Long-Term Evolution (LTE)

of 3GPP
MODULE 6
 LTE System Overview
• LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and it was started as a project in 2004 by
telecommunication body known as the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
• SAE (System Architecture Evolution) is the corresponding evolution of the GPRS/3G packet
core network evolution. The term LTE is typically used to represent both LTE and SAE.
• LTE evolved from an earlier 3GPP system known as the Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System (UMTS), which in turn evolved from the Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM).
• A rapid increase of mobile data usage and emergence of new applications such as MMOG
(Multimedia Online Gaming), mobile TV, Web 2.0, streaming contents have motivated the
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) to work on the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) on
the way towards fourth-generation mobile.
• The main goal of LTE is to provide a high data rate, low latency and packet optimized radio
access technology supporting flexible bandwidth deployments.
 History of Mobile Telecommunication Systems
A)From 1G to 3G
• The first generation (1G) systems (1980)used analogue communication
techniques, which were similar to those used by a traditional analogue radio.
• The individual cells were large and the systems did not use the available radio
spectrum efficiently, so their capacity was by today’s standards very small.
• The mobile devices were large and expensive and were marketed almost
exclusively at business users.
• The second generation (2G) systems (1990) were the first to use digital
technology, which permitted a more efficient use of the radio spectrum and the
introduction of smaller, cheaper devices.
• The most popular 2G system was the Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM). They were originally designed just for voice, but
were later enhanced to support instant messaging through the Short
Message Service (SMS).
• The success of 2G communication systems so-called 2.5G systems,
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)built on the original ideas from 2G, by
introducing the core network’s packet switched domain and by modifying
the air interface so that it could handle data as well as voice.
• The data rates available over the internet were progressively increasing
using techniques such as Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) .
• The world’s dominant 3G system is the Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System (UMTS). UMTS was developed from GSM by
completely changing the technology used on the air interface, while
keeping the core network almost unchanged.
• The system was later enhanced for data applications, by introducing the 3.5G
technologies of high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) and high-speed
uplink packet access (HSUPA), which are collectively known as high-speed
packet access (HSPA).
• The final 3G technology is Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMAX). This was developed by IEEE standard (802.16,2001) that delivered
data over point-to-point microwave links instead of fixed cables.
• A fixed WiMAX (IEEE 802.16–2004), supported point-to-multipoint
communications between an omni-directional base station and a number of
fixed devices.
• mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e), allowed the devices to move and to hand over
their communications from one base station to another.
B) From UMTS to LTE

Evolution of the system architecture from GSM and UMTS to LTE

• In the new architecture, the evolved packet core (EPC) is a direct
replacement for the packet switched domain of UMTS and GSM.
• There is no equivalent to the circuit switched domain, which allows
LTE to be optimized for the delivery of data traffic, but implies that
voice calls have to be handled using other techniques.
• The evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access network (E-UTRAN)
handles the EPC’s radio communications with the mobile, so is a
direct replacement for the UTRAN.
• The mobile is still known as the user equipment, though its internal
operation is very different from before.
• The new architecture was designed as part of two 3GPP work items,
namely system architecture evolution (SAE), which covered the core
network, and long-term evolution (LTE), which covered the radio
access network, air interface and mobile.
• Officially, the whole system is known as the evolved packet system
(EPS), while the acronym LTE refers only to the evolution of the air
interface. Despite this official usage, LTE has become a colloquial
name for the whole system
Key features of the air interfaces of WCDMA and LTE
Key features of the radio access networks of UMTS and LTE

Key features of the core networks of UMTS and LTE

 The Need for LTE
1.The Growth of Mobile Data:
• For many years, voice calls dominated the traffic in mobile telecommunication
networks. The growth of mobile data was initially slow, but its use started to
increase dramatically.
2.Increasing the System Capacity:
• There are three ways of system capacity improvement namely cell splitting,
increment in the bandwidth and improving the communication technology which
is being used.
• The increasing use of mobile telecommunications has led to the increasing
allocation of spectrum to 2G and 3G systems. However, there is only a finite
amount of radio spectrum available.
• Thus progressive improvement is the main reason to develop LTE.
3.Using single core network
• 2G or 3G operator has to maintain two core networks. The circuit switched domain for
voice, and the packet switched domain for data.
• Provided that the network is not too congested, however, it is also possible to
transport voice calls over packet switched networks using techniques such as voice
over IP (VoIP).
• By doing this, operators can move everything to the packet switched domain, and can
reduce both their capital and operational expenditure.
4.Reduce the end-to-end delay
• 3G networks introduce delays of the order of 100 ms for data applications, in
transferring data packets between network elements and across the air interface.
• This is barely acceptable for voice and causes great difficulties for more demanding
applications such as real-time interactive games. Thus need to reduce the end-to-end
delay, or latency, in the network.
5.Reducing complexity
• The specifications for UMTS and GSM have become increasingly
complex over the years, due to the need to add new features to the
system while maintaining backwards compatibility with earlier
devices
 LTE/SAE Requirements
1. Requirement on peak data rate:
• LTE was required to deliver a peak data rate of 100 Mbps in the downlink
and 50 Mbps in the uplink. For comparison, the peak data rate of WCDMA,
in Release 6 of the 3GPP specifications, is 14 Mbps in the downlink and 5.7
Mbps in the uplink.
• This requirement was exceeded in the eventual system, which delivers peak
data rates of 300 Mbps and 75 Mbps respectively. These peak data rates
can only be reached in idealized conditions, and are wholly unachievable in
any realistic scenario.
2. Requirement on spectral efficiency :
• LTE was required to support a spectral efficiency three to four times
greater than that of Release 6 WCDMA in the downlink and two to three
times greater in the uplink.
• These peak data rates can only be reached in idealized conditions, and are
wholly unachievable in any realistic scenario. LTE was required to support a
spectral efficiency three to four times greater than that of Release 6
WCDMA in the downlink and two to three times greater in the uplink.
3.Requirement on Latency:
• The requirements state that the time taken for data to travel between the
mobile phone and the fixed network should be less than 5 ms, provided
that the air interface is uncongested
• The mobile phones can operate in two states: an active state in which they
are communicating with the network and a low-power standby state. The
requirements state that a phone should switch from standby to the active
state, after an intervention from the user, in less than 100 ms.
4.Requirements on coverage and mobility:
• LTE is optimized for cell sizes up to 5 km, works with degraded
performance up to 30 km and supports cell sizes of up to 100 km. It is also
optimized for mobile speeds up to 15 km h−1, works with high
performance up to 120 km h−1 and supports speeds of up to 350 km h−1.
5.Requirement on bandwidth:
• Finally, LTE is designed to work with a variety of different bandwidths,
which range from 1.4 MHz up to a maximum of 20 MHz.
 Advantages of LTE
a) High throughput:
• High data rates can be achieved in both downlink as well as uplink. This
causes high throughput.
b) Low latency:
• Time required to connect to the network is in range of a few hundred
milliseconds and power saving states can now be entered and exited very
quickly.
c) FDD and TDD in the same platform:
• Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD), both
schemes can be used on same platform.
d) Superior end-user experience:
• Optimized signaling for connection establishment and other air interface
and mobility management procedures have further improved the user
experience. Reduced latency (to 10 ms) for better user experience
e) Seamless Connection:
• LTE will also support seamless connection to existing networks such as
GSM, CDMA and WCDMA.
f)Plug and play:
• The user does not have to manually install drivers for the device. Instead
system automatically recognizes the device, loads new drivers for the
hardware if needed, and begins to work with the newly connected device.
g) Simple architecture:
• Because of Simple architecture low operating expenditure (OPEX).
System Architecture Evolution (SAE)

SAE (System Architecture Evolution)

• System Architecture Evolution (SAE) is a new network architecture
designed to simplify LTE networks and establish a flat architecture
similar to other IP based communications networks.
• SAE uses an eNB and Access Gateway (aGW) and removes the RNC and
SGSN from the equivalent 3G network architecture to create a simpler
mobile network.
• This allows the network to be built with an “All-IP” based network
architecture.
• SAE also includes entities to allow full inter-working with other related
wireless technology (WCDMA, WiMAX, WLAN, etc.).
• These entities can specifically manage and permit the non-3GPP
technologies to interface directly with the network and be managed
from within the same network.
 • The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main
components:
1. The User Equipment (UE).
2. The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
3. The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
1.The User Equipment (UE)

Internal architecture of the UE.

The internal architecture of the user equipment for LTE is identical to the one
used by UMTS and GSM which is actually a Mobile Equipment (ME). The
mobile equipment comprised of the following important modules:
• Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.
• Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.
• Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM
card for LTE equipments. It runs an application known as the Universal
Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).
• A USIM stores user-specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps
information about the user's phone number, home network identity and
security keys etc
2.The E-UTRAN (The access network)
• The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and
the evolved packet core and just has one component, the evolved base
stations, called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB is a base station that controls the
mobiles in one or more cells. The base station that is communicating with a
mobile is known as its serving eNB.
• There are following two main functions supported by eNB:
a) The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using
the analogue and digital signal processing functions of the LTE air
interface.
b) The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending
them signalling messages such as handover commands.
Architecture of the evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access network
• Each eBN connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface and it can also
be connected to nearby base stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly
used for signalling and packet forwarding during handover.
• A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to
provide femtocell coverage within the home.
• A home eNB belongs to a closed subscriber group (CSG) and can only be
accessed by mobiles with a USIM that also belongs to the closed subscriber
group.
• A mobile’s list of closed subscriber groups is stored by the USIM and can be
downloaded from a device management server that is controlled by the
network operator.
• Home eNBs have lower power limitations than normal base stations, can
control only one cell.
Internal architecture of the E-UTRAN transport network
• Usually, the S1 and X2 interfaces are not direct physical connections,
• Each base station and each component of the core network has an IP
address, and the underlying routers use those IP addresses to transport
data and signaling messages from one device to another.
• On the S1 interface, a home eNB can communicate with the evolved packet
core either directly or through a device known as a home eNB gateway that
shields the EPC from the potentially huge numbers of home eNBs.
• The S1 data and signaling messages are transported by the consumer’s
internet service provider rather than by the network operator,
3. The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network)

Main components of the evolved packet core

 •The Home Subscriber Server (HSS)
• This component has been carried forward from UMTS and GSM and is
a central database that contains information about all the network
operator's subscribers.
•MME (Mobility Management Entity):
a) The MME is an important controller node in the LTE network. It is
responsible for:
b) Idle mode UE (User Equipment) tracking
c) Paging procedure such as re-transmissions
d) Bearer activation and deactivation process
e) S-GW selection for a UE at the initial attach
f) Intra-LTE handover with Core Network node relocation
g)User authentication with HSS.
h) When the signaling of Non-Access Stratum (NAS) terminates at the
MME, it generates and allocates temporary identities to Ues.
i) It is also responsible for the enforcement of UE roaming restrictions.
J) The MME handles the ciphering/integrity protection for NAS
signaling and the security key management.
k) It supports lawful interception of signaling, and the control plane
function for mobility between LTE and legacy networks with the S3
interface.
l)The S6a interface connects the MME to the HSS for roaming UEs.
•SGW (Serving Gateway):
• The main function of the Serving Gateway is routing and forwarding
of user data packets.
• It is also responsible for inter-eNB handovers in the U-plane and
provides mobility between LTE and other types of networks, such as
between 2G/3G and P-GW.
• The DL data from the UEs in idle state is terminated at the SGW, and
arrival of DL data triggers paging for the UE.
• The SGW keeps context information such as parameters of the IP
bearer and routing information, and stores the UE contexts when
paging happens.
• It is also responsible for replicating user traffic for lawful interception.
 •PGW (PDN Gateway):
• The PDN Gateway is the connecting node between UEs and external
networks. It is the entry point of data traffic for UEs. In order to access
multiple PDNs, UEs can connect to several PGWs at the same time.
• The functions of the PGW include:
a) Policy enforcement
b) Packet filtering
c) Charging support
d) Lawful interception
e) Packet screening
• Another important role of the PGW is to provide mobility between 3GPP
and non-3GPP networks. For example, mobility between WiMAX and
3GPP2 or between CMDA 1X and EVDO are supported by the PGW.
• There are few more components which have not been shown in the diagram
to keep it simple. These components are like the Earthquake and Tsunami
Warning System (ETWS), the Equipment Identity Register (EIR) and Policy
Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF).
• The Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is a component which
is not shown in the above diagram but it is responsible for policy control
decision-making, as well as for controlling the flow-based charging
functionalities in the Policy Control Enforcement Function (PCEF), which
resides in the P-GW.
• The interface between the serving and PDN gateways is known as S5/S8.
This has two slightly different implementations, namely S5 if the two devices
are in the same network, and S8 if they are in different networks.
 Voice over LTE (VoLTE)
• The evolved packet core is designed as a data pipe that simply transports information to
and from the user; it is not concerned with the information content or with the application.
• This is similar to the behavior of the internet, which transports packets that originate from
any application software, but is different from that of a traditional circuit switched network
in which the voice application is an integral part of the system.
• Because of this issue, voice applications do not form an integral part of LTE. However, an
LTE mobile can still make a voice call using two main techniques.
• The first is circuit switched fallback, in which the network transfers the mobile to a legacy
2G or 3G cell so that the mobile can contact the 2G/3G circuit switched domain.
• The second is by using the IP multimedia subsystem (IMS), an external network that
includes the signalling functions needed to set up, manage and tear down a voice over IP
call
• The IP Multimedia Subsystem or IP Multimedia Core Network Subsystem,
IMS is an architectural framework for delivering Internet Protocol, IP
multimedia services.
• It enables a variety of services to be run seamlessly rather than having
several disparate applications operating concurrently.
Entities within the reduced IMS network used for VoLTE:
• IP-CAN IP, Connectivity Access Network: This consists of the EUTRAN
and the MME.
• P-CSCF, Proxy Call State Control Function: The P-CSCF is the user to
network proxy. In this respect all SIP signalling to and from the user runs
via the P-CSCF whether in the home or a visited network.
• I-CSCF, Interrogating Call State Control Function: The I-CSCF is used for
forwarding an initial SIP request to the S-CSCF. When the initiator does
not know which S-CSCF should receive the request
• S-CSCF, Serving Call State Control Function: The S-CSCF undertakes
a variety of actions within the overall system, and it has a number of
interfaces to enable it to communicate with other entities within the
overall system.
• AS, Application Server: It is the application server that handles the
voice as an application.
• HSS, Home Subscriber Server: The IMS HSS or home subscriber
server is the main subscriber database used within IMS. The IMS HSS
provides details of the subscribers to the other entities within the IMS
network, enabling users to be granted access or not dependent upon
their status.
• The IMS calls for VoLTE are processed by the subscriber’s S-CSCF in the
home network. The connection to the S-CSCF is via the P-CSCF.
• Dependent upon the network in use and overall location within a network,
the P-CSCF will vary, and a key element in the enablement of voice calling
capability is the discovery of the P-CSCF.
• An additional requirement for VoLTE enabled networks is to have a means
to handing back to circuit switched legacy networks in a seamless manner,
while only having one transmitting radio in the handset to preserve
battery life. A system known as SRVCC – Single Radio Voice Call Continuity
is required for this.
Advantages of VoLTE
• High-quality voice calls
• Traditional 2G and 3G networks use circuit-switched technology, which is
less efficient than the packet-switched technology used in 4G LTE networks.
This means that voice calls made over a 4G LTE network are generally clearer
and more reliable than those made over a 2G or 3G network. Additionally,
VoLTE supports a wide range of codecs, which allows for even higher-quality
calls.
• Faster call setup times
• Traditional 2G and 3G networks require separate signaling and voice
channels, which can take several seconds to establish a call. With VoLTE, the
signaling and voice channels are combined into a single channel, which
allows for much faster call setup times. This means that users can place and
answer calls more quickly, which can be particularly useful in emergency
situation
• Multi-tasking capabilities
• VoLTE also allows users to multi-task while on a call. Traditional 2G and 3G
networks use circuit-switched technology, which means that the user's data
connection is temporarily suspended while they are on a call. With VoLTE, the
data connection is not suspended, which means that users can continue to
use data services such as browsing the internet or sending text messages
while on a call.
• Bettery coverage
• VoLTE also offers better coverage than traditional 2G and 3G networks. The
4G LTE network is generally more extensive and has a higher capacity than
the 2G and 3G networks. This means that users are more likely to have a
reliable voice call connection in areas where traditional 2G and 3G networks
might have poor coverage.
• Enhanced features
• VoLTE also offers several enhanced features that are not available on
traditional 2G and 3G networks. For example, VoLTE supports
high-definition (HD) voice calls, which provide a more natural and realistic
voice quality. Additionally, VoLTE supports video calls, which allow users to
see and hear each other in real-time. These enhanced features can be
useful in both personal and business situations.

Disadvantages of VoLTE
• Limited device compatibility
• One of the biggest disadvantages of VoLTE is that it is not compatible with
all devices. Currently, only a limited number of smartphones support
VoLTE, and many older devices may not be compatible with the
technology. This means that users who want to take advantage of the
benefits of VoLTE will need to purchase a new device, which can be
expensive
• Limited network availability
• Another disadvantage of VoLTE is that it is not yet widely available. Currently,
only a few mobile operators have deployed VoLTE networks, and even in
those areas, coverage may be limited. This means that users may not be able
to take advantage of the benefits of VoLTE in their local area.
• Battery drain
• VoLTE can also have a negative impact on battery life. VoLTE uses more
power than traditional 2G and 3G networks, which can cause a significant
drain on the device's battery. This is because VoLTE uses a more complex
signaling process, which requires more power to function. Additionally, the
use of data services while on a call can also contribute to battery drain. Users
who frequently make long VoLTE calls may need to carry an extra battery or
a power bank to ensure that their device stays charged.
• Higher data usage
• VoLTE also requires a higher data usage than traditional 2G and 3G
networks. This is because VoLTE uses packet-switched technology, which
requires more data to transmit the same amount of information. This
means that users who frequently make VoLTE calls may need to purchase
a higher data plan to ensure that they do not exceed their data usage
limit.
• Interoperability issues
• Finally, VoLTE also has some interoperability issues. VoLTE uses a
different signaling protocol than traditional 2G and 3G networks, which
means that calls made between different mobile operators or networks
may not be fully compatible. Additionally, VoLTE calls may not be able to
connect to traditional 2G and 3G networks, which can be problematic in
areas where 4G LTE coverage is limited.
 Introduction to LTE-Advanced
• Release 10 enhances the capabilities of LTE, to make the technology compliant with the
International Telecommunication Union’s requirements for IMT-Advanced. The resulting system
is known as LTE-Advanced.
• 3GPP continued development of the LTE standard, finalizing Release 10 in September 2011.
LTE-Advanced, or LTE-A focused on improving network capacity.
• LTE-A is often informally referred to as a "4.5G" network.
• LTE Release 10 ( LTE-Advanced) provided the following technological enhancements:
1. Increased peak data rate, DL 3 Gbps, UL 1.5 Gbps
2. Higher spectral efficiency, from 16 bps/Hz with 4X4 MIMO to 30 bps/Hz with 8X8 MIMO
3. Increased number of simultaneously active subscribers
4. Improved performance at cell edges, e.g. for DL 2X2 MIMO at least 2.40 bps/Hz/cell
5. Up to 5 Component carrier aggregation (100 MHz total bandwidth)
6. LTE Supplemental Downlink (SDL)
 LTE-A Functionality
• The key new functionalities introduced were Carrier Aggregation (CA),
enhanced use of multi-antenna techniques, and support for Relay Nodes
(RN).

1. Carrier Aggregation (CA)

• The ultimate goal of LTE-Advanced is to support a maximum bandwidth of
100 MHz. This is an extremely large bandwidth, which is most unlikely to be
available as a contiguous allocation in the foreseeable future.
• To deal with this problem, LTE-Advanced allows a mobile to transmit and
receive on up to five component carriers (CCs), each of which has a
maximum bandwidth of 20 MHz. This technique is known as carrier
aggregation (CA)
Carrier aggregation scenarios
 • There are three scenarios
1. in contiguous intra-band aggregation the carriers are in the same
band and are adjacent to each other.
2. In non-contiguous intra-band aggregation, the carriers are in the
same band,
3. In inter-band aggregation, the component carriers are located in
different frequency bands and are separated by a multiple of 100
kHz, which is the usual LTE carrier spacing.
• In FDD mode, the allocations on the uplink and downlink can be
different, but the number of downlink component carriers is always
greater than or equal to the number used on the uplink.
• In TDD mode, each component carrier must have the same TDD
configuration in Release 10.
• Carrier aggregation only affects the physical layer and the MAC protocol on
the air interface, and the RRC, S1-AP and X2-AP signaling protocols. There is
no impact on the RLC or PDCP and no impact on data transport in the fixed
network.
• Carrier aggregation does not affect data transmission in the downlink, but it
does lead to some changes in the uplink.
• In Release 8, a mobile uses SC-FDMA, which assumes that the mobile is
transmitting on a single contiguous block of sub-carriers.
• In Release 10, this assumption is no longer valid: instead, the mobile uses a
more general technique known as discrete Fourier transform spread
orthogonal frequency division multiple access (DFT-S-OFDMA).
• This multiple access technique is the same as SC-FDMA, except that it
supports transmission on a non-contiguous allocation of sub-carriers.
 2.Enhanced Downlink MIMO
• Release 10 extends LTE’s support for downlink multiple antenna
transmission using a new technique known as eight layer spatial
multiplexing.
• The technique has three main objectives.
a) Firstly, it supports single user MIMO transmissions with a maximum of
eight layers.
b) Secondly, it supports multiple user MIMO transmissions to a maximum of
four mobiles and includes the accurate feedback that MU-MIMO
requires.
c) Thirdly, it allows the base station to switch a mobile between the two
techniques every subframe without the need for additional RRC
signaling.
3. Enhanced Uplink MIMO
• In LTE-Advanced, the uplink is enhanced to support single user
MIMO, using up to four transmit antennas and four transmission
layers.
• The mobile declares how many layers it supports as part of its uplink
capabilities.
• The peak uplink data rate in Release 10 is 600 Mbps. This is eight
times greater than in Release 8, and results from the use of four
transmission layers and two component carriers.
• Eventually, LTE should support a peak uplink data rate of 1500 Mbps,
through the use of five component carriers
4.Relays
• Repeaters and relays are devices that extend the coverage area of a
cell.
• They are useful in sparsely populated areas in which the performance
of a network is limited by coverage rather than capacity.
• They can also increase the data rate at the edge of a cell, by improving the
signal-to-interference plus noise ratio there.
• A repeater receives a radio signal from the transmitter, and amplifies and
rebroadcasts it, so appears to the receiver as an extra source of multipath.
• Unfortunately the repeater amplifies the incoming noise and interference as
well as the received signal, which ultimately limits its performance.
• FDD repeaters were fully specified in Release 8, with the sole specification
referring to the radio performance requirements.
• TDD repeaters are harder to implement, because of the increased risk of
interference between uplink and downlink.
• A relay takes things a step further, by decoding the received radio signal,
before re-encoding and rebroadcasting it.
• By doing this, it removes the noise and interference from the retransmitted
signal, so can achieve a higher performance than a repeater.
• Relays are first specified in Release 10, for both FDD and TDD modes
5. CoMP Techniques
• Coordinated Multi-Point transmission/reception (CoMP) is a DL/UL
technique for improving system capacity and cell edge user throughput.
• Currently, there are two different approaches for CoMP .

Centralized/Autonomous Decentralized Control

• One approach uses autonomous, decentralized control and an architecture with
independent eNBs.
• In the approach with independent eNB architecture, CoMP is performed by
signaling between eNBs. This technique can utilize legacy cells, but the
disadvantages include signaling delay and other overheads.
• The second approach uses centralized control and an architecture based on
Remote Radio Equipment (RRE).
• In the second approach that integrates RRE, the eNB can centralize and control
all radio resources by transmitting baseband data directly between the eNB and
RRE on optical fiber connections. There is little signaling delay or other
overheads in this technique, and intra-cell radio resource control is relatively
easy.
Downlink CoMP
Downlink CoMP also has two approaches under consideration for LTE-Advanced:
Coordinated Scheduling/Beamforming (CS/CB) and Joint Processing.
• In CS/CB, transmission, the scheduling of transmissions is dynamically coordinated
between the cells, including any beamforming functionality.
• In principle, schedule optimization will be based on the set of users being served,
so that the transmitter beams are constructed to reduce interference with other
neighboring users while increasing the served users’ signal strength.
• In Joint Processing, the Joint Transmission scheme transmits data to a
single UE simultaneously from multiple transmission points.
• The multi-point transmissions will be coordinated as a single
transmitter with multiple antennas that are geographically separated.
• This scheme offers potentially higher performance gains compared to
CS/CB, but also places a high signaling overhead on the network.
Uplink CoMP
• Uplink CoMP uses geographically separated antennas for receiving
signals from UEs, and scheduling decisions are coordinated by
multiple cells to control interference.
• The UE is not aware that multiple cells are receiving its signal, so the
impact on radio interface specifications is minimal.
LTE Advanced Architecture
• The figure depicts LTE Advanced (LTE-A) Architecture consisting of P-GW,
S-GW, MME, S1-MME, eNB, HeNB, HeNB-GW and Relay Node etc.
• Following are the functions of these architecture entities.
1. P-GW:
• It stands for PDN Gateway. It interfaced with S-GW using S5 interface and
with operator's IP services using SGi interface. It has connectivity with
PCRP using Gx interface. It connects UE to packet data networks. P-GW
assigns IP address to the UE. One UE can have connectivity with more than
one PGWs in order to have access to multiple PDNs. It takes care of packet
filtering, policy enforcement and charging related services. Moreover it
fulfills connectivity between 3GPP (LTE, LTE-A) and non 3GPP (WiMAX,
CDMA etc.) technologies.
2.S-GW:
• It stands for Serving Gateway. It interfaces with MME using S11 interface
and with SGSN using S4 interface. It connects with PDN-GW using S5
interface.
• EPC gets terminated at this node/entity. It is connected with E-UTRAN via
S1-U interface.
• Each UE in LTE-A is associated to unique S-GW which has several functions.
It helps in inter-eNB handover as well as inter-3GPP mobility. It helps in
inter-operator charging.
• It does packet routing and packet forwarding.
3.MME:
• It stands for Mobility Management Entity. It is major control plane element
in LTE advanced architecture.
• It takes care of authentication, authorization and NAS signaling related
security functions. It takes care of selecting either S-GW or PDN-GW or
P-GW.
4. S1-MME:
• It provides connectivity between EPC and eNBs.
5. eNB:
• It is main building block or system in LTE-A. It provides interface with UEs or LTE-A
phones. It has similar functionality as base station used in GSM or other cellular
systems.
• Each of the eNBs serve one or several E-UTRAN cells. Interface between two eNBs
is known as X2 interface.
6. HeNB:
• It stands for Home eNodeB or Home eNB. It is known as Femtocell. It is used to
improve coverage in the indoor region of office or home premises. It can be
interfaced directly to EPC or via Gateway.
7.HeNB-GW:
It provides connectivity of HeNB with S-GW and MME. It aggregates all the traffic
from number of Home eNBs to core network. It uses S1 interface to connect with
HeNBs.
8.Relay Node:
It is used for improving network performance
LTE Advanced Protocol Stack
• LTE Advanced protocol stack is divided into two main parts viz. NAS
(Non-Access Stratum) and AS (Access Stratum).
• Further it is categorized into control plane and user plane. User plane
of eNB consists of PHY, MAC, RLC and PDCP layers. Control plane of
eNB consists of these 4 layers and in addition houses RRC layer also.
• Following are functions of these LTE Advanced protocol stack layers.
• PHY :
• This layer takes care of frame formation as per TDD or FDD topology
and as per OFDMA structure based on BW/FFT. Moreover it takes
care of modulation and coding of different control and traffic
channels.
• It covers scrambling and codeword to layer mapping functionalities. It
incorporates reference signals which are used for channel estimation
and channel equalization.
MAC-Medium Access Control :
• It takes care of following functions:
-Multiplexing/demultiplexing of RLC Packet Data Units (PDUs).
-Scheduling information reporting.
-Error correction through Hybrid ARQ (HARQ).
-Local Channel Prioritization.
-Padding.
RLC-Radio Link Control :
-Error correction through Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ).
-Segmentation according to the size of the transport block and
re-segmentation in case a retransmission is needed.
-Concatenation of SDUs for the same radio bearer.
-Protocol error detection and recovery.
-In-sequence delivery.
PDCP-Packet Data Convergence Protocol :
-Header compression.
-In-sequence delivery and retransmission of PDCP Session Data Units
(SDUs) for acknowledge mode radio bearers at handover.
-Duplicate detection.
-Ciphering and integrity protection.
RRC-Radio Resource Control:
-Broadcast system information related to Non-Access Stratum (NAS)
and Access Stratum (AS).
-Establishment, maintenance, and release of RRC connection.
-Security functions including key management.
-Mobility functions.
-QoS management functions.
-UE measurement reporting and control of the reporting.
-NAS direct message transfer between UE and NAS.
• NAS-Non Access Stratum :
-Connection/session management between UE and the core network.
-Authentication.
-Registration.
-Bearer context activation/deactivation.
-Location registration management.
 Self-Organizing Network (SON-LTE)
• Self-organizing networks are radio access networks (RANs) that
automatically plan, configure, manage, optimize, and heal themselves.
SONs can offer automated functions such as self-configuration,
self-optimization, self-healing, and self-protection.
• These functions are made possible through artificial intelligence,
predictive analytics, and pre-optimized software algorithms.
• SONs strive to make complicated network administration a thing of the
past by enabling the creation of a plug-and-play environment for both
simple and complex network tasks.
• The main benefit of SONs is that their inherent automation reduces the
need for costly manual, human attention for installation and network
management.
• Instead, the network is quicker to install and easier to maintain while
providing higher performance.
• Self-configuration means the SON automatically recognizes and registers new
access points / base stations made part of the radio access network (RAN).
• Neighboring radios automatically adjust their emission power and other
technical parameters to avoid interference and maximize both coverage and
capacity.
• Self-optimization automatically optimizes base stations’ technical parameters for
a specific purpose.
• For example, a self-optimizing network could optimize wireless airtime resources
to ensure specific service level agreements (SLA) per device and application
groups are maintained at times of congestion, high device density and changing
spectrum availability.
• Self-healing allows the SON to automatically heal itself when base stations fail
and connectivity is lost.
• Self-healing networks adjust adjacent cells’ parameters to provide continued
service—or at least minimize degradation of service—to affected users.
• Self-protection means the self-organizing network automatically
defends itself from penetration by unauthorized users.
• The primary goal of self-protection is to maintain network security
and data confidentiality.

• Automatic Neighbor Relations (ANR) helps facilitate smooth signal

transitions from cell to cell as a device moves through a cellular
network.
• Traditionally this has been a very complicated and laborious task for
human operators, but can now be handled through SONs.
• ANR works constantly to analyze and communicate with neighboring
cells to ensure handovers are timely, reliable, and efficient.
 • There are three main types of self-organizing networks: distributed,
centralized, and hybrid.

Centralized SON Architecture Distributed SON Architecture Hybrid SON Architecture

• Centralized self-organizing networks’ functions are centralized at higher-order
network nodes. Commands, changes, settings, and requests are distributed
directly from the network management console, and then propagated out to each
node.
• This type of SON can easily scan and take in all aspects of the network, allowing
the algorithm to make better decisions regarding optimizations and future
configurations.
• A drawback of this configuration is slightly longer response times when compared
to a distributed SON, where you tend to trade a bit of speed for additional control
and precision of the network assets.
• Distributed self-organizing networks relay commands that are distributed across
the edge of the network where each node exchanges information with each other.
• This type of architecture allows more flexibility than a centralized SON, and
enables the network to respond and see changes on the network more quickly.
• A challenge with this type of network architecture is that each node’s
optimization doesn’t always ensure that the network will improve as a
whole since each node acts as its own relay.
• Hybrid self-organizing networks are a mix of distributed and centralized
SONs. Hybrid environments attempt to strike a balance between
advantages between the approaches, where the network can both quickly
respond to changes while maintaining a centralized method of
management.
 SON For Heterogeneous Networks (HetNet)
• HetNet basically refers to Heterogeneous Networks, which is nothing but
a combination of networks of different access technologies and cell types
interworking with each other to give user a better, seamless and reliable,
communication experience.
• The user gets the feel of being connected to a single never failing
network. The prime motivation for deploying “HetNet” is to boost the
network capacity/capability.
In heterogeneous networks the cells of different sizes are referred to as
macro, micro, pico and femto-cells; listed in order of decreasing base
station power.
a. Macro cells are the common cells sites supporting technologies like
HSPA+ and LTE.
• The normal range may vary from a few hundred meters to a few
kilometres. Output power is of the order of tens of watts.
b. Microcells typically cover smaller areas maybe up to a kilometre.
They usually transmit within a range of milliwatts to a few watts.
• Microcells are deployed for providing temporary cellular coverage
and capacity to places like sports stadiums, convention centres etc.
• Sometimes, microcells may use distributed antenna systems(DAS) to
improve bandwidth and reliability.
c. Pico cells offer capacities and coverage areas, supporting up to 100
users over a range of less than 250 yards.
• Pico cells are frequently deployed indoors to improve poor wireless
and cellular coverage within a building, such as an office floor or retail
space.
d. Femtocells are typically user-installed to improve coverage area
within a small vicinity, such as home office or a dead zone within a
building.
• Femtocells can be obtained through the service provider or
purchased from a reseller.
• Unlike pico cells and microcells, femtocells are designed to support
only a handful of users and is only capable of handling a few
simultaneous calls.
• They are sold by the operator but self-installed by the customer.
• In LTE networks, the actual cell size depends not only on the eNodeB power
but also on antenna position, as well as the location environment; e.g. rural or
city, indoor or outdoor etc. Different nodes, for small cells, used in LTE/LTE-A
HetNets are listed below:
Home eNodeB (HeNB)
• It is a 3GPP term for femto-cell in LTE, was introduced in LTE Release 9 (R9).
• It is a low power eNodeB which is mainly used to provide indoor coverage, for
Closed Subscriber Groups (CSG), for example, in office premises.
• HeNBs are privately owned and deployed without coordination with the
macro-network.
• If the frequency used in HeNB is the same as the frequency used in the
macro-cells, and the HeNB is only used for CSG, then there is a risk of
interference between the HeNB and the surrounding network.
Relay Node (RN)
• It is another type of low-power base station added to the LTE R10
specifications.
• In LTE-Advanced, the possibility for efficient heterogeneous network planning
is increased by the introduction of Relay Nodes (RNs).
• The Relay Nodes are low power base stations that will provide enhanced
coverage and capacity at cell edges, and hot-spot areas and it can also be
used to connect to remote areas without fibre connection.
• The Relay Node is connected to the Donor eNodeB (DeNB)1 via a radio
interface, Un, which is a modification of the E-UTRAN air interface Uu.
RRHs (Remote Radio Head)
• It is connected to an eNB via fibre can also be used to provide small
cell coverage. It is an alternative solution to a BTS housed in a shelter
at the bottom of the tower.
• It is a distributed base station, in which the majority of the base
station equipment is no longer located in the shelter, but in an
enclosure at the top of the tower near the antennae.
• This separate but integrated radio frequency (RF) unit is called a
remote radio unit or remote radio head.
• It is compact in size. RRH is generally used to extend the coverage of
a base station sub-system in the remote rural areas.