumulative formation constants
The formation of complex can be considered as a type of acid base equilibrium existing between
the competing species Mn+ ion, ligand (L) and H+ ions
Thus, two equilibria have to be considered
Moreover, to consider stability constant for complex formation the equation can be represented as:
8.3.4. Stepwise formation constant
It is considered that complex formation is a stepwise process occurring by a series of stages. For
example, the stepwise formation constant of MLn can be expressed as

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Here, K1, K2, K3 and Kn are stepwise equilibrium constants with respect to the formation of the
complexes one step at a time, M denotes metal ion and L denotes a monodentate ligand. The overall
formation constant (Kf) of complex from reagents in terms of stepwise constant is given as
Kf = K1 x K2 x K3 … Kn
8.3.5. Cumulative or overall formation constant
Cumulative or overall formation constant is represented by symbol β. It can be represented as the

product of stepwise formation constants.

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Here, β1, β2, β3 stand for overall stability constant for each stage of complex formation and βn
stands for nth overall (or cumulative) formation constant. Usually, Kn decreases with each subsequent
step. This can be reasoned as follows. As ligand is added to the metal ion Mn+, ML forms first, with the
addition of more ligand [ML2] rises sharply and [ML] drops. With further addition of L, [ML2] drops
and [ML3] rises and so on. Addition of ligand to form a new complex is always reversible and formation
of MLn progresses with greater n values for L. Thus, there is probability of more ligands to fall back off
as there are fewer places to put the new ligands in the coordination sphere, so it is expected that stepwise
Kn’s will drop. For example, the formation of [Cd(NH3)4]2+ depicted below, the drop in equilibrium
constant with added L groups is evident.
8.3.6. Relation between stepwise and overall stability constants
A stepwise constant can be expressed as the quotient of two or more overall constants
From above, it can be stated that overall stability or formation constant (βn) is the product of stepwise
stability or formation constants (K1, K2, ..... Kn). It is always suitable to define each stability constant
with reference to an equilibrium expression.

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8.4. FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILITY OF METAL

COMPLEXES WITH REFERENCE TO THE NATURE OF METAL ION
AND LIGAND.
8.4.1 Chelate effect
The formation of a closed ring in an inorganic metal complex by attachment of a ligand to metal
ion at two points is called a chelate. Minimum of a bidentate ligand is required for formation of a
chelate. Alternatively, we can say that chelate complexes are formed by multidentate ligands. The name
chelate is derived from the Greek word ‘Chela’ means ‘Claw of lobster or crab’. A series of experiments
revealed that the stability of inorganic chelate metal complexes was greater than those having no
chelating ligands in their structure. However, there are several other factors, which shall be considered
while deciding stability of complexes, discussed below. An example is the complex ion formed between
ethylene diamine (en) and cupric ion, [Cu(NH2CH2NH2)2]2+.
Consider for example, a reaction vessel containing cupric ions, NH3 and en (ethylene diamine)
given the condition that cupric ions are equally available to both the ligands and concentration of NH3 is
twice that of en ligand. The bidentate en ligand forms chelate complex with copper resulting in five-
membered ring whereas in the other copper complex formed with NH3 ligand, the two en ligands are
replaced by four NH3 ligands. Under given set of conditions, it is found that the concentration of
complex 1 is greater than that of 2. This can be attributed to the additional stability provided by
chelation of en ligand in complex 1.

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8.4.1.1. Factors influencing stability due to chelation
Ring size
The stability of a chelate complex depends on the size of the ring. That is the number of atoms
constituting the ring. For example, a four membered ring is unstable whereas a five and six membered
ring complexes are more stable. The instability of four membered chelate is attributed to internal strain
because of the small inter-bond angle in the ring. The order can be generalized as,
Five membered > Six membered > Seven membered
The stability of metal chelates decreases by increasing the chelate size. This is because larger rings
are less rigid so less entropy is lost in their formation.
Apart from ethylenediamine (en), other multidentate ligands which form chelate complexes are
diethylenetriamine (dien), EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) and DTPA
(Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid).
The non-protonated form of EDTA forms a hexacoordinate complex with iron bearing five membered
chelates. DTPA has eight donor atoms hence forms complexes with metals with large atomic size such
as lanthanide or actinide, which form 8 or 9 coordinate complexes.

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Number of rings
In general, it is observed that the stability of the complex increases with increase in the number of
donor atoms available for coordination. Increase in number of rings increases the stability of the
compound. The complex [Ni(en)3]2+ having three chelate rings is approximately 1010 times more stable
than complex having no chelation such as [Ni(NH3)6]2+. Schwarzenbach has referred to this increase in
stability with the dentate character of the ligand as the chelate effect. This effect is larger for the
transition metal ions.
Steric effect
This effect comes into play when the groups present on coordinating ligands obstruct each other;
thus, distorting bond angles and decrease in stability. The phenomenun is called F-strain. As steric
effect decreases, stability of complex increases. For example Ni(II) complexes with 2-methyl 8-hydroxy
quinoline are less stable than complexes with 8-hydroxy quinoline. Similarly, complexes of ethylene
diamine are more stable than its tetramethyl derivatives. The later compounds have greater steric
repulsion due to the presence of four additional methyl groups.
8.4.1.2. Chelate effect and its thermodynamic origin
We know that greater stability of chelate complexes is called the chelate effect. The additional
stability due to chelation can be explained considering the thermodynamic aspects of this phenomenon.
It is believed that there is difference in entropy between chelate and non-chelate complex reactions. The
formation of chelate complexes results in greater disorder because of the formation of a larger number of
free particles in the products whereas there is negligible change in the number of particles in the
formation of comparable nonchelate complexes. This fact can be illustrated with the following example.
The stability of a complex with bidentate ligand such as ethylenediamine is significantly greater than the
complex of the same metal ion with monodentate ligands having comparable donor ability such as
ammonia.

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8.4.2. Macrocyclic effect
It is observed that stability of complexes with macrocyclic ligands is higher than the
corresponding complexes formed with open chain ligands. The phenomenun is called “macrocyclic
effect” and both entropy and enthalpy changes are considered. An important factor with macrocyclic
ligands is that they bind with specific metal ions only depending on the size of the cavity in them.
Hence, they show selectivity with metal ions unlike open chain (chelating) ligands. For example, the
crown ether 18-crown-6 forms much stronger complexes with the potassium ion, K+ than with the
smaller sodium ion, Na+.
8.4.3. Nature of central metal ion
8.4.3.1. Class A and B metals
According to Ahrland, Chatt and Davies, metal complexes can be put in class A if they form
stronger complexes with ligands having N, O or F as donor atoms whereas those which form stable
complexes with ligands having P, S or Cl can be put in class B. For example Ni(II) forms stable
complexes with amine ligands whereas Pt(II) forms stable complexes with phosphine ligands where
donor atom is phosphorous. Later, Pearson’s Hard and Soft Acid Base theory (HSAB) classified metals
as hard and soft where class A metals are hard acids whereas class B metals are soft acids.
Type of Characteristic Features Examples

Acid/Base
Hard acids Atomic centers of small ionic radii. H+, Li+, Na+, K+, Be2+, Mg2+,
High positive charge. Ca2+,Sr2+, Sn2+Al3+, Ga3+, In3+, Cr3+,
Empty orbitals in their valence shells. Co3+, Fe3+,Ir3+, La3+, Si4+, Ti4+, Zr4+,
Low electronegativity and low electron Th4+,VO2+ , UO22+, BF3, BCl3,
affinity. B(OR)3, AlMe3
Likely to be strongly solvated.
High energy LUMO.
Soft acids Large radii. Cu+, Ag+, Au+, Hg+ , Cs+ , Tl+ ,
Low or partial positive charge. Hg2+ , Pd2+, Cd2+ , Pt2+
Completely filled orbitals in their Metal atoms in zero oxidation
valence shells. states

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Intermediate electronegativities
Low energy LUMO's with large
magnitude of LUMO coefficients.
Border line Fe2+ , Co2+ , Ni2+ , Cu2+ , Zn2+ ,
acids Pb2+ , B(CH3)3, SO2, NO+
Hard bases Small radii and highly solvated. H2O, OH-, F-, Cl-, CH3CO2-, PO43-,
Electronegative atomic centres SO42-, CO32-, NO3-, ClO4-, ROH,RO-,
Weakly polarizable. R2O, NH3, RNH2, N2H4
Difficult to be oxidized.
High energy HOMO.
Soft bases Large atoms with intermediate RSH, RS-, R2S, I-, CN-, SCN-,
electronegativity S2O3-, R3P, R3As (RO)3P, RNC, CO,
High polarizability C2H4, C6H6, R-, H
Easily undergo oxidation.
Low energy HOMO's but large
magnitude HOMO coefficients
Borderline Aniline, pyridine, N3-, Br-, NO2,
bases SO32-, N2
In general, hard acids form stronger complexes with hard bases and vice versa. Hard-hard
interactions are predominantly electrostatic in nature while soft-soft interactions are covalent in nature.
The hardness of metal ions increases with increase in oxidation state. This is evident from the fact that
Fe2+ forms stable complexes with N donor ligands while Fe3+ forms stable complexes with O donor
ligands.
8.4.3.2. Ionic radius of metal ions
In 1953, Irving and Williams suggested that first row transition metal ions could be arranged in
order of their ligand binding affinities. Thus, they designed a series arranging octahedral divalent first
transition metal ion complexes in order (shown below) of their stability known as the Irving-Williams
series.

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Mn < Fe < Co < Ni < Cu > Zn
The order was found to hold true for a variety of ligands and it can be explained as follows.
(i) The ionic radius is found to decrease from Mn to Zn as a general periodic trend hence accounts for
increase in stability.
(ii) The crystal field stabilization energy (CFSE) increases from zero for Mn2+ to maximum for Ni2+
complexes and again falls to zero for Zn2+. Even though CFSE for Cu2+ is lesser than that for Ni2+
octahedral complexes, still Cu2+ complexes are more stable due to the Jahn Teller distortion.
The plot shown below from the original publication shows variation of overall stability constant
of transition metal complexes with different ligands.
8.4.4. Nature of the ligand
8.4.4.1. Size and charge
Ligands with less charge and greater size form less stable complexes as compared to ligands with
more charge and smaller size.
8.4.4.2. Basic character
Higher the basic character of the ligand that is the tendency to donate electrons to the central metal
ion, higher is the stability of the complexes formed. Eg. Aromatic amines form less stable complexes as

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compared to aliphatic amines because of the weak electron donating tendency of the aromatic amines.
Ligands such as NH3 and CN- are more basic in nature and hence form stable complexes.
8.4.4.3. Ligand concentration
Some complexes can exist in aqueous solution only when the concentration of coordinating ligand
is high. This is because in some cases water molecules behave as a better coordinating ligand. For eg.
Co2+ can exist as stable blue coloured solution of [Co(SCN)4]2- only in presence of high concentration of
thiocyanate (SCN-) ions. But on dilution in aqueous solution a stable pink colored complex of
[Co(H2O)6]2+ is formed but on further addition of SCN- the pink color disappears to give blue color
solution. The phenomena shows that there is a competition between the SCN- and H2O ligands in
formation of complex with Co(II) ion..
Similarly, reaction of cupric sulfate at lower concentration of ammonia forms copper hydroxide
whereas at higher concentration of ligand forms ammonium cupric sulfate monohydrate.
8.5. METHODS OF DETERMINING THE BINARY

FORMATION/STABILITY CONSTANTS
The study of formation of metal complexes in aqueous solutions in last couple of decades has
shifted from the more basic purposes of interpreting the mechanism of formation and correlating
stability constant data to numerous applied fields such as the formation of complexes in biological fluids
to the treatment of sewage. An interesting example of application of these studies is seen in determining
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the toxicity of cadmium to the grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) in the presence of chloride ion and the
chelating ligand, nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA). By studying both chloride and NTA complexes of the metal
ion, it was shown that the degree of toxicity was directly related to the activity of the free cadmium ion.
In examples such as above, stability data are used as tools to investigate systems or processes or to
understand the mechanism of biological and other reactions.
The stability constant of complex in the solution is usually determined by measurement of

equilibrium constants (K) for complex forming reaction. The knowledge of stability constant is crucial
to rationalize the understanding of the behaviors of metal complexes in the solution. Also, the study of
stability or formation constants is useful because most of the properties and utility of the complexes
depend on it. Many physical and chemical properties can be employed to detect the formation of
complexes in solution and to measure the stability constants. The detection of the complexes and the
determination of the stability constants are very closely related. Some of the methods of finding binary
stability constants are discussed below.
8.5.1. Potentiometric method
In this method, association between the metal ion Mm+ and the ligand as an anion of the weak acid
HnL is studied. Here, the nature and concentration of all the species present in solution have to be
determined such as pH of buffer solution containing HnL, base (NaOH, KOH) and metal ion generally
used as perchlorate salt (generalized here as MXm).
To calculate the stability constants from potentiometric pH titration data, we need equations on the
mass balance and charge balance conditions.
The total concentration of the metal ion may be written:
8.5.1. 1. Bjerrum method
Bjerrum designed this method to determine the stability constant using pH meter to measure H+
ion concentration based on the fact that formation of a ligand-metal complex is a type of acid-base
reaction equilibrium where there is competition for the ligand between Mn+ ion and H+ ions. Thus, the
following two equilibria operate

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Thus, by titrating a mixture of M and HL with a base concentration of H+ can be followed. With
the help of prior knowledge of acid dissociation constant Ka of HL, stability constant for the formation
of complex ML can be determined.
Consider the equilibrium in which an acid, metal ions and a basic ligand are present. Thus,
Here, Ka and Kf are acid dissociation constant and formation

constant of complex respectively.
If, CH, CM and CL are the concentration of acid, metal and ligand in moles/litre, their concentration
can be expressed in terms of following equations:
CH= [H+] + [HL+]
CL = [L] + [ML+] +[HL+]
CM = [M+] + [ML+]
Using above three equations and equation for Ka, we can derive equations for [ML+], [M+] and [L]
as shown below:
CL- CH = [L] - [H+] + [ML+]

[ML+] = CL- CH + [H+] - [L]
Using value of [L] from the Ka expression, we get
[ML+] = CL- CH + [H+] - [HL+]/Ka [H]
or

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[ML+] = CL- CH + [H+] - {(CH - [H+])/(Ka [H])}

[M+] = CM-[ML+]
[L] = [HL+]/Ka [H+]
or
[L] = CH-[H+]/Ka [H+]
Thus, using the values of [ML+], [M+] and [L] from above equations and substituting in
Kf = [ML+]/[M+] [L], Kf can be calculated. The values of CH, CL, CM, Ka and [H+] are generally
determined potentiometrically using a pH meter.
Drawbacks: It should be noted that if two or more solution species have identical charges and same
number of metal ions and ligand molecules, only the sum of the concentrations could be determined
potentiometrically. Thus, the two forms of glycine NH3+CH2COO- and NH2CH2COOH, complex species
such as [FeEDTA]-1 and [Fe(OH)(H.EDTA)]-1, configurational and conformational isomers and inner-
and outer sphere complexes cannot be distinguished by this method. Other methods such as
spectrophotometry may be more suitable in these cases.
8.5.1.2 Irving-Rossotti method
Irving and Rossotti method is based on the method devised by Bjerrum. They explained that the
formation curve of a system of metal ligand complex could be calculated directly from pH-meter
readings during a titration, without knowledge of the hydrogen ion concentration or activity. They
derived simple general equations, which can be used for all ligands that are conjugate bases or weak
acids and illustrated the application of that equation to specific systems. The Irving-Rossotti titration
curves for the same volumes of alkali, the ligand formation curve is positioned in two different ways,
with respect to the acid curve in two different regions of pH. At low pH, the ligand titration curve shows
higher values of pH than the acid titration curve indicating that it contains less number of titrable
hydrogen ion. At higher pH, it exhibits lower pH value than the acid titration curve showing more
number of titrable hydrogen ions due to dissociation of -COOH group and thus, behaves as an acid.
From the displacement of these two curves, ¯nH can be calculated.
Further, metal complexes formed by reaction of the type,

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The ligand on coordination with metal releases H+ ion in the solution and hence the metal + ligand
solution contains some titrable hydrogen ions and thus the metal titration curve, shows lower pH value
for the same amount of alkali than the ligand curve. Thus, ¯n factor can be computed from the difference
in the volume of alkali required to produce the same pH in the metal and ligand titration.
The formation curves:Irving-Rossotti method involves pH-titration of the following three sets of
mixtures (keeping total volume constant) against a carbonate free standard alkali:
(i) Mineral acid (ii) Mineral acid + Ligand solution (iii) Mineral acid + Ligand solution + Metal ion
solution. The ionic strength and temperature of solution is kept constant.
8.5.2. Spectrophotometric method
Spectrophotometric methods are highly sensitive. The deciding factor in this technique is that the
species involved in chemical equilibria must absorb light and give different spectral response. Thus,
concentration of species involved in equilibrium and new species formed can be measured directly from
UV-visible spectra.

Page 196
The method is based on the Beer-Lambert Law where log (I0/I) = Ꜫcd (I0/I is the ratio of incident
light to transmitted light, c is the molar concentration of the absorbing solute, d is the light path length in
centimeters and Ꜫ is the absorptivity). Some precautions must be considered while measuring
absorbance such as prevention of any contamination of the solution or cell faces. In addition, the
spectrophotometer should be used to record small differences in optical density having inaccuracy in the
absorbance of the instrument is negligible.
When only two species are present such as the ionization of monobasic acids, measurement of
absorbance as a function of wavelength at different pH values can be used to calculate the equilibrium
constant. This may be useful for compounds whose solubility is poor, direct titration can be done since
absorptivities are often large enough to allow study of solutions having concentration upto l0-5 mol dm-3.
Drawback: For a complex which is too stable or too weak the K value cannot be determined
spectrophotometrically. In addition, if the ligand or metal absorb at the chosen wavelength, the
measured absorbances must be corrected.
8.5.2.1. Job's method
Using the stoichiometry of the complex, the value of K (the stability constant) can be determined
form the expression given below, if the value of m and n are known:
m n −1  n m−1  ( P − 1) m+ n −1 [n − (m + n) x]
K= m + n −1
C1  P n −1 [ P(m + n) x −1 ]m+ n
where, K = stability constant, 1/K = dissociation constant of the complex, P = ratio of the
concentration of the ligand to the concentration of metal, C1= molar concentration of metal solution, X
= concentration of ligand for which the concentration of complex is maximum, m = the number of
moles of a metal required to combine with "n" moles of ligand for (1:1) metal ligand ratio in the
complex having m = n = 1, the stability constant K can be calculated from the equation given below.
( P − 1)(1 − 2 x)
K=
C1  [ ( P + 1)( x − 1)]2

Page 197
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
Q1. Arrange [Co(NH3)6]3+, [CoF6]3−, and [Co(en)3]3+ in order of decreasing stability.
Q2.Arrange [Cr(en)3]3+, [CrCl6]3−, [CrF6]3−, and [Cr(NH3)6]3+ in order of increasing stability.
Q3. Based on the given values, rank the following complex ions from most to least stable.
[Cr(OH)4]− Kf = 8.0×1029; [Ni(CN)4]2− Kf =2.0×1031; [Co(NH3)6]3+ Kf = 4.5×1033; [Cu(CN)4]3− Kf =

2.0×1030
Q4.Among, [Ni(en)3]2+, [Ni(EDTA)]2−, and [Ni(NH3)6]2+which would you expect to have the largest and
smallest Kf value? Explain.
8.7. ANSWERS
Q1. [Co(en)3]3+ > [Co(NH3)6]3+ > [CoF6]3−
Q2. Here the metal ion is the same all the complexes i.e. Cr3+. Therefore, we must consider the
properties of the ligands to decide the stability of the complexes. We know that the stability of a metal
complex increases as the basicity of the ligands increases; we need to determine the relative basicity of
the four ligands. By our understanding of acid–base properties, we can say that ammonia and
ethylenediamine, with nitrogen donor atoms, are the most basic ligands. The fluoride ion is a stronger
base (it has a higher charge-to-radius ratio) than chloride, so the order of stability based on ligand
basicity is
[CrCl6]3− < [CrF6]3− < [Cr(NH3)6]3+ ≈ [Cr(en)3]3+.
Another reason is the chelate effect, so we expect ethylenediamine to form a stronger complex with
Cr3+ than ammonia. Thus, the likely order of increasing stability is
[CrCl6]3− < [CrF6]3− < [Cr(NH3)6]3+ < [Cr(en)3]3+.

Page 198
A3.[Co(NH3)6]3+>[Ni(CN)4]2−>[Cu(CN)4]3−>[Cr(OH)4]−
A4. Ethylenediamine (en) is a bidentate ligand and forms one chelate while EDTA is a six dentate ligand
and forms five chelate rings and ammonia is a monodentate non chelating ligand. We know that
complexes with greater number of rings are more stable. Hence, [Ni(EDTA)]2− will have highest Kf
value since it has five rings, followed by [Ni(en)3]2+ which has three rings and [Ni(NH3)6]2+ has no rings
hence it will have smallest Kf value among the above three complexes.
________________________________________________________________________
8.8. REFERENCES
___________________________________________________________________________
1. H. Irving, R. J. P. Williams, (1953), J. Chem. Soc.,3192.
2. W. G. Sunda, D. W. Engel, R. M. Thuotte, (1978), Environ. Sci. and Tech., (12): 409
3. G. H. Nancollas, M. B. Tomson, (1982), Pure Appl. Chem., (54): 2675.
4. J. Bjerrurn, “Metal Ammine Formation in Aqueous Solution,” P. Haase and Sons. Copenhagen,
Denmark, 1041.
5. N. Purdie, M. B. Tomson, (1972), J. Solution Chem., 1: 477.
6. H.M. Irving, H. S. Rossotti, (1954), J. Chem. Soc., 2904.
7. R. A. Robinson, R. H. Stokes, (1970), "Electrolyte Solutions" 2nd Edn. Butterworths, London.
8. H. H. Willard, L. L. Merritt, Jr., J. A. Dean, (1974), "Instrumental Methods of Analysis",D. Van

Nostrand, New York, 5th Edn.

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MSCCH-501

Prof. A. B. Melkani Prof. Diwan S Rawat

Dr. Hemant Kandpal Dr. Charu C. Pant

Prof. R.D.Kaushik Prof. P.D.Pant

Dr. Shalini Singh Dr. Charu C. Pant

Dr. Shalini Singh

Title : : Inorganic Chemistry-I

Block I: Stereochemistry and Bonding

UNIT :1 STEREOCHEMISTRY AND BONDING IN MAIN GROUP 1-21

Block II : Metal pi-Complexes and Metal Clusters

UNIT: 5 METAL–π COMPLEXES – I 72-101

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY-I MSCCH-501

UNIT 1 STEREOCHEMISTRY AND BONDING IN MAIN

1.3 VSEPR theory

1.3.1 Structure of beryllium chloride (BeCl2)

1.3.2 Structure of boron trichloride (BCl3)

1.3.3 Structure of water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4)

1.3.4 Structure of nitrate anion (NO3-)

1.3.5 Structure of phosphorous pentachloride (PCl5)

1.3.6 Structure of xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4)

1.3.7 Limitations of VSEPR theory

1.4 Walsh diagram

1.4.1 Walsh diagram for tri-atomic molecules

1.4.2 Walsh diagram for penta-atomic molecules

1.5 d𝜋- p𝜋 bond

1.6 Bent’s rule and energetics of hybridization

1.7 Some simple reactions of covalently bonded molecules

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1.7.4 Nucleophilic substitution reaction

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1.3. VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR)

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Table 1.1.Summary of possible geometry and shapes for simple molecules.

Linear (180°) Bent

Trigonal planar (120°) T shaped (180° / 90°) Trigonal pyramidal

Tetrahedral (109.5°) See-saw shaped Square planar (90°)

Trigonal bipyramidal Square pyramidal Pentagonal planar (72°)

Pentagonal bipyramidal (90° / 72°)

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1.3.1. Structure of beryllium chloride (BeCl2)

Figure 1.1.The linear geometry of BeCl2 molecule.

1.3.2. Structure of boron trichloride (BCl3)

Figure 1.2. The trigonal planar shape of BCl3 molecule

.1.3.3. Structure of water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4)

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1.3.4. Structure of nitrate anion (NO3-)

Figure 1.4.The trigonal planar shape of NO3- anion.

1.3.5. Structure of phosphorous pentachloride (PCl5)

Figure 1.5.The trigonal bipyramidal shape of PCl5 molecule.

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1.3.6. Structure of xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4)

1.3.7. Limitations of VSEPR theory

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1.4. WALSH DIAGRAMS

1.4.1. Walsh diagram for tri-atomic molecules

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Figure 1.7. Simplified Walsh diagram for a tri-atomic molecule, AH2

1.4.2. Walsh diagram for penta-atomic molecules

1.5. dπ-pπ BOND