Chapter 3 Structure

3 STRUCTURE precious metal grades, and are most easily discernible
on long sections as plots of width x grade, commonly

Structure controls the development of epithermal and termed gram-metre plots.
porphyry ore deposits in several ways:
Telescoping is most commonly regarded as telescoping
• Major structures localise ore systems, particularly inwards as younger, higher crustal level ore systems
magmatic source rocks, generally at dilatant sites. and alteration are placed upon older, deeper level
• Dilatant fracture systems bleed ore fluids from systems, often with only small differences in their ages.
magmatic source rocks at depth to higher crustal Telescoping outwards may occur as dilatant structures
levels (both epithermal and porphyry) where attenuate ore systems such as in the formation of
mineral deposition occurs, while epithermal fluids sheeted vein wallrock porphyry deposits.
evolve during upwards migration.
• More dilatant structural sites control the setting 3.1 MAJOR STRUCTURES
and geometry of ore shoots.
• Structural intersections represent sites of ore Major crustal-scale structures influence the setting
deposition by fluid mixing. of epithermal and porphyry ore systems, mainly by
• Syn-mineral structures offset ore systems to localisation of the magmatic source for metals (figure
facilitate telescoping. 3.1; Corbett, 1994, 2012; Corbett and Leach, 1998).
• Post-mineral structural offsets also influence the Porphyry Cu models used throughout the 1960’s
geometry of an ore system and require analysis in and 1970’s featured porphyry intrusions emplaced
the exploration for displaced ores. below stratovolcanoes as part of the magmatic source
for that extrusive volcanism (Sillitoe, 1972; Titley,
Terminology 1982). However, many former and recent discoveries
Ore shoots (clavos in Spanish) are defined as vein feature porphyry mineralisation within basement of
portions which are typically wider and host higher sedimentary and metamorphic host rocks without
magmatic
arc conjugate fractures
Oceanic
orthogonal
Plate
convergence
Transfer
σ1
Structure
vein accretionary
Continental wedge
Plate
ic Plate
splay Ocean
ting
back arc duc
sub
arc parallel structures σ1

magmatic arc
component of oblique convergence
CORBETT ai1269
Figure 3.1 Illustration of three classes of major structures which participate in epithermal-porphyry ore formation in magmatic arc-back
arc environments and described herein.
Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 1

associated volcanic piles (Grasberg, Indonesia; Porgera
epithermal and Golpu porphyry, Papua New Guinea; Three styles of major structures localise porphyry Cu-
Ridgeway and Cadia porphyry deposits, Australia). Au and epithermal Au-Ag ore systems (Corbett, 1994,
Major structures localised all these porphyry 2012; Corbett and Leach, 1998) as:
intrusions above magmatic source rocks without
associated extrusive volcanism. Indeed, the absence 3.1.1 Arc-parallel structures
of volcanism may provide quality porphyry deposits
as volatiles and metals have been constrained within Arc-parallel structures, also termed accretionary
the buried porphyry intrusion rather then dispersed by structures (Corbett, 1994), form within compressional
volcanism. Both high and low sulphidation epithermal magmatic arcs as part of the structural grain of the
Au deposits are related to magmatic source rocks district and so commonly feature steep dips and
lateral continuity as terrain boundaries between
highly varied rock groups, generally of different ages
(figure 3.1). Extensional structures such as range-
front faults in Western US - Northern Mexico, also
occur in in this group. Flat dipping thrust faults or
other layer-parallel features may host ore but rarely as
regionally significant structures. Arc-parallel structures
display protracted histories of activity commonly
with multiple senses of movement. In compressional
magmatic arcs many of these structures spent much
of their history as reverse faults (Domeyko Fault,
Chile, figure 3.2; Gilmore Suture, NSW, Australia,
figure 3.3), while others display country scale
dominant senses of strike-slip movement (Philippines
Fault, Philippines; Trans Sumatra Fault, Sumatra),
and vary from discrete easily discernible structures
(Philippine Fault) to corridors of structures (Domeyko
Fault, Chile). All of these structures localise ore
systems, generally in discernible dilatant settings
(discussed below). Other less well studied structures
have been defined from the alignment of ore systems
(Kalimantan Suture, Borneo; van Leeuwen et al.,
1990), or contain individual ore systems (Frieda-
Nena on the Fiak-Leonard Schultz Fault, Papua
New Guinea, Corbett, 1994; Bainbridge et al., 1994;
figure 3.38). In extensional settings major arc-parallel
structures localise ore systems as elements of the
structural grain and may reflect underlying deep
crustal geological contacts or discontinuities (Carlin-
Goldstrike and Battle Mountain Trends, Nevada).
Throughout the extensional Nevada-Sierra Madre
(Northern Mexico) terrains, ore systems are localised
by generally regionally extensive listric faults organised
as arc-parallel packages (Sleeper, Nevada, USA;
Palmarejo, Mexico). At Bilimoia, Papua New Guinea,
Figure 3.2 Structures in Northern Chile including the Falla the regional slaty cleavage changes to a crenulation
Oeste-Domeyko Fault system which localises many porphyry
cleavage close to the ore-hosting structures formed
systems and epithermal deposits, locally at the intersections with
conjugate fractures. See figure 3.5A for location. parallel to the Markham Fault, demonstrating that
these arc-parallel structures formed in the order of 5
for metals which are commonly localised by major km depth prior to uplift and mineralisation closer to
structures. As for the sheeted veins in porphyry 1-2 km depth (figure 3.4; Corbett et al., 1994b).
systems, movement on these major structures provides
the kinematic regime for the development of dilatant Arc-parallel structures tap deep magma melts and
fractures which localise ore systems. focus the overprinting emplacement of ore-bearing
2 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

intrusions into dilatant sites, such as second order and eastern orogens of Papua New Guinea (figure 3.4;
structures, commonly developed by transient changes Corbett, 1994, 2005b). The Porgera Transfer Structure
in the nature of convergence (section 3.4). transects the Mesozoic basement at depth (Hill et al.,
2002) and taps the interpreted deep mantle source for
3.1.2 Arc-normal structures the alkaline Porgera Intrusion Complex. Movement
on structures related to the Wafi Transfer Structure
Arc-normal, also termed transfer (Corbett, 1994) or localised the Golpu Porphyry in a regional scale fault
trans-arc structures (figure 3.1), transect magmatic arcs jog (Menzies et al., 2013) and facilitated the opening
at high angles to the structural grain, cutting it and of the Bulolo Graben, an intra-arc basin which hosts
commonly extend into the underlying basement to tap felsic magmatism and the Morobe Goldfield, Papua
mantle derived melts as sources of Au mineralisation, New Guinea (Hidden Valley, Hamata, Kerimenge,
or focus overprinting magmatism. Ore systems Wau and Edie Creek Au deposits; Corbett and Leach,
are localised by arc-normal structures at Porgera 1998). Many structures display protracted histories
and Wafi in Papua New Guinea, Grasberg in West of activity. The Lachlan Transverse Zone, in Eastern
Papua and the Cadia Valley by the Lachlan Transfer Australia, which has long been recognised to host
Zone, Eastern Australia (figures 3.3 & 3.4). Transfer many ore systems (Scheibner and Stevens, 1974)
structures locally offset (or transfer) the structural and contains individual elements formed as growth
grain of the magmatic arc and accommodate variations faults during volcanism and later active to localise
in the rate of subduction or dip of the down-going mineralisation in the Cadia Valley where porphyry,
subducting plate segments along convergent plate skarn and wallrock porphyry ores lie along this same
boundaries (Corbett, 1994). The fold-thrust belt of structural trend. Other transfer structures include
western Papua New Guinea is offset and changes the Walker Lane Trend, Nevada and the Chicama-
orientation across the Porgera Transfer Structure, Yanacocha Structural Corridor (Turner, 1999) which
which localises the Porgera Intrusion System, and the localises the Yanacocha epithermal-porphyry district,
Wafi Transfer Structure, which localises the Wafi- Northern Peru. Recent workers (Cooke et al., 2014)
Golpu Complex, represents part of the corridor of have used the term ‘slab tear’ to describe what are arc-
structures formed as the contact between the western normal or transfer structures. The north-south aligned
and mineralised Tabar
and Lihir Island groups
are localised within
several roughly NS tear
Drake
structures developed in
Volcanics the downgoing (upper)
Pacific (Solomon Sea)
Plate segment as it
Peel
La Cobar was folded above the

ch Mt
lan Terrible curved New Britain
F
Bobadah
Trench subduction
Peak Hill
Mineral Hill Fifield Bowdens zone (figure 3.4;
Goonumbla Copper Hill Corbett and Leach,
Tran
Cowal Cadia s v er 1998).
se Z
West Wylong Browns one
Gilm
Gidginbung Creek
o
Dobroyde
re S
Mt Adra
u tu
Adelong
re
Figure 3.3
Corbett Aeromagnetic image of New South Wales, Australia, showing several ore systems localised along the Gilmore suture terrain
SC2012_1371
boundary and Lachlan Transverse Zone. Note the NS trending segments of the Macquarie Arc which host the Goonumbla, Copper Hill
and Cadia districts.
1992 image by NSW and Commonwealth of Australia Departments of Mineral Resources.

Figure 3.4 Geological framework of Papua New Guinea (from Corbett, 2005b) showing some ore systems localised by arc-normal and
arc-parallel structures. The set of NE arc-normal transfer structures such as the Porgera Transfer Structure extend into the underlying
Mesozoic basement, while the (set of) Wafi Transfer Structure(s) separate the eastern and western orogens of Papua New Guinea.
Arc-parallel faults which localise mineralisation include the Fiak-Leonard Schultz (Frieda-Nena porphyry-high sulphidation epithermal),
Lagaip (Porgera) and Markham (Bilimoia) Faults. The NS structural elongation of the Tabar and Lihir Island chains is also apparent
(Corbett and Leach, 1998).
3.1.3 Conjugate fractures Deseado Massif, figure 3.5) are equally aligned in
relation to the arc-parallel fractures and display 60°
Conjugate fractures are recognised at much lower separations typical (Price, 1966; Blés and Feuga,
angles to the arc than the arc-normal structures 1986) of conjugate fractures. Variations in the angular
and appear to be best developed within orthogonal relationship may be consistent with brittle or ductile
compressional magmatic arcs (figure 3.1). Some failure (Price and Cosgrove, 1990) and hence crustal
settings host opposing fractures in the one location level of formation. Low angles (to 38°) are recognised
or distributed throughout the arc, while elsewhere at the Batu Hijau, Indonesia (figure **) and very high
one fracture may be dominant. Orthogonal fractures angles (125°) in the deeply eroded crystalline terrain
should not be confused with conjugate elements. of the Pontides in the Eastern Black Sea (Güven, 1993
Although conjugate fractures are interpreted to in Moon et al., 2001; figure **).
have formed during orthogonal compression and
display associated strike-slip senses of movement In northern Chile-Argentina (figure 3.2) the NW
(figure 3.1), vein kinematics suggest many have been conjugate fractures may dominate over NE. Some
reactivated during extension associated with transient important fractures include the NW La Escondida
relaxation of compression. Vein orientations within trend which localises the La Escondida porphyry
the conjugate fractures demonstrate the Batu Hijau district at the intersection with the Domeyko fault
porphyry, Indonesia (figure 3.**) and the Mastra Au system, and the NW Veladero trend which localises
veins, Turkey (figure 3.**) were emplaced during a the Pascua-Lama, Chile-Argentina and Veladero,
relaxation of compression. Argentina high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.
The El Quevar high sulphidation system is localised
There is considerable variation in the angular by the NW Co. Ricon Azure fracture, which hosts
relationship between the conjugate fractures many volcanic centres, while in northern Chile the
and to the structural grain of the district. Most El Guanaco high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit
conjugate fractures (northern Chile, figure 3.2 and and San Cristobal, low sulphidation Au deposit in are

localised by adjacent NE conjugates.
The Jurassic Deseado Massif of Argentine

Patagonia (figure 3.5) is dissected by conjugate
fractures interpreted to have been active during low
sulphidation epithermal vein formation to facilitate C
ore shoot formation (figure 41). In north Queensland,
Australia, a set of conjugate fractures influence the
distribution the Permo-carboniferous volcano-plutonic
complexes within Proterozoic basement and localise
many ore systems such as the Kidston breccia pipe
(figure 3.6).
A
Peru
Brazil Figure 3.5 Conjugate fractures influence ore formation in the
Bolivia
Deseado Massif, Argentine Patagonia.
A - Regional setting and location, including of figure 3.2 a the top
Chile box and figure 3.5 B as the lower box.
B - Mines and exploration projects within the Deseado Massif.
C - Fractures apparent on a remote sensing image in the Cerro
Moro district (from Climax Mining website). See also section
0 1000km
3.2.3.2.1 and figure 3.4 for discussion of these structures in ore
Argentina
shoot formation.
Subduction-related 144
o
compression Einasleigh
σ1 Forsayth
Cop
Wirra Wirra
Caldera
perfi
eld
t
en
Scotia Plate Mt Borium m
ar
ne
Li
CORBETT ai1681
Kidston X
B
Percyvale
Lochabar
X Ring Dyke
19 00 19 00
o
X
o
Complex
Line
n
rto
arm
lbe
Gi X Christmas Hill
ent
X
Baystow
Ring Dyke
Gilberton X X
Complex
0 100 km
144
o
gravity high dyke
gravity low Proteozoic underlain by

Permo-Carboniferous intrusions
Proteozoic metamorphic
landsat lineaments
and granitic rocks
Permo carboniferous
volcanoplutonic rocks
X mine/prospect
CORBETT ai1731
Figure 3.6 Conjugate fractures in north Queensland influence of

distribution of Permo-Carboniferous volcano plutonic complexes
and localise many Au occurrences (from Corbett, unpubl. data,
1983; Corbett and Leach, 1998).

3.2 DILATANT STRUCTURAL SETTINGS 3.2.1 Orthogonal extension
At prospect scale dilatant fractures control the Orthogonal extension responsible for epithermal
geometry of epithermal veins, especially the vein formation is commonly manifest as sets listric
development of better mineralisation within faults with sub-parallel strike and normal senses of
ore shoots, and these kinematic controls are movement which may define the structural grain of
commonly related to larger scale structures or the district (Sierra Madre, northern Mexico; Great
tectonic movements, such that better mineralisation Basin, US; southern Peru; Argentine Patagonia;
generally occurs in second order structures. Similarly, Gosowong, Indonesia; Hidden Valley, Papua New
many porphyry deposits are localised by dilatant Guinea). Bedding may be reoriented while subsidiary
structures such as splay faults and some of the faults develop in the hanging wall to the principle
best mineralisation may occur in sheeted vein fault with dips towards that structure (figure 3.7).
systems or breccias governed by a dilatant structural Drag on the fault tips during normal movement
setting. Sheeted fractures not only host porphyry provides a curvature to each structure in plan view
mineralisation, but as dilatant fractures, participate in with opposite senses (Arcata, Peru; figure 3.8). Vein
the transport of ore fluids from the magmatic source and lode mineralisation typically exploit the most
at depth to higher crustal levels where mineralisation dilatant portion of the listric (including subsidiary)
deposits under cooler conditions. Polyphasal activity faults and so flat pitching ore shoots dominate in the
accounts for elevated metal grades within banded and steep dipping portion of the listric fault and veins
laminated veins. Wallrock porphyry deposits comprise decline in thickness and Au grade as the listric fault
sheeted veins of porphyry mineralisation which, in flattens (figure 3.7; Corani, Peru; figure 3.9, Corbett in
dilatant settings, extend from the source porphyry into Swarthout et al., 2010; Palmarejo, Mexico, figure 3.10;
the adjacent wall rocks (figure 1.1). Gosowong, Indonesia; figure 3.43 Sleeper, Nevada,
US). Smaller scale parallel tension veins may from
Dilatant settings for the development of epithermal stockwork veins arrays within the wall rocks adjacent
vein mineralisation categorised as orthogonal to listric faults or between listric fault elements
extension, oblique extension and transpression, and (Hidden Valley, Papua New Guinea).
compression, influence the geometry of ore shoots
(figure 3.7), either separately or combined. Ore shoots, In many exploration examples vein thickness and
defined earlier as containing the widest and highest precious metal grades have declined as the dip of
metal grade vein portions, are most easily identified listric faults shallowed. Variations of just a few degrees
using gram x metre plots, typically on long section dip of the listric fault may account for the limitation
data. of ore shoots with depth. This is well illustrated in
the exploration data for Palmarejo, Mexico where on
the long section vein
steep flat
portions steeper
C
A splay A sheeted veins than 55° dip hosted
B
blind COMPRESSION ore shoot metal
bedding
ORE SHOOTS sector grades (figure 3.10),
jog or
link
collapse
C
although in many
σ 1 OBLIQUE A A
reverse systems inflection
EXTENSION
fault point is steeper
A
flexure B (66° for Kupol in
thrust C
pull-apart eastern Russia).
cros
s acid
basin σ 1 Consequently, some
faul
t sulphate AB high C listric
cap sulphidation fault exploration projects
hanging B
arc
parallel
may host significant
B
exposures of flat
*
wall splay vein
C
listric dipping listric faults
refraction fault
C arc with extensive
* bonanza normal hydrothermal

alteration but little
mineralisation
CORBETT ai12104
Figure 3.7 Model illustrating the three main structural settings in which mineralised epithermal veins occur, (Corani, Peru, figure
showing the ore shoot geometry for each (from Corbett, 2012). 3.9).

SW
A NE B
Veta Baja
and acid sulphate cap Marion vein
fluid mixing
hanging
* principal
listric fault
wall splay
felsic
domes
CORBETT ai1682
C D E
Figure 3.8 Listric faults at the Arcata Au-Ag mine, Peru.

A - NE-SW conceptual cross section showing the Marion SW dipping principle listric fault and Veta Baja as one of the many hanging wall
splay faults.
B - Map of the listric fault system locally exploited by known veins (adapted from data in a Hochschild Mining presentation, 2010).
C - Veta Baja listric fault in outcrop showing steep pitching slickensides with geologists for scale.
D - Veta Baja vein underground helmet for scale.
E - Veta Baja vein mining.
A B
Figure 3.9 Listric faults at Corani, Peru. D

A - Conceptual graphic (from Corbett, unpubl. report in Swarthout et al., 2010)
which illustrates the restriction of best Ag to the steep dipping fault portion and
hanging wall stockwork.
B - Steep dipping portion of the listric fault.
C - Flattening of listric fault with a group of geologists at the base for scale.
D - Flat dipping portion of the listric fault with extensive alteration but no
mineralisation.

A B
D E
F
Figure 3.10 Listric fault at Palmarejo, Mexico.
A - View of Palmarejo during exploration with drill roads on the ore shoots.
B - Conceptual cross section.
C - Long section aligned along the La Prieta structure of the Rosario-Tuscon
clavo as >50 gram x metre vein portion restricted to the > 55° dip fault
segment.
D - Map showing the location of ore shoots and long section section (adapted
from Masterman et al., 2005)
E - Legend
F - La Prieta listric fault in underground workings.

A B
M
L
C D
E F
Figure 3.11 Listric fault hosted mineralisation at Ladolam, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea.
A - 1984 view of the Luise Caldera shows the yet undiscovered Minifie (M) as well as Lienetz (L) and Coastal (C) Zones under exploration.
B - Composite onshore slide looking radar and off shore bathometric map of Lihir island showing detritus derived from sector collapse
(from Corbett, 2005b)
C - Conceptual model for sector collapse of the Luise volcanic ediface.
D - Listric faults facilitated Mt St Helens-style sector collapse for comparison.
E - A Minifie zone cross section showing steepening of the listric fault which cuts the earlier porphyry event and is exploited by the
epithermal mineralisation.
F - Steep dipping Minifie fault in the open pit (2004) which hosted elevated Au grades.

3.2.1.1 At the Ladolam Au deposit, Lihir Island, the hanging wall splay taps low pH waters associated
Papua New Guinea, epithermal gold mineralisation with acid sulphate caps or bicarbonate waters (section
was localised by listric faults developed during sector 7.5.4).
collapse of a stratovolcano, much like the sector
collpse failure at Mt St Helens in 1980 (figure 3.11; 3.2.1.2.1 At Porgera, Papua New Guinea, low
Corbett et al., 2001; Corbett 2005b). As collapse took sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation of the
place only 100,000 years ago detritus is discernible carbonate-base metal Au style related to augite-
on the sea floor bathymetry. Similar sideways sector hornblende diorite stocks (section 7.2.1.2.4.1)
collapse is recognized in many other youthful is overprinted by epithermal quartz Au style
stratovolcanoes throughout Papua New Guinea. Early mineralisation related to feldspar porphyry dykes
exploration at Ladolam identified the flat dipping (section 7.2.1.3), best developed in the Romane
buried mineralisation at the Coastal and Ladolam Fault and overprinting the earlier veins. While early
Zones, but the project only advanced when sub- veins exploit NNE elements of the Porgera Transfer
crop of better quality mineralisation was identified Structure, syn-mineral uplift and thrust erosion
within the steep dipping Minifie Zone close to the (below) cause later feldspar porphyry and to develop
caldera wall. It was proposed (Corbett, 2005b) listric in the Roamane Fault extending into a hanging wall
faults which facilitated the sector collapse slid on an splay and also a smaller sub-parallel fault (figure 3.12).
interface formed between the upper plate brecciated A blind ore shoot of as much as 8 M oz Au developed
volcanics and underlying earlier anhydrite matrix at the intersection of the Roamane Fault and the
potassic altered porphyry breccia. Flat dipping fault hanging wall splay as rising fluids became quenched at
portions of the listric fault near Luise Harbor, are less the structural intersection (Corbett and Leach, 1998
mineralised than the steep dipping portions such as and references therein).
the Minifie Zone close to the caldera rim. The early
identification of K-feldspar as the low temperature 3.2.1.2.2 At the Tolukuma gold mine in Papua New
form adularia, promoted in the geological literature Guinea, the throughgoing Tolukuma vein lies within a
as evidence of precious metal deposition by boiling hanging wall splay fracture localised above the graben-
(Simmons and Brown, 2000b), led to the use of the like structural contact between the Cretaceous Owen
“boiling zone” model to focus exploration at Ladolam Stanley Metamorphic basement rocks and overlying
within the flat dipping fault zones (Moyle et al., 1990). Pliocene Mt Davidson Volcanics (figure 3.13; Semple
Later steep dipping fault portions were subsequently et al. 1995, 1998; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett,
identified as more prospective (Corbett, unpubl. 2006). Here, the dilatant hanging wall splay has
reports). facilitated the rise of saline mineralised ore fluids to
an elevated setting where mixing with near surficial
3.2.1.2 Hanging wall splays bicarbonate waters promoted the deposition of high
grade Au, which is best developed at the intersection
Hanging wall splays develop as dilatant tension of the two structures (figure 3.13). Early lower grade
fractures within the wall rocks above steep dipping Au mineralisation, deposited by boiling within banded
normal faults (figure 3.7), including listric fault quartz veins with adularia and quartz after platy
arrays (Arcata, Peru, figure 3.8; Waihi, New Zealand, calcite, is overprinted by more abundant electrum
figure 3.31). Continued normal fault movement with siderite-clay (chlorite-kaolin-smectite) deposited
dilates hanging wall splays as settings of repeated by fluid mixing within the hanging wall splay (Corbett
and enhanced flow of mineralised hydrothermal et al., 1994c; Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references
fluids which may host high Au grade banded veins. therein).
Furthermore, intersections of hanging wall splays
and principle normal faults represent common
settings for the development of bonanza epithermal
Au mineralisation within pencil shaped ore shoots,
aligned along the intersection lineation of the two
structures. Here, the rapid rise of depressurised ore
fluids up a normal fault may draw near surficial waters
down the hanging wall splay, (somewhat similar to a
venturi pump) and promote fluid mixing at the fault
intersection, described in section 7.5.4 as an efficient
mechanism of Au deposition (Leach and Corbett,
2008). These ore shoots are most pronounced where

A B Tupagi
Liawin transfer
structures
Peruk
Jez lode N
Rambari
ne
ma
Ro
Roamane ult
Fa
II
eV
Zon
structure
line of Feldspar porphyries

Waruwari section
Dioritic intrusions
Calc-shale
C N S Bleached sediments
0 500m
Tawisakali
from Corbett (1980) CORBETT ai1685
0 100m
Roamane
Fault
calc-shale
bleached sediments
augite-hornblende diorite
hornblende diorite
feldspar porphyry
CORBETT ai1686
Figure 3.12 Hanging wall splay fault at Porgera, Papua New Guinea.
A - View of Porgera about 1991 from the south in part B, with the Waruwari carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation to the left, two
adit levels and the line of drill sites in the hanging wall to the Romane fault at the base of the hill, in which each peak represents a
resistive intrusive.
B - Porgera geology showing augite hornblende diorite stocks, adjacent bleached sediments and some structural elements stock
(adapted from Corbett unpubl. map 1980 and other sources).
C - Cross section 22,410N through the Roamane fault showing the feldspar porphyry which locally exploits the hanging wall splay (from
Porgera Joint Venture data 1989).
D - Roamane fault underground in about 1991.
E - Bonanza Au grade roscoelite breccia in the immediate hanging wall to the Roamane fault about 1991.

W E A
vein
6 m @ 15.72 g/t Au
volcanics
10 m @ 17.31 g/t Au
1600m
4.8 m @ 22 g/t Au + 97 g/t Ag
B
5.3 m @ 48.38 g/t Au
5.5 m @ 48 g/t Au
0 50m 1500m
metamorphics
CORBETT ai1690
Figure 3.13 Hanging wall setting of the Tolukuma vein, Papua

New Guinea.
A - Cross section through the Tolukuma vein showing high Au
grades near the intersection with the graben structure (from
Corbett and Leach, 1998). Figure 3.14 Cap Oeste bonanza ore shoot El Tranquillo, Argentine
B - Tolukuma vein underground showing the banded texture. Patagonia, (from Bow, 2012 in www.patagoniagold.com).
A - Plan view.
B - Cross section with red > 30 g/t Au
C - Interpretation showing the formation of a pencil-like ore
The Cap-Oeste, El Tranquillo, Argentine Patagonia shoot at the structural intersection.
(Bow, 2012 in www.patagoniagold.com), epithermal
Au mineralisation is localised by NW trending Hanging wall tension veins in exploration drill tests are
structures formed as part of the conjugate fracture considered below (section 3.2.2.4.4).
pattern of the Deseado Massif, in which EW trending
dilatant zones would be expected to develop in
conditions of orthogonal compression (section
3.2.3.2.1; figure 3.41). The Cap-Oeste high Au grade
zone occurs as a moderate pitching pencil-like EW
trending ore shoot (figure 3.14) developed by the
mixing of pregnant fluids rising up the principle NW
trending structure with low pH acid sulphate waters
collapsing down the hanging wall splays. Kaolin
intergrown with the bonanza Au grade ore provides
evidence of mineral deposition by fluid mixing
(section 7.5.4.4.5).

3.2.1.2 Refraction from one controlling structure to another within
a fault jog and become dilated as hosts for
Just as light refracts moving from air to more dense mineralised fissure veins. Sheeted vein arrays may
water, dipping fractures which host mineralised veins also develop in this setting. Controlling structures
refract to steeper dips upon entering more competent and link structures may be viewed in plan or in
host rocks (figures 3.7 & 3.15). As discussed in section section as normal faults and hanging wall spalys.
7.3 vein mineralisation is likely to be best developed • Pull-apart basins, which form by down-drop
in the more competent rock units, in these settings. At on the basin margin link structures, represent
El, Peñón, Chile, where mineralisation is hosted by a the surficial portions of fault jogs and may be
competent felsic sill within incompetent lapilli tuffs, distinguished by the typical rhomboidal shapes
while silicified sandstone/arenite units constrained and the presence of epiclastic sediment fill.
within volcanic rocks host veins at Palmarejo, Mexico • Tension fractures develop by the application of a
and Chatree, Thailand. A moderate dipping normal shear component to a brittle rock and host open
fault refracts to a steeper dip as it passes from space which becomes filled with hydrothermal
incompetent to competent host rocks so that it then minerals to form tension veins. Some exploit link
displays a more dilatant character during continued structures and cross overs while others form en
normal fault movement and a flat pitching ore shoot echelon vein arrays.
develops at the intersection of the steep normal fault • A flexure is a dilatant bend in a throughgoing
portion and competent host rock (figure 3.15). structure which may represent a dilatant
perturbation.
• Splay faults or horse tails commonly represent
short dilatant faults adjacent to a major strike-
slip structure that form at deep crustal levels and
locally represent the terminations of strike-slip
structures. Splays are the deepest parts of fault
jogs within negative flower structures.
In settings of simple oblique (strike-slip) movement

the dilatant ore-hosting features described above
form steep pitching ore shoots which host wider and
higher precious metal grade vein portions (figures
Figure
12945 3.15 A moderate dipping normal fault refracts to Corbett
3.7 & 3.16). Combinations with normal or reverse
a steeper dip as it passes through a competent rock unit fault movement provide moderate pitch to ore shoots
interlayered within an incompetent volcanic sequence. During (below). Dilatant fractures are oriented to link the tails
continued normal fault movement this steep fault portion is
of arrows which illustrate the movement direction on
more dilatant and so a flat pitching ore shoot develops at the
intersection of this steep dipping fault portion and the competent faults, whereas fractures oriented to join the arrow
rock unit. heads will be compressional and so form restraining
bends characterised reverse or thrust faults or domes
3.2.2 Oblique convergence (Corbett and Leach, 1998), considered in section
3.2.3.3.1.
Oblique tectonic settings including transpression
(oblique compression) and transtension (oblique
extension) are characterised by strike-slip movement
on structures which may create dilatant ore hosting
environments, either within perturbations in the
throughgoing strike-slip structure or within adjacent
second order structures, commonly constrained
within corridors of strike-slip faults. The terminology
used here to describe different dilatant ore settings
developed in this environment includes (figure 3.16):
• Fault jogs form where strike-slip fault movement
transfers or steps-over from one controlling
structure to another in a corridor of strike-slip
structures.
• Link structures and cross-overs represent fractures
which facilitate the transfer of fault movement
3.2.2.1 Negative flower structures
Negative flower structures (figure 3.17) provide a

3 dimensional section through the various dilatant
structural elements of a fault jog passing from surficial
pull-apart basins down to link structure-hosted tension
vein arrays that host epithermal Au-Ag veins and
deeper level splay faults as sites of porphyry Cu-
Au emplacement. Hydrocarbons collect in domes
formed by positive flower structures in compressional
settings (Lowell, 1985). The same tectonic and
structural environment may continue to be active from
volcanism and sedimentation to mineralisation and
so it is common for mineralised structures to display
earlier activation as growth faults, and in many districts
there is more pronounced growth fault activity on
the better mineralised structures (Gympie goldfield,
Australia and Waihi, New Zealand in Corbett and
Leach, 1998; Palmarejo, Mexico; Kupol, E. Russia;
Kelian, Indonesia).
Figure 3.16 The terminology used herein to describe subsidiary

dilatant structures developed in environments of oblique
convergence.
Figure 3.17 Illustration of a negative flower structure as described herein.

3.2.2.2 Fault jogs 3.2.2.1.1 A modern analogy of a fault jog
is apparent as the cross over in strike-slip movement
Fault jogs (Sibson, 1987) represent dilatant cross- between segments of a fault activated during a 7.2
overs, of the strike-slip fault movement from one magnitude earthquake at Dasht-e Baўaz, Iran in 1968
structure to another in a segmented fault or corridor (figure 3.19), delineated in an analysis of air photo
of fractures, typically involving the development linears (Tchalenko and Ambraseys, 1970). The EW
of subsidiary dilatant cross-over or link fractures trending strike-slip structures, labelled as controlling
between the strike-slip faults, termed controlling structures in figure 3.19, are linked by the subsidiary
structures (figures 3.16-18). These dilatant features fractures which in an ore system would be expected
are also termed releasing bends (McClay and Moody, to progressively open during appropriate strike-slip
1995), and fault jogs are most easily identified in movement on the controlling structures, in order to
as rhomboidal pull-apart basins in poorly eroded develop as mineralised tension veins. Here, sinistral
terrains (Crowell, 1974; Sylvester, 1988; Price and movement has dilated the second order fractures
Cosgrove, 1990), while restraining bends represent (figures 3.16-19, whereas dextral movement would
anti-dilatant jogs. The array of link or cross-over provide compression on those fractures (figure
fractures are progressively dilated by the continued 3.42) within a restraining bend. In ore systems hot
strike-slip movement on the controlling structures pressurised hydrothermal fluids rising rapidly up
with associated down-drop as normal faults or fill of the open fractures would be expected to cool and
open space by hydrothermal minerals within tension boil to deposit minerals on the fracture margins
fractures to form mineralised fissure veins or lodes. to form on breccias. Repeated opening associated
The controlling strike-slip structures are generally with earthquake activity over geological time, would
not mineralised whereas most dilation and hence promote polyphasal mineral deposition as banded
mineralisation is recognised on the link structures veins which might host high grade precious metal
which extend to depth as part of the negative flower mineralisation. Many epithermal veins appear to grow
structure. Continued strike-slip movement on the inwards (figure 1.11 A) Offsets of cultural features
controlling structures provides internal rotation and in the Dasht-e Baўaz example provide a sense of
increased dilation of the link structures or step-overs displacement of only 4.5m, for a fault jog (step over)
as mineralised tension veins (below, sections 3.2.2.5 & which is almost 2 km long and 1 km wide, between
3.2.2.5.3). segments in a structure identified over an 80 km strike
distance (figure 3.19, Tchalenko and Ambraseys, 1970).
Such small movements are typical of faults which host
mineralisation as excessive strike-slip movement on
the controlling faults may dismember veins. Note in
figure 3.19, formation of the subsidiary fractures was
initiated at angles of about 45° at the intersection with
the controlling structures, and bend to higher angles
in the central portions during progressive strike-slip
movement, as discussed below (sections 3.2.2.5 &
3.2.2.5.3).
Figure 3.18 Small scale fault jogs evident as fill of dilatant

fractures formed by strike-slip movement on the controlling
structures, marble pavement, Spain.

INTERPRETATION
controlling structures
0 2km
DASHT-E BAYAZ, IRAN EARTHQUAKE link or subsidiary

31st August 1968 fault jog structures
aka pull-apart basin aka splay faults SC2012_1531
From Tchalenko & Ambraseys 1970
Figure 3.19 Analysis of fractures associated with an earthquake at Dasht-e Baȳaz, Iran, 31 August 1968 from Tchalenko and Ambraseys
(1970), showing a fault jog which hosts dilatant subsidiary fractures developed where strike-slip movement has crossed from one
fracture to another.

3.2.2.2.2 At the Thames district, New Zealand, porphyry to the Thames goldfield are therefore
a regional scale fault jog hosts the Thames 1.4 M interpreted to have developed as tension veins and
oz goldfield, Ohio Creek porphyry and Lookout display rotation in the vicinity of the Thames bonanza
Rocks barren shoulder of advanced argillic alteration goldfield. It has been suggested (Corbett and Leach,
(Merchant, 1986; Corbett and Leach, 1998). Regional- 1998) ore fluids derived from a magmatic source in
scale dextral movement in New Zealand, which is the vicinity of the Ohio Creek porphyry migrated
most apparent on the Apline fault in the South Island, SW along the dilatant quartz-sulphide reefs to deposit
continues northward to Mio-Pliocene Coromandel, bonanza Au by mixing with meteoric waters at the
discernible from the orientation of vein fabrics (Waihi intersection with NS fractures at Thames. The early
and Golden Cross below). By contrast orthogonal miners traced the SW-NE lodes, obtaining only low
extension is currently apparent at the Taupo Volcanic grade Au grades (as typical of low sulphidation quartz-
Zone. The Hauraki fault, which defines the contact sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation), in order to identify
between the Coromandel Peninsular and the Hauraki the intersection the NS structures termed flinties
graben displays a side step in the Thames district from the chalcedony-pyrite fill (Fraser, 1910), which
and so forms a 10 x 20 km dilatant fault jog under localised bonanza grade Au mineralisation (typical
the influence of the regional scale dextral movement of low sulphidation epithermal quartz Au style). Ore
(figure 3.20; Corbett and Leach, 1998). The many shoot formation related to down-drop at the Sons of
quartz-sulphide lodes which link the Ohio Creek Freedom reef is shown in figure 3.30 D
Coromandel
Peninsula
Havre
Trough
Taupo
Volcanic N
Zone
Coromandel
Whitianga
0 100 km Thames -
Ohio Creek - Monowai
Lookout Rocks
district Ohui
coast line
Neavesville
Ohio Creek
Hauraki porphyry
Waihi
Graben
m
St
Karangahake
ru
ra
0 20km
Ta
Tui
Ha
Tin
k
ur
ers Lookout Rocks

ak
Gu
lly
i
Day alteration zone

Dawn
m
e do
Fa
Hau
re e
Ag
u
fF
lt
FAULT JOG
ar
o en
rak
s
nP
Hauraki d
on l
Go tari-ria N
i
S
be
Graben
ai b
Ru
W m
Mo Ca
an
Ohio Creek ata Horseshoe
ri
porphyry
tension vein Thames
Lookout Rocks F
formation bonanza veins
alteration zone
TIM
Hauraki
Gulf Thames
E
Fault
Goldfield m Jupiter
e St
Nap Una Hill
Ha
ur
ak
i
Fa
u 0 2km
N lt
0 10 km
CORBETT ai1582
Figure 3.20 The Thames-Lookout Rocks district, New Zealand showing development of a regional scale fault jog in the Hauraki fault and
development the quartz-sulphide tension vein lodes which link the Ohio Creek porphyry and Thames goldfield.

3.2.2.2.3 The Umuna lode at the Misima gold mine, distance of 2 km. The dilatant setting has provided
in Milne Bay Provence of eastern Papua New Guinea normal fault movement on Umuna Lode, which is
in the recent period of exploitation from 1990 to characterised by open space fill vein textures along
2004 produced 3.7 M oz Au. The Misima goldfield with banding formed by repeated activation of
was discovered in 1889 and produced an estimated the controlling faults. Although deeply oxidised,
200,000 oz Au to 1911. In the mine area, controlling mineralisation is of a typical carbonate-base metal
structures of the WNW structural grain of Milne style Au mineralisation consistent with the MnO stain
Bay have undergone a component of dextral strike- (figure 3.21; Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references
slip movement, resulting in the development of therein). Gold grades no doubt display a strong
the Umuna Lode as a link structure mined over a component of supergene enrichment in oxide zone
ores.
A
B C
Figure 3.21 The Umuna Lode, Misima gold mine, Papua New
Guinea.
A - Graphic illustrates the development of the lode as a 2 km
long link structure constrained between controlling structures
with a dextral sense of movement.
B - Open pit mine aligned along the lode in 1990 at the early
stage of development.
C - Banded quartz-MnO oxidised ore.

3.2.2.2.4 Cracow goldfield, SE Queensland, Australia, m long Golden Plateau link structure (figure 3.22).
produced about 850,000 oz Au mainly from the At the time of discovery in 1875, much of this vein
Golden Plateau area to 1992 (Worsley and Golding, system, was obscured by the Cretaceous Precipice
1990) although current mining and exploration are Sandstone (figure 3.22). Banded veins attest to
focused upon low sulphidation chalcedony-ginguro repeated fault activity although the high fineness, high
style veins about 2 km west in the Klondyke area Au grade chlorite ores (of the epithermal quartz Au
(Creenaune et al., 2003). Competent Early Permian style; section 7.2.1.3) are best developed within steep
Camboon Andesite hosts many gold-bearing quartz pitching ore shoots (Brooks, 1971) developed at the
veins including the arc-parallel Golden Mile and intersections of NS structures (Corbett and Leach,
White Hope trends which are interpreted (Corbett 1998). These ores are of a more magmatic character
and Leach, 1998) to have undergone a component than the banded chalcedony ginguro veins which
of sinistral strike-slip movement to form the 700 dominate at Klondyke (figure 7.5).
B C
Figure 3.22 Golden plateau, Link structure, Cracow goldfield, SE Queensland.

A - Plan illustrates the Golden Plateau link structure formed by interpreted sinistral strike-slip movement two controlling structures with
which host numerous small gold showings (from Brooks, 1971).
B - Banded quartz adularia vein from Golden Plateau.
C - View showing Precipice Sandstone cover.

3.2.2.2.5 The El Indio Au district, Chile, is localised display any down-drop (figures 3.16 & 17). Ratios
within a regional scale cross over between arc-parallel between the long and short axes of pull-apart basins
structures interpreted to have exhibited a dextral vary from 2 to 5: 1 (Aydin and Nur, 1982 in Price
strike-slip sense of movement in order to trigger ore and Cosgrove, 1992, p. 142). Pull-apart basins are
formation, discernible in the kinematics of individual commonly grouped along country scale transcurrent
ore zones (figure 3.28). Repeated movement led to or strike slip-structures such as the San Andreas fault
the development of banded veins (figure 3.13 D) and (Crowell, 1974), Sumatran fault (Pudjowalujo, 1990)
floating clast breccias (figure 3.28 D). The El Indio and Philippine fault (figure 3.39). Importantly, vein
A B
structural
pretation grain
ter
in
co
nju
ga
dilation
te
fra
ctu
re
El Indio
Argentina
Chile
0 5km
continues CORBETT ai1687
Figure 3.23 Localisation of El Indio within a regional scale cross over of dextral fault movement.
A - Remote sensing image in which major structures are apparent as drainage anomalies.
B - Line diagram showing the dilatant link zone formed by the transfer of dextral strike-slip movement from the NE to SW major
structures.
mine hosts ore within a sigmoidal loop (Caddy in mineralisation is only likely to be localised within
Jannas et al., 2000) apparent as a fault flexure which the short limb faults of the rhomboid which display
hosts early banded pyrite-enargite veins and quartz- dilatant down-drop and activation as growth faults,
gold veins, while the individual ore shoots at the whereas the long limb strike-slip faults tend not to
Viento vein to the east also occur within flexures be dilated and mineralised. Multiple mineralised
formed by the same dextral sense of movement growth faults are common in many pull-apart basins
(figure 1.13 & 3.28) (Gympie goldfield, Australia; Corbett and Leach,
1998) and structures with more dilation display both
.3.2.2.3 Pull-apart basins greater growth fault down-drop and better later vein
development. Consequently, exploration targets might
Pull-apart basins are recognised as rhomboidal down- emerge within steeper portions of growth faults, from
dropped blocks formed by normal fault movement on stratigraphic analyses of volcanic successions.
the rhomboid short dimension normal faults, dilated
by strike-slip activation of the controlling structures Pull-apart basins are commonly discernible at the
which host the rhomboid long limbs and do not surface by recognition of the rhomboidal shape of

fault bounded basins filled by epiclastic sedimentary elements localised within the NW trending Kalimantan
rocks in which rapid syn-deformational down-drop Suture fracture corridor which hosts several mines
might be evidenced by common disconformities (figure 3.24; van Leeuwen et al., 1990; Corbett and
(figure 3.24 D). However, the epiclastic sediments Leach, 1998). This sense of movement suggests the
which fill pull-apart basins are generally incompetent basin and mineralisation developed during orthogonal
and may restrict vein formation. At Kelian (below) convergence. The mine lies in the NW corner of
these rocks have been rendered competent by the interpreted pull-apart basin evidenced by fill of
silicification, whereas at the Way Linggo district epiclastic rocks, within a basement shale sequence,
(below) dilatant veins are developed in the footwall and constrained by the NE trending Burung normal
competent basement rocks. The controlling structures fault and adjacent West Prampus strike-slip structure.
are likely to be aligned within the structural grain Spectacular disconformaties in the epiclastic sequence
of the district, whereas the link structures will be testify to the substantial and rapid down-drop within
initiated at 45° and rotate to higher angles where best the pull-apart basin (figure 3.24 E). Andesite domes
mineralised (below). (lacoliths) and a felsic diatreme-flow dome complex,
have been emplaced into the pull-apart basin followed
3.2.2.3.1 The Kelian Au mine, Kalimantan, Indonesia, by sheeted vein and breccia mineralisation aligned in
lies within a pull-apart basin formed at a cross-over the (Burang Fault) dilatant direction of the pull-apart
in the dextral movement on two conjugate NS fault basin (figure 3.24). The permeable epiclastic rocks
B C

D
Figure 3.24 The Kelian pull-apart basin hosted, low sulphidation epithermal carbonate-
E
base metal Au deposit.
A - Setting within a compressional magmatic arc which provides a dextral sense of
movement to the NS conjugate fracture.
B - Sheeted quartz-pyrite Au veins.
C - Carbonate-base metal breccia mineralisation formed by increased dilation of the
sheeted veins. Figures from Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein.
D - Mine area in the NW corner of the pull-apart basin showing the Burung normal
and West Prampus strike-slip faults, andesite domes, diatreme-flow dome complex and
sheeted veins grading to breccias with increased deformation.
E - Disconformities in the epiclastic sediments.
were readily silicified to facilitate the formation of 3.2.2.3.2 The Ocampo, low sulphidation polymetallic
fracture-controlled mineralisation, whereas the shale Ag-Au deposit lies in Sierra Madre region of northern
basement and diatreme breccia rocks which underwent Mexico, characterised by extensional tectonism
ductile deformation did not fracture and so are barren. on parallel listric faults (figure 3.25 A). While vein
Continued strike-slip movement created increased mineralisation typically occurs in the steeper portions
dilation on sheeted fractures with quartz-sulphide Au of listric faults, the Plaza de Gallos pitching ore shoot
mineralisation (figure 3.24 D) and so facilitated the is developed within a fault jog localised by an offset
transition to open space breccias with higher Au grade between two fault segments with a component of
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation (figure 3.24 E; strike-slip fault movement derived from the curvature
section 7.2.1.2). of the listric fault system (figure 3.25 B). The fault jog
link structures have been activated as normal growth
faults to result in development a localised pull-apart
basin (figure 3.25 C).

19,000E 20,000E
A D
N
F 0 200m
F 11,000N
Con
ico
Ve F
i n
El Rajo Teodora
Str
P
trendG E
d
Refugio Arroyo 3
Vein F
45 Picacho
Arroyo 1
F
Plaza 50 10,000N
de Gallos Arroyo 2
F
Clay alteration
62
CORBETT ai1692
B
Volcaniclastic sediments
fill pull-apart basin
Expansion breccia
40
silicified fault
shape due to dipping

fault on slope
ore shoot pitches pit F

due to dip in 52 D
controlling structures D
50
puggy F 55
RPRETATIO
TE N
IN
pull-apart basin
on fault jog
50
D controlling structures
dip to west
D
50 0 100m
19600m 19800m
CORBETT ai1693
Figure 3.25 The development of the Plaza de Gallos ore

C
shoot within a pull-apart basin at Ocampo, Mexico.
A - Map of the listric faults (by Hall Stewart) showing
location of the Plaza de Gallos ore shoot.
B - Detail of the pull-apart basin and ore shoot.
C - Surface exposure of the pull-apart basin showing
thickening of volcanic units across the growth faults
(person in the bottom right hand corner for scale).
D - Drill core through the ore shoot showing the
dilatant character of the mineralisation.
E - Faults which control the ore shoot underground.
F - Ore shoot from old mine data.

3.2.2.3.3 The Way Linggo district in the Lampung therein). The Way Linggo low sulphidation epithermal
district in SW Sumatra hosts some of the many Au project is localised by a NNW trending link
pull-apart basins developed along the dextral strike- structure developed as the cross over of dextral
slip Sumatran fault system, in response to collision strike-slip movement between elements of the
between the northward moving Indo-Australian plate Trans Sumatran Fault System, which also facilitated
with the Eurasian plate (Hall, 2002 and references development of the pull-apart basins (figure 3.26).
A Thailand C
14N
Cambodia
Vietnam
10N
EURASIAN PLATE
6N
Malay
Penninsula
2N D
Borneo
Sumatra
2S
Su
nd
aT
Indian Ocean
ren
ch
4S Java
Trans Sumatran Fault
6S Way Linggo District Sumba

Java Trench
E
0 500 km
INDO AUSTRALIAN PLATE
10S
94E 98E 102E 106E 110E 114E 118E
B
N
SU
MA
TR
AN
FA
U LT Talang Santo
PRETATIO
TER N
IN
Way Linggo
ZO
strike-slip dilation NE
structures
0 10km
CORBETT ai1691
Figure 3.26 The Way Linggo district hosts low sulphidation epithermal Au veins within the dilatant fractures formed in a several pull-
apart basin terrain associated with dextral movement on the Sumatran Fault system.
A - Tectonic setting of the Way Linggo district.
B - Remote sensing image with an overlay of structure.
C - View of pull-apart basin about 1993.
D - Way Linggo banded low temperature opal-bearing vein identified during exploration about 1993.
E - Banded chalcedony-ginguro ore mined in the 2011-17 era.

3.2.2.4 Flexures 3.2.2.4.1 The Viento veins in the El Indio district of
Chile host a series of moderate pitching ore shoots,
Flexures are defined above as dilatant bends which detailed geological mapping (Corbett, unpubl.
formed at a side-step within throughgoing strike- report., 2000) demonstrated are localised by flexures
slip structures (figure 3.16, 3.27 & 3.28) and may be in a throughgoing structure with a dextral component
grouped along individual structures as settings for ore of strike-slip movement (figure 3.28). Cross-structures
shoot formation, and so have long been recognised are interpreted to account for the setting of each
as are a setting for high precious metal grade vein dilatant flexure by development of step-overs in the
mineralisation (fig 92, McKinstry, 1948). Repeated main structure, dilated by the continued dextral strike-
activation of movement on the strike-slip structures slip movement. Within each flexure, link structures
provide banded high grade veins (figure 3.29 C) or facilitated the rise of magmatic fluids and therefore
open space breccias (figure 3.28). The throughgoing host bonanza Au grades (figure 3.28 A), locally as
fractures may include steep dipping portions of sulphide matrix fluidised breccias (figure 1.13 B).
listric faults, and flexures are recognised in the central Entry of meteoric waters into the dilatant flexures no
vertical portion of negative flower structures where doubt contributed towards the development of quartz
down-drop is common on these structures. In purely in-fill expansion breccias, including floating clast
strike-slip structures flexure-hosted ore shoots pitch breccias (figure 3.28 B & C), a characteristic feature
vertically in the plane of the fault (figures 3.7) but the of dilatant structural environments, (section 4.4.7.5).
A B
Figure 3.27 Small scale flexures.

A - Banded open space filled flexure within a quartz vein, with an offset of an earlier vein to show the direction of movement, from the
La Arena region of Central Peru.
B - Calcite vein in a marble pavement, Spain.
pitch varies if an oblique fault movement is combined Quartz-gold breccias (figure 13.D) were therefore
with normal or reverse movement (section 3.2.4). As derived from progressive mixing of the south to north
discussed above dilatant fractures join the tails of migrating evolved magmatic ore fluid with increased
arrows which illustrate the movement direction on ground waters (sections 1.2.2.4 & 7.5). The flexure
faults, whereas compressional restraining bends which shape evidences the dextral sense of movement and
join the arrow heads are likely to develop as reverse of the northerly pitch of the ore shoots is derived from
thrust faults (figure 3.16). a combination of this dextral strike-slip and west
block up movement, discernible from slickensides
Explorationists should be aware that in many vein (figure 3.28). The presence of abundant quartz is
systems all meaningful mineralisation is restricted indicative of transition along strike from high to
to flexure-hosted ore shoots, while the intervening lower sulphidation epithermal mineralisation (section
vein portions may be essentially barren or sub- 1.2.2.4).
economic (figure 3.29 A). Consequently, careful
geological mapping is required in order to design drill
programmes to correctly evaluate the flexures. This
may necessitate not using traditional grid arrays.

A B
σ1
puggy fault shoot 4
high grade ore

zone localised
by NE fractures
ore in dilational
adjacent link
structures shoot 3
NE structures
localise fault jog
link structures
C
up down
σ1 local laminated quartz

228° from silicified fault
Tessier (1998) puggy fault
12386 shoot 2
South North
Viento veins
4200 RL
4100 RL
shoot shoot
4000 RL 2 3 shoot
4
Figure 3.28 Flexures in the Viento vein El Indio
3900 RL district (figure 3.22), Chile.
3800 RL shoot 1 A - The Viento vein system, from figure 1.13,
vertical control to
3700 RL high grade gold showing a series of flexures which account for
0 200m the moderately north pitching ore shoots in long
section. A detailed model in plan view, derived
12387
from the mapping multiple of flexures, illustrates

the distribution of high grade Au mineralisation in
relation to the link structures, while slickensides
provide an indication of the sense of movement
(from Corbett, unpubl. report, 2000).
B & C - Quartz-sulphide fill floating clast breccias
mined illustrate the pronounced extension within the
flexures, in underground exposure (B) and drill core
0 250m (C), and locally take on the appearance of floating
CORBETT ai1697 clast breccias (section 4.4.7.5).
3.2.2.4.2 At Vera Nancy, in the Pajingo Mining host (section 3.2.1.3), although Mustard et al., (2005)
District of North Queensland Australia, steep pitching suggest structural complexities restrict definition of
ore shoots viewed in long section are localised along a the stratigraphy. Simms (2000) interpreted the veins to
major NW trending structure, described as a regional dip steeply within the ore shoots also apparent on the
scale rift (figure 3.29; Butler, 2004; Hoschke and data of Mustard et al. (2005). It is common for several
Sextan, 2005). Although younger sandstone cover factors to contribute towards the development of ore
obscures the structure at the surface, underground shoots (section 3.2.4).
mapping has demonstrated that each ore shoot lies
within a flexure where the structure deviates from
NW toward EW, locally apparent on geophysical A
data (Simms, 2000). Indeed other ore systems in that
district (Scott Lode, Anne, Cindy) are also hosted by
EW vein portions (see Mustard et al., 2005). In long
section the ore zones bottom at a shallow SE pitching
zone (figure 3.29), possibly due to a combination of
the flattening of the host structure (as a listric fault)
at the base of the ore zone, and the confinement of
mineralisation to a competent portion of the east
dipping Mt Janet Andesite host rock. There may
also be dilation due to a component of refraction
of the major structure upon entering the competent

B
Figure 3.29 Flexure-hosted ore shoot mineralisation at Vera Nancy, Australia.

A - Vera Nancy banded epithermal quartz vein mineralisation formed by the repeated activation of the strike-slip structural setting.
B - Model for the development of steep pitching flexure-related ore shoots (from Corbett, 2012).
C - Long section illustrating the steep pitch on ore shoots and the manner in which drill holes between ore shoots are barren (from
Hoschke and Sextan, 2005).
The exploration implication is that the host as en echelon vein arrays, this terminology might
structure between the ore shoots hosts only very low also include many other variably termed dilatant
grade mineralisation varying to essentially barren, and fractures and veins such as link structures, cross overs
so it is important to plan drill programs to attempt to developed within fault jogs, fissure veins and larger
intersect the flexures and not rely on grid drilling. lodes, localised in a negative flower structure setting
between the near surficial pull-apart basin and a
3.2.2.5 Tension veins deeper splay fault (figure 3.17). McKinstry (1948) also
notes an association with horse tail (splay) faults which
Tension or extension fractures develop by the places tension veins in the central portion of negative
application of a shear component to a brittle rock flower structures (figures 3.17). Therefore tension
and these fractures transition to veins as the open veins represent an important site of epithermal vein
space becomes filled by hydrothermal minerals. While mineralisation development and local normal fault
clusters of tension veins are commonly grouped activity.
Tension vein geometry is apparent from analyses of amounts of vein material and so commonly represent
modern analogies (figure 3.19) and exposures from ore shoots.
outcrop (figure 3.27) to mine (figures 1.13) and district
(3.19, & 3.22) scale. Tension veins develop as fractures At the Thames goldfield, New Zealand (figure 3.20)
initiate at angles in the order of 45° (see Price and large scale tension veins within the Thames fault
Cosgrove, 1990) to the controlling strike-slip structure, jog become more prominent and vary from NNE
and progressively widen as tension gash rotates in trending at the Day Dawn mine, to the corridor of
response to continued movement on the controlling NE trending tension veins extending from the Sons
strike-slip structures (figure 3.30). The wider gash of Freedom to the Jupiter veins, and then the EW
continues to fill with hydrothermal minerals to form trending Thames bonanza veins. The fluid flow model
a tension vein. At an angle of just past 90° to the (Corbett and Leach, 1998) suggested magmatic ore
controlling structures, the rotated portion of the fluids migrated from the vicinity of the Ohio Creek
existing tension gash vein becomes anti-dilational porphyry-Lookout rocks alteration zone, along NW
and a new vein initiates in the vicinity of 45° to the tension veins, which host low Au grade quartz-
controlling structures and the process continues. sulphide Au mineralisation, to deposit bonanza Au
Importantly, the wider reoriented tension veins host grade at the intersection with flinties in the Thames
higher precious metal grades in addition to the greater bonanza Au field. Normal fault down-drop on these
large scale tension veins in plan view resulted in the
A
development intervening tension veins in cross section
(specimen leaders) as bonanza Au grade ore shoots
(figure 3.30 D) described by Fraser (1910) as “richly
gold-bearing ... highly pyritised quartzose veinstone”.
3.2.2.5.1 The Waihi Mine, New Zealand, provides

a good example of a set of mineralised tension
veins (figure 3.31). The Coromandel Peninsula of
New Zealand displays dextral strike-slip movement
on regional NS structures (figure 3.20), such that
throughout the district veins vary from NNE
to mostly NE trends where better
B D NW SE mineralised, with high grade shoots
shaft commonly occur within EW vein
ef
re portions. At Waihi several tension veins
up to 1 km long, which are constrained
n’s
reef
cL
ea between NS trending dextral strike-slip
dom
M
faults, include the prominent Martha
Free
vein normal fault with the smaller Royal,

s of
Empire and numerous smaller hanging

Son
specimen
leaders
wall veins (Corbett and Leach, 1998;
200m
Braithwaite et al., 2006 and references
C therein each). Well banded veins have
been deposited by regular opening of
this dilatant structural setting controlled
by country scale fault movement and
tension regular deposition of rapidly cooling
vein
100m and boiling hydrothermal fluids. Veins
in the more dilatant settings, such as the
0 50m
near EW Martha vein tend to host more
banded quartz (chalcedony) deposited
CORBETT ai1723
Figure 3.30 Tension veins.

A - Develop by the fill of progressively reoriented tension gash fractures during strike-slip movement on the controlling structures to
form veins which are wider and host higher precious metal grades.
B & C - Tension veins in marble pavement, Spain. The vein above the pen top in A displays the theoretical form.
D - A cross section through Sons of Freedom reef, Thames goldfield, New Zealand (figure 3.20) illustrates the development of bonanza
Au grade specimen leaders (veins) as tension veins by a component of normal fault movement on the larger scale veins, modified from
Fraser (1910).

from circulating meteoric waters and sulphides as the 3.2.2.5.2 The Golden Cross mine, New Zealand
evolved ginguro bands. The base metal sulphide-rich exploited one of several tension fissure veins and
veins at Corenso (Hobbins et al., 2012) described by overlying stockwork veins. Early miners discovered
Singh (2015) as carboante-base metal Au style, occur the outcropping NNE to NE tension veins (Hippo,
in a less dilatant orientation and so contain less banded Taranaki and Golden Cross) developed by interpreted
quartz. Eruption breccias with low temperature clay (Corbett and Leach, 1998) dextral movement on NS
alteration cap the nearby Favona veins (Torckler et structural elements of the Coromandel Peninsular,
al., 2006) described in section 4.4.6.3.1. Note in figure recognised throughout the Hauraki Goldfield. The
3.31 how the andesite thickens on the down-drop blind Empire Vein was discovered in the mid 1980’s
side to the normal fault which hosts the Martha vein during exploration of the stockwork veins adjacent to
indicating that this structure displayed some activation the west (figure 2.23). Recent interpretation of steep
Figure 3.31 Structure of the Waihi mine New Zealand (modified from Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references therein) showing NS
controlling structures recognised from air photo interpretation and mapped in underground workings, while the cross section shows
development of the tension veins as a listric fault (Martha Vein) and hanging wall splays (Empire and Royal Veins). The Correnso veins
are oriented in a much less dilatant setting than the main NE portion of the Martha vein.
as a growth fault prior to mineralisation. A series of east dipping bedding in the Waipupu Formation host-
steep dipping veins (Union, Amaranth, Gladstone and rock andesite, (below the flat dipping post-mineral
Favona) extend for about 3.5-4 km SE in the hanging Whakamoehau andesite of Simpson et al., 2001,
wall of the Martha normal fault (figure 3.31) towards previously termed Omahine andesite by Corbett and
the Waihi Basin described (Bromley and Braithwaite, Leach, 1998), led Begbie et al. (2007) to suggest the
1991) as a possible collapse caldera. Some workers Empire Vein originally dipped east and the now flat-
have speculated the Martha structure might represent lying stockwork veins on the eastern side developed as
a regional scale listric fault with extension to the SE steep dipping hanging wall splay faults. Post-mineral
related to the down drop at the Waihi caldera, from normal fault are offset by Steep-dipping bedding-plane
where the ore fluids may have been derived. faults. If this post-mineral clockwise rotation in the
order of about 70° is removed, then the Golden Cross
fissure vein might have dipped in the order of 65° east
and the stockwork veins steep west (approx. 82°).

3.2.2.5.3 Exploration of tension veins requires some structure (fault jog or pull-apart basin) style soil
care in the design of drill programs. As described geochemical anomaly is likely to be elongate along
above, in the formation of tension veins, fractures the direction of the controlling structures, which
initiate at approximately 45° to the controlling commonly lie within the structural grain of the
strike-slip structure within competent host rock, and district. There is a natural tendency to drill across the
progressively widen as they rotate in response to structural grain of the district and any elongate soil
continued movement on the controlling strike-slip geochemical anomaly. However, in this case some
structures (figure 3.30). In addition to greater width, drill holes may bore along (down) the highest grade
the re-oriented veins display high precious metal veins (normal to the structural grain) and yield long
contents, although a new tension vein develops at drill intersections of high Au-Ag grade mineralisation
an angle just past 90o to the controlling structures. (figure 3.32), yet other barren drill holes might lie
Some larger scale tension veins host steep pitching ore between veins, and so the overall drill program
shoots in conditions of purely strike-slip deformation. might provide irregular results which are difficult to
The end result of this process commonly represents interpret. The intercept of a drill hole bored down a
a set of tension veins in which the highest Au grade narrow vein will make a much greater contribution
and widest veins (potential ore shoots) are normal towards the resource than is justified, locally with dire
to the orientation of the controlling structures and consequences for resource estimates (figure 3.32).
commonly including the structured grain of the There are other explanations for core parallel veins.
district (figures 3.30 & 3.32). Any negative flower
A B
co
str ntro
wi uctu llin
g
str thin re
of uctu
dis ra
tri l g
ct ra
in
progressive development
of wider reorientated
tension veins with
higher Au grades
C
soil geochemical
anomaly
tension vein
forms
ore shoot
drill hole bored
normal to soil anomaly
and structural grain
parallels the tension veins
CORBETT ai1740
Figure 3.32 Tension vein mineralisation and drill direction.

A - Tension veins rotate during progressive strike-slip deformation to host wider and higher precious metal grade central portions at
90° to the controlling. Vertical drill holes would not intersect the veins. Some of the drill holes bored across the structural grain and
elongation of the soil anomaly trend would be parallel the tension veins might bore down veins and give high results while others might
not intersect veins. The resulting irregular grade x thickness pattern might be difficult to interpret.
B - High grade vein sub-parallel to a drill hole (1.64 m down hole @ 61.4 g/t Au & 4100 g/t Ag).
C - Mineralised vein parallel to the core axis that influenced a resource determination.
D - Fluidised breccia intersected parallel to the core axis.

At Mt Kasi, Fiji, a series of tension veins lie at high • Irregular grade x thickness distribution combined
angles to the structural grain and an elongate early with veins at a low angle to core axis should
open pit (Corbett and Taylor, 1994). The initial drill prompt a review of the geological model to test
test across the grain and open pit yielded highly for the scenario described above and initiate a
irregular results such as those described above (figure possible change in drill direction.
3.32). Subsequent geological mapping by Geoff Taylor • Resource estimates might be biased by drill
recognised the importance of the tension veins and intercepts which have bored down veins.
planned better a oriented drill test, and eventual mine • Documentation of drill results should provide an
development proceeded some years later. indication of the true vein thickness or sufficient
information on the context to allow the reader to
The exploration implication is that explorationists evaluate the results.
should carefully monitor the angle of veins to the core
axis in conjunction with the metal distribution in drill
results as:
B C D
Figure 3.33 Tension vein mineralisation and drill direction, Mt Kasi, Fiji.
A - Sketch (from Corbett and Taylor, 1994) illustrates the development of tension veins at a high angle to the elongation of the old open
pit, soil anomaly and structural grain of the district which an early unsuccessful drill program bored directly across.
B - Looking long the old open pit and the structural grain with the Waidamudamu dome in the background.
C - Fractures and tension veins at a high angle to the open pit wall, Geoff Taylor for scale.
D - Detail of the mineralised tension vein breccias in drill core.

3.2.2.5.4 Tension veins and normal faults interpretation of normal fault movement on the main
structure.
The drill cores obtained by the drill tests of many
epithermal vein systems bored from the hanging 3.2.2.6 Splay faults
wall towards the vein commonly hosts small scale
sigmoid-shaped tension veins with long axes parallel Splay faults represent the deepest crustal level element
to the core axes and constrained between barren of dilatant negative flower structures present as link
shears at moderate angles to the core axis (figure structures or cross overs which facilitate the change
3.34). Orientation of the drill core consistent with the in strike-slip movement from one structural element
original drill hole demonstrates these tension veins to another, in the development of fault jogs (figure
have developed by activation of fractures, as mini- 3.17). Multiple splay arrays are termed horse tail faults
normal faults, parallel to the main normal fault which (figure 3.35) and splay or horsetail faults may mark
hosts the epithermal vein system under investigation. the termination of strike-slip fault systems (figure
Tension fractures have become reoriented and dilated 3.16). At this deep dilatant environment splay faults
A
B
major normal faults
drill hole
banded sulphides in structure
open space
breccia infill
vein fragments in breccia C
shear
sh formation
n ga
nsio
Te
tension veins
(droppers)
increased
quartz vein with normal fault
shear sulphides parallel movement
to core
shear
CORBETT ai1680
Figure 3.34 Sigmoid veins aligned along the drill core axis and constrained by small scale shears, are common marginal to mineralised
normal faults.
A - Graphic to illustrate the relationships discussed herein
B - Core-parallel sigmoidal tension vein limited by shears, Palmarejo, Mexico.
C - Core-parallel sigmoidal tension vein limited by shears, Drake goldfield, Australia.
by continued normal fault movement on the parallel localise porphyry intrusions, particularly as stock-like
fractures, in order to develop mineralised tension veins apophyses to larger deeply buried magmatic source
at high angles to the controlling faults and commonly rocks. Sheeted veins which transport ore fluids from
parallel to the drill core axis. Consequently, irregular the magmatic source into the overlying stock are
Au grades may occur outside the main ore envelope of aligned along the dilatant splay fault orientation.
the normal fault-hosted fissure vein (figure 3.34). Prior to the classification of porphyry deposits,
Lindgren (1933), Bateman (1950), McKinstry (1948)
The exploration implication of this model explains all describe horsetail faults as mineralised fissure veins
the presence of locally elevated Au grades within small mostly citing the example of Butte, Montana, as a
core-parallel stockwork veins which, during resource clearly dilatant mineralised vein array. Splay faults
calculations, must be taken into account as not part therefore participate in the creation of the space
of the main fissure vein but a marginal stockwork. required for porphyry emplacement within essentially
Elsewhere the recognition of these veins supports any compressional magmatic arcs and later mineralisation

510000
N Radomvo
Tomic
Fault
F
az
ga
7540000
ro
Za
s
q ue
Estan s
nco
Figure 3.35 Horsetail fault array as the termination of this Bla
structure, El Indio, Chile.
of the stock drawing fluids from the deeper magmatic
Bal m aceda
source.
Chuqui
3.2.2.6.1 The Chuquicamata porphyry lies within porphyry INTERPRETA
a continuous zone of mineralisation up to 22 km 7535000 T
IO
long from Radomiro Tomic in the north and the
N
Toki cluster in the south as shown in recent mapping
(Rivera et al., 2012). The Chuquicamata porphyry
is localised at the intersection of NS trending Falla
Oeste (West Fault), as a local element of the Domeyko
fault corridor, and splay faults discernible as the NNE splays
West
Zaragoza and NE Estanques Blancos faults and

parallel mineralised veins (Boric et al., 1990; Lindsay,
1997; Lindsay et al., 1995), and so the term horsetail
7530000
may be appropriate (figures 3.2 & 3.36). The West
Fault cannot easily be traced north of Chuquicamata
suggesting it might terminate at this point, and
0 2km
movement could cross to another structure further
east. If so, then the splay faults would represent link
CORBETT ai1724
or cross over structures. Localisation by the porphyry
by such a splay would suggest there has been a Figure 3.36 Structural setting of Chuquicamata within the
component of dextral movement on the Domeyko Domeyko fault corridor shown in figure 3.2, here localised at
the intersection of the West Fault and splay faults such as the
fault structural corridor at the time of mineralisation
Zarogaza and Estanques Blancos faults, from Boric et al., 1990;
which contrasts with the expected reverse movement Lindsay, 1997; Rivera et al., 2012.
for most of the history on the West Fault and a
speculated sinistral movement suggested by Rivera emplacement and mineralisation. NE trending
et al. (2012). The Chuquicamata Porphyry is cut at mineralised intrusions and faults are consistent with
the western margin by probably post-mineral reverse the suggestion by Herve et al (2012) the La Escondida
movement on the West Fault which places Palaeozoic- Porphyry emplacement and mineralisation took place
Triassic metamorphic rocks against Calama Formation under conditions of dextral strike-slip movement
Eocene-Oligocene gravels on the eastern side (Rivera on the Domeyko Corridor. The setting of the La
et al., (2012). Escondida district in a link structure could give the
impression that the corridor of NS Domeyko faults
3.2.2.6.2 The La Escondida porphyry system terminate there (figure 3.37). Folklore in the region is
(including Zaldivar and Escondida Norte) lies within that the porphyry deposits occur close to terminations
an NE trending link structure interpreted (Corbett, of structural elements of the Domeyko Corridor,
unpubl data, 1998) between NS tending segments which is consistent with the localisation of intrusions
of the Domeyko Fault Corridor (figures 3.2 & by splay faults or structures that link terminating
3.37). That study further suggested a component of elements of the structural corridor.
dextral strike-slip on the Domeyko corridor dilated
this NE link structure in order to trigger porphyry

3.2.2.6.3. The Frieda porphyry Cu-Au district, which
also hosts the Nena high sulphidation epithermal Au-
Cu deposit, is localised in a major splay in the regional
scale Fiak-Leonard Schultz Fault system (figure 3.38)
which suggests porphyry-epithermal mineralisation
developed in response to a dextral sense of movement
on that structure (Bainbridge et al., 1994; Corbett
and Leach, 1998). In these conditions the elongate
Frieda-Nena structural corridor has developed as
a dilatant structure related to the splay fault and
dextral movement on the Fiak-Leonard Schultz Fault
system. It is dominated by numerous silica-alunite
ledges including the Debom barren shoulder (section
2.2.4.2.2), developed adjacent to the Horse Ivaal
porphyry and the Nena high sulphidation epithermal
Au-Cu deposit (figure 3.38).
Figure 3.37 Interpretation of remote sensing data which places

La Escondida within a link structure in the Domeyko Fault
Corridor.
dilatant Nena-Frieda structural corridor

N
C
River
e da
Fri
NENA
veins
FRI
ED
A FA
FRIEDA ULT
Camp
Cu-Au
porphyry
0 5 km
LEONARD-SCHULTZ FAULT
silica-alunite ledges
From Bainbridge et al. (1994) CORBETT ai1729
Figure 3.38 Frieda-Nena localised by a splay in the Fiak-Leonard Schultz fault, Papua New Guinea and development of the dilatant
Frieda-Nena structural corridor. See figure 3.4 for location.
A - View of the Frieda-Nena structural corridor looking NW towards Nena.
B - Interpretation of the Frieda structural elements.
C - Side looking radar image for the Frieda region. See figure 2.31 for SE view of Frieda-Nena structural corridor.

3.2.2.5.4 The Philippine Fault transects the Philippine trending segments which would be expected to display
islands with a consistent sense of sinistral strike-slip the same sinistral sense of movement. The Far South
displacement derived from the plate tectonic setting East porphyry is localised where a splay fault diverges
and evidenced in many ore systems throughout the from one of the Philippine Fault segments (figure
country. In northern Luzon the generally NNW 3.39). The Lepanto high sulphidation epithermal
trending Philippine Fault breaks up into several NS deposit lies at the intersection of the splay fault and
From Auelio et al., 1993
A B Quaternary cover
Young volcanic edifices
Luzon
Lepant/FSE Limestone
Santo Nino Sediments
Baguio Volcanics
District Granite
Didipo
St Tomas II Ophiolite
PH
ILI
0 20km
P
Dizon
PI
Longos
NE
Taysan
Marcopper
Samar
FA
UL
T
Panay 11°00’
Palawan Atlas Leyte
Negros
Bulawan
Hinoban Placer
Maricalum Siana
N
Mindanao From Corbett & Leach, 1998
Amacan
Tampakan 20 Ohm/m
King King resistivity
Mines Deep well
Prospects Shallowwell
10°30’
0 400km
CORBETT ai1688
elements of
0 2km the Philippine
Fault
124°30’ 125°00’ CORBETT ai1784
D E
Figure 3.39 Splay faults along the Philippine Fault localise ore
systems.
A - The Philippine fault and location of some Philippine ore
systems.
B - Geological interpretation showing the setting of the
Tongonan geothermal field on the island of Leyte, from Corbett
and Leach, 1998, hosted within in a fault jog in the Philippine
Fault where splay faults, which localise greatest fluid flow in
geothermal wells at depth, are similar to mineralised fissure
veins, from Auelio et a. (1993).
therein).
C - The buried Far South East porphyry is localised at the
D - Philippine strike-slip fault adjacent to the Tongonan
intersection of the Lepanto splay fault and elements of the
geothermal field in a non-dilatant portion of the structure.
sinistral Philippine fault, while the Lepanto high sulphidation
E - The dilatant surficial pull-apart basin formed between in
epithermal Au-Cu mineralisation, also projected to the surface,
two segments of the Philippine Fault which hosts the Tongonan
is located at the intersection of the dilatant Lepanto fault and a
geothermal field as a site of intrusion-related geothermal
diatreme margin (from Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references
activity.
a diatreme breccia pipe (section 4.4.5), and displays a In settings of orthogonal compression veins may
fluid evolution trend consistent with models that ore develop parallel to the direction of principle stress
fluids were bled from the Far South East environment and hence normal to the arc (figure 3.7) as steep
at depth (Corbett and Leach, 1998 and references dipping fissure veins. Movement on conjugate
therein). The Didipio porphyry district in Northern fractures which are common these settings during
Luzon is constrained by NS trending fault segments orthogonal compression (section 3.1.3) may promote
formed parallel to the Philippine Fault. Here the the development of ore shoots by rotation of the arc
Dinkidi porphyry hosts NW trending sheeted veins normal fractures as tension veins (figure 3.39)
developed as tension veins in response to sinistral
movement on those NS structures (Corbett, unpubl. 3.2.3.1.1 The El Guanaco high sulphidation
reports; Garrett, 1996). The sheeted veins not only epithermal gold deposit in northern Chile hosts
host mineralisation but are interpreted to have bled both structurally controlled feeder structures,
ore fluids from the magmatic source at depth to a within competent andesites, and larger bodies of
higher crustal level of mineral deposition in cooler lithologically controlled mineralisation, within fiamme
conditions. On the island of Leyte the intrusion- tuffs (section 8.4.1.7). The ore system occurs as a
related Tongonan commercial geothermal field is several km long, roughly EW-ENE trending, steep
located within a fault jog, discernible as a surficial dipping, structural corridor of veins, formed at a
pull-apart basin, developed as a cross-over between very high angle to the NS trending structural grain of
segments of the sinistral Philippine Fault (figure 3.39; the district, and constrained between both conjugate
Corbett and Leach, 1998). Highest (intrusion-related) fractures and reverse faults developed as part of the
geothermal fluid flow in 1-2 km deep drill holes is structural grain (figure 3.40). Limited components of
associated with splay faults which might therefore strike-slip movement during orthogonal compression
be analogous to mineralised epithermal fissure veins on the NE-SW and NW-SE trending conjugate
developed as part of a negative flower structure below fractures discernible on remote sensing imagery, have
the surficial pull-apart basin. locally deformed and dilated the EW veins to result in
the development of steep pitching ore shoots within
There is an exploration implication in the flexures (figure 3.40).
recognition that splay faults or link structures formed
within structural corridors with oblique sense of 3.2.3.2 Conjugate fractures
movement represent sites for the localisation of
porphyry Cu-Au intrusions or epithermal veins. Conjugate factures described above develop at
Once the sense of strike-slip movement is estimated variable angles to the orientation of compression
on such a corridor of individual structures, defined from the order of 30° in epithermal-porphyry terrains
using geological mapping, remote sensing or magnetic to as much as much as 60° in deeply eroded crustal
imagery, an inspection for cross overs could easily levels such as the Pontides of NE Turkey (section
identify exploration targets. Link structures in one 3.1.3). Although these structures are interpreted to
orientation will be dilatant releasing bends (figure 3.16) have formed in response to orthogonal compression,
and in the other orientation represent anti-dilational transient relaxation or changes in the orientation
restraining bends. of compression may trigger their involvement
in ore formation. It is common for one of the
3.2.3 Orthogonal compression conjugate fractures to become more dominant. The
development of mineralisation under conditions of
Orthogonal compression is an uncommon setting orthogonal compression is considered here.
for mineralisation, despite the overall compressional
nature of subduction-related magmatic arcs which
host epithermal vein deposits and porphyry intrusions.
Several settings for the development of mineralised
veins and ore shoots include steep dipping structures
normal to the structural grain and parallel to
compression, conjugate fractures and arc-parallel
reverse faults or thrusts. Reverse faults host flat
pitching ore shoots best within flatter dipping fault
portions (figure 3.7), described below.
3.2.3.1 Arc-normal veins

Figure 3.40 Structure of the El Guanaco high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit, Chile for which lithologies, alteration and
mineralisation are shown in section 8.4.1.7, as an aerial image with superimposed veins, from www.australgold.com.au.
A B
horsetail of
splay veins
link vein
sigmoid vein
fault
σ1 jog
σ1
flexure
flexure
CORBETT ai1701
a
V. V ulem
a ng V. Z
ua
rdi
a
F. V
an
gu
ard
ia
N.
F. V
an
gu
V.
ard
O.
ia
S.
D
iez
0 20m
N
0 2km
CORBETT ai1700
Figure 3.41 Mineralised veins and ore shoots related to conjugate fractures.
A - Model based upon conjugate fractures in the Deseado Massif of Argentine Patagonia features NW dominant over NE conjugate
fractures, each with components of strike-slip deformation during EW orthogonal compression. Dilatant veins include: EW link
structures developed between NW fracture/veins and splay veins, flexures sigmoid loops, which feature the progression to wider veins
with higher metal grades as veins rotate (from NW to WNW and EW) during progressive deformation.
B - Magnetic data for Cerro Moro which illustrates the NW-SE and NE-SW conjugate fractures along with many prospects along with
the most prospective EW trending Escondida vein group in the bottom left, from Perkins and Williams, 2007.
C - Ore shoot formation at Veta Osvaldo Diez, Cerro Vanguadia, from Zubia et al. (1999).

3.2.3.2.1 The Deseado Massif, Argentine Patagonia,
COMPRESSIONAL
which lies in a back arc setting within Argentine
Patagonia, is cut by prominent conjugate fractures restraining bend
interpreted to have developed in response to hosts reverse fault
orthogonal compression (section 3.1.3; figure

3.5). Many mines and exploration projects feature
mineralised veins hosted by the within NE-SW
cross section
and NW-SE conjugate fractures which are clearly
discernible on remote sensing or magnetic imagery
anti-dilational
(Cerro Vanguadia, Zubia, et al., 1999; Cerro Moro, jog hosts dome
Perkins and Williams, 2007; Cerro Negro, Shatwell reverse or folds
fault
et al., 2011; San Jose [aka Juevos Verde], Dietrich et
al., 2012; Cap Oeste, Bow, 2012). Activation of the ore shoot in
flat dipping
conjugate fractures, with only small components portion
of strike-slip movement, in response to orthogonal CORBETT ai1735
compression, has facilitated the formation of dilatant Figure 3.42 Second order compressional structures formed in a
sites which host ore shoots characterised by wider setting of oblique fault movement, showing development of an
ore shoot in a flatter dipping portion of a reverse fault developed
and higher metal grade vein portions. Dilatant sites in a restraining bend.
formed by strike-slip movement in response to
orthogonal compression include EW link structures slickensides formed normal to the dip of the fault,
locally developed within fault jogs between veins and which hosts vein mineralisation, indicate movement
including splay veins and flexures developed as dilatant has been either orthogonal dip-slip or reverse.
bends in throughgoing veins. Both groups may display Comparison of the dip angles of the host structure
sigmoidal shapes as veins grade to wider forms with and Au content (as gram-metres) indicates best
higher metal grades as the angular relationship to mineralisation occurs in the flatter dipping fault
the master fault increases (figure 3.41 A). At Cerro portions contoured in figure 3.43. Consequently,
Vanguadia ore shoots with wider veins and higher Au the Kencana mineralisation is interpreted to have
grades are discernible as dilatant flexures within the developed within a reverse fault. The 90° divergence
throughgoing veins (figure 3.41 C). Many ore systems in strike between the mineralised Kencana reverse
also feature a change kinematic conditions of NE structures to the Gosowong extensional listric fault is
extension discussed below (section 3.5.2). consistent with these two divergent ore systems having
formed in the same kinematic environment. Whereas
3.2.3.3 Restraining bends and thrust-related ore shoots have been identified in the flatter dipping
mineralisation. portions of the Kencana reverse faults, Gosowong
vein ore shoots are hosted by the steep dipping fault
Whereas figure 3.16 illustrates dilatant second order portion (figure 3.43). The Kencana veins, which are
structures, compression results if the second order blind at the surface were identified during step out
structures are oriented at 90° those fractures, or if drilling from the Gosowong vein (Richards et al.,
there is the opposite movement on the controlling 2005).
strike-slip structures. In that case, restraining bends
develop at compressional flexures, while folds and
domes are common within anti-dilational jogs, locally
developed as positive flower structures prospected
as as oil traps (figure 3.42). Reverse faults which
take up compressional movement locally host vein
mineralisation, within ore shoots that are most
prevalent in the flatter dipping portions, which might
therefore be blind at the surface and pitch flatly in
the plane of the fault (figure 3.7). Combinations of
reverse and strike-slip movement provide an inclined
pitch to ore shoots.
3.2.3.3.1 At Kencana, Gosowong, Indonesia,

True A C
50 Vein dip terminates at
North 40 s
te
ep
Au in gram x metres 20
str
re
uc
ctu
tu
Link structures stru
re
link RL
Gosowong
σ1
0 4800
A 20
North 20
20 4700
0
C
40
30 4600
B
0
4500
20
Gosowong
19200 19300 19400 19500 19600 19700
CORBETT ai1703
1000N
15.5m @ 41 g/t Au
11.7m @ 17 g/t Au
8.0m @ 11 g/t Au
3.4m @ 5.6 g/t Au
K-1
Kencana 2.4m @ 21 g/t Au
σ1
100mRL
K-2
11m @ 140 g/t Au
2.5m @ 15 g/t Au
13.5m @ 2.5 g/t Au

50mRL
6.0m @ 2.5 g/t Au
0 1km D <1.0 g/t Au
0 50m
4000E CORBETT ai1702 6000E

5000E
CORBETT ai1704
B
Vein Mudstone Ignimbrite Andesite Volcaniclastics
Figure 3.43 Kencana ore zone, Gosowong Project, Indonesia.

A - East Gosowong district in which the Kencana thrust lies at 90° to the Gosowong extensional listric fault and so both are related to
SW-NE compression, from Richards et al., 2005.
B - Cross section of the Kencana veins, from Richards, et al., 2005 and updated in Corbett, unpubl. report, 2007.
C - Long section for the Kencana K2 structure showing the close correlation between flat dipping portions of the thrust and higher
grade mineralisation in gram metres, from Corbett, unpubl. report, 2007.
D - Gosowong listric vein formed in the same kinematic regime but at 90° to Kencana, graphic redrawn from Richards, et al., 2005.

3.2.3.3.2 The Talang Santo mine in the Way 3.2.4 Ore shoot orientation
Linggo District, South Sumatra hosts banded
chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag vein mineralisation Ore shoots which host best ore within many
within a compressional structural setting (figures epithermal vein systems vary in orientation from steep
3.26 & 3.42). Throughout west Sumatra dextral where hosted by flexures activated by components
movement on the NW trending Trans Sumatran Fault of strike-slip deformation, to flat within the steeper
System derived from the NS collision of the Indo- dipping portions of listric faults or flatter portions
Australian and Eurasian plates (section 3.2.2) has of moderate dipping reverse faults or thrusts (figure
resulted in the development of roughly NS trending 3.7). Combinations of dip-slip and strike-slip fault
dilatant fractures. However, at Talang Santo the NW movement (commonly in listric faults) provide inclined
structural grain of the district progressively changes ore shoots, just as ore shoots delineated as structural
to WNW and then east-west orientation, and in intersections also display highly variable orientations.
this configuration the EW fractures can no longer Other ore shoots develop at structural intersections
accommodate dextral movement apparent on the NW which represent settings of Au deposition by fluid
structures (figures 3.26 & 3.42). Rather, EW trending mixing (section 7.5.4) or at the intersections of
banded veins developed within reverse faults and host structures with breccia pipe margins (Lepanto,
steep pitching ore shoots at the intersections with Philippines) or other settings.
steep dipping splay faults (figure 3.42). Close to these
intersections the generally NW trending splay faults Consequently, ore shoots, which commonly display
are dilated as NS trending flexures, which are also pencil-like forms (see McKinstry, 1948 for examples),
aligned within the NS compression. are often considered with respect to the controlling
structure. Linear features such as ore shoots define
A
strike-slip PLAN NS a pitch (rake in Bateman, 1950) as the angle between
faults σ1 SECTION
the shoot and a horizontal line on the controlling
fault (Lindgren, 1933), whereas plunge is the angle
between the linear feature and the horizontal (Price
and Cosgrove, 1990), but not within the plane of the
oblique
controlling fault (figure 3.45). The orientation of ore
movement shoots is typically considered with respect to the host
splay dilation vein/fault in long section where the term pitch is most
fault
appropriate (figure 3.45), although drill intercepts may
EW be projected from an inclined fault onto a vertical
N
plane.
compression σ1 reverse
fault
Corbett 1788 3.3.4.1 At Palmarejo, Mexico, best ore lies within
ore shoots localised at the intersection of competent
B
host rocks such as andesite and silicified sandstone
with several structural settings in association with the
corridor of NW structures. The Rosario clavo formed
at the intersection of the La Prieta and La Blanca
veins, while flexures host the 76 and 108 clavos. The
Guadalupe mineralisation lies in a fault jog 6 km
along strike to the SE (figure 3.43). Here, ore shoots
are interpreted to have formed by combinations of
dip-slip movement on listric faults and a strike-slip
component. The intersection of host structures
with competent rock types (silicified sandstone and
underlying andesite) also provides a sub horizontal
character or limits to ore shoots. Some shoots (76) are
Figure 3.44 Talang Santo characterised a combination of west block down listric
A - Structural setting of the Talang Santo vein in red as plan and fault dip-slip and sinistral strike-slip movement to
cross section views. provide south pitching ore shoots.
B - Talang Santo banded chalcedony ginguro Au-Ag epithermal
vein mineralisation in the underground workings.

steep dipping portion
of listric fault
plunge ho
riz
on
ta
l
up
e
p lan pitch
ult wn
fa do pitching
up n oreshoot
w
do
fault with sinistral strike-slip

steep and dip-slip movement
dip
listric
faults
flat dip
CORBETT ai1537
Figure 3.45 The orientation of an ore shoot formed in the steep dipping portion of a listric fault by the combination of strike-slip and
dip-slip movement showing the position of pitch and plunge.

B Guadalupe
Norte INTERPRETATION
Gu
NW
ad
pitching
alu
ore shoot 3028000
pe
Str
e o ox
lin ppr
f
a
n
io
ct
40
se
Guadalupe
55
3027000
45
An
im
Clay bloom as
St
Historic mine r
0 500m
761000 762000
CORBETT ai1705
Figure 3.46 Structural control to ore shoots at Palmarejo,

C
Mexico including Guadalupe, see figure 3.10 D for map of
Palmarejo and legend
A - Palmarejo long section showing ore shoots localised
at a structural intersection (Rosario fault intersection) or
76 and 108 flexures, with competent andesite or silicified
sandstone.
B - Geological map of the Guadalupe zone at Palmarejo
showing the localisation of mineralisation within link
structures.
C - Guadalupe cross section showing mineralisation and
normal fault movement apparent from the offset of the
bedded basalt.

3.2.4.2 At the Viento vein at the El Indio Mine, A
Chile pitching ore shoots are inclined witin the host
structure (Corbett, unpubl. reports, 2000; Heberlein,
2008). Geological mapping sought to define the
controls to shoot formation (figure 3.28) within
the Viento Vein system, which parallels the more
significant El Indio Veins. The NNE trending regional
structures which localise the El Indio district lie within
a regional scale link structure which joins the southern
termination of a NS structure to the east with the
northern termination of a NS structure to the west
(figure 3 23), activated by an interpreted transient
component of dextral movement on the regional NS
structures. Underground mapping at the Viento vein
demonstrated that each ore shoot is localised within a
NE trending flexure in the NNE controlling structure
localised at the intersection with NE cross-structures
(figure 3.28). The pitching ore shoots are interpreted
to have formed by a combination of dip-slip (down on
the east) and dextral strike-slip movement supported
by slickensides (figure 3.28). Mapping of the main El
Indio veins by Stan Caddy (Jannas et al., 1999) had
already demonstrated the El Indio mineralisation
is developed within a sigmoidal loop formed by a
component of dextral movement on the NNE link
structures.
B
3.2.5 Collapse and flat dipping structures
In addition to compressional settings above (section

3.2.3.3), flat dipping ore shoots also form in settings
of collapse and reactivation of bedding planes locally
as bedding plane shears.
3.2.5.1 The Emperor gold mine, Fiji, is localised at

the intersection between a Tavua collapse caldera
margin and an EW regional structure which terminates
as a set of NW trending dilatant splay faults within
a fault jog environment. These dilatant splay faults Figure 3.47 Development of ore hosting flatmakes at the
Emperor gold mine, Fiji.
display normal fault movement to facilitate subsidence
A - Structure of the mine area with different colours to
of the bedded submarine basalts adjacent to the distinguish collapsed blocks within the wall rocks adjacent to the
caldera as a series of blocks (figure 3.47). In this Tavua caldera and flatmakes shown in red.
environment some bedding planes within bedded D - Flatmake in the mine workings.
basalts have become dilated and host flatmake
mineralised structures with variable shallow dips. 3.2.5.2 In the Drake Volcanics of eastern Australia,
This model (Corbett, unpubl. data) further suggests geological mapping by Grace Cumming has defined
the steep dipping dilatant NW shears (e.g, Brewster, a 20 km diameter collapse caldera with resurgent
Prince of Wales and Crown) are have acted as domes within an area of subdued magnetic response
mineralised feeder structures for the flat-dipping termed the Drake Quiet Zone (Cumming et al.,
mineralised flatmakes. 2013). Collapse associated with the caldera resulted
in activation of bedding planes within the adjacent
volcanic sequence to form bedding plane shears
which host carbonate-base metal style Au-Ag lodes
such as at the Red Rock Mine (figure 3.48). In some
cases disseminated mineralisation grades away from

the shears into permeable wall rocks. Normal fault shapes, terminating in the shears which facilitated their
movement on the shears during collapse facilitated formation and have commonly been intersected at low
the formation of intervening steep dipping tension angles to the drill core axis (figure 3.34). High level
gash veins which contain abundant quartz in addition felsic domes are interpreted to have been related to
to carbonate-base metal Au-Ag mineralisation (figure the magmatic source for mineralisation and host best
3.48). The banded tension gash veins display sigmoid Ag-Au grades.
A B
Red Rock
Mt Carrington
White Rock
C
limit of
Drake Magnetic
Quiet Zone
0 5 km
Gilgarry mudstone of the Drake Volcanics
Intermediate volcanics of the Lower Permian Drake Volcanics
Felsic domes of the Drake Volcanics
Sediments of the Carboniferous Emu Creek Fm
Diorite
Granite of Permo-Triassic New England Batholith
CORBETT ai1699
ground water
andesite sill
sheeted
or flow
veins
O2 tuff mineralised bedding
stockwork
fluid sand plane shears
mixing ston Figure 3.48 Mineralised bedding plane shears
e
tuff
at the Drake Caldera.
high angle A - Caldera collapse structure with locally
ande vein interpreted
site mineralised resurgent felsite domes, from
link collapse Cumming unpubl reports and Cumming et al.
tuff structure (2013).
B - Red Rock mine showing mineralised
cross bedding plane.
structure
speculated
C - Mineralised bedding plane shear, Hampton
intrusion workings, 5.1 g/t Au.
D - Conceptual model for development of
bedding plane shear and tension vein (figure
3.34) mineralisation, from Corbett, unpubl.
CORBETT ai1712 report and Cumming et al. (2013).

3.2.5.3 At the Ladolam gold mine, Lihir Island, the transport of ore fluids some distance from the
Papua New Guinea, described above (section magmatic source at depth to higher crustal levels
3.2.1.1.1), unroofing during seaward sector collapse where mineral deposition takes place either within
of an andesitic stratovolcano provided a trigger for intrusive stocks (figure 3.49 C) or wall rocks (figure
mineralisation, best developed within the listric faults 3.49 F). Sheeted veins may display a polyphasal
which facilitated collapse of the volcanic edifice character (figure 3.49 D).
(figure 3.11). Sub-horizontal ore zones (Lienetz
and Coastal) prospected early in the exploration Laminated veins display a banding developed by
history are now interpreted (Corbett, 2005b) to have repeated episodes of mineral deposition, such as
been localised within flat dipping portions of listric quartz, magnetite or sulphides in M veins, locally
faults, whereas better quality mineralisation was with intervening wall rock. Crack-seal textures are
later identified in the sub-vertical Minifie structure discernible from repeated vein reopening which may
developed as a steep-dipping portion of a listric fault feature deposition of sulphides later than laminated
close to the caldera boundary. quartz (figure 3.49 E).
3.2.5.4 Flat-moderate dipping bedding planes Wallrock porphyry Cu-Au deposits host metals within
may be reactivated within folded rock sequences the wall rocks away from any obvious intrusion source
during compression within magmatic arcs and host and are typically characterised by dilatant sheeted vein
stockwork vein mineralisation which extends into arrays which have facilitated metal transport (figures
the wall rock (Kelian, Indonesia; Cowal, Australia; 3.16, 3.49 E & F). Most porphyry deposits feature
Corbett, pers. observ.). some continuation of mineralisation from intrusions
into the adjacent wall rocks.
3.3 STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH
Isotropic wall rocks or intrusions exhibit no preferred
PORPHYRY DEPOSITS
grain as a control to vein formation, whereas
anisotropic wall rocks may host a cleavage or
Porphyry stockwork and sheeted quartz-sulphide
volcanic/sedimentary layering as a control to fracture/
veins which host and locally transport most Cu-Au-
vein formation. In some volcanic sequences only the
Mo mineralisation represent the main structures
competent lavas host wallrock porphyry veins, while
associated with porphyry Cu-Au deposits, commonly
incompetent intervening lapilli tuffs and breccias do
developed within stocks or vertically attenuated spine-
not fracture to facilitate vein formation, especially if
like intrusions, which overlie more major magmatic
these permeable rocks become clay altered. Breccia
sources of metals and volatiles, and locally extend into
pipe environments are commonly associated with
the adjacent wall rocks (see section 5). The dilatant
concentric veins (below).
settings which localise porphyry intrusions influence
vein orientations which are considered (Corbett and
Stress characteristics which control porphyry
Leach, 1998) in order to:
emplacement are provided by the analyses of
• Understand the 3 dimensional form of the
vein directions, assuming the two are relatively
porphyry intrusion to guide drill tests and
coeval, as orthogonal compression-extension or
resource determinations.
oblique convergence, while vein directions are also
• Develop an exploration model to explore for
influenced by the level in the porphyry system under
more porphyry intrusions in any district.
consideration and host rock characteristics (Heinrich
and Titley, 1982; Titley, 1990; Corbett and Leach,
3.3.1 Some definitions
1998).
Stockwork veins comprise multi-directional vein arrays
Concentric structures such as ring dykes, sheeted cone
with either no preferred orientation, or with multiple
fractures, or veins, may develop as circular arrays of
directions derived from the intersection of conjugate,
fractures within the wall rocks overlying the outside
orthogonal or other orientations, either developed
of a buried intrusion or breccia pipe. These fracture
as one event or the result of multiple overprinting
patterns are interpreted (Phillips 1973, 1974) to
events, the latter locally related to repeated porphyry
have developed in response to the upward force of
emplacement (figure 3. 49 A & B).
retrograde boiling and may be enhanced by collapse
following evacuation of volatiles from the top of
Sheeted veins form as arrays of parallel veins which
a magma chamber (section 4.4.4.1). Mineralised
reflect the stress conditions active at the time of
concentric, locally sheeted fracture-veins are well
vein development, and as dilatant features, facilitate
developed in breccia pipes with interpreted significant
components of collapse (section 4.4.4.6), and locally Radial veins and lodes are common within wall
kink around pipe margins (Kidston, Australia; figure rocks outboard of the upward projection of source
4.17). intrusions in settings of dominantly upward intrusion
emplacement without significant collapse (figure 3.51
& 3.52; Cargo, Eastern Australia; San Juan, Safford
District, Arizona, Heidrick and Titley, 1982).
A B
C D
E F
Figure 3.49 Porphyry quartz-sulphide vein styles.

A - Multi-directional stockwork quartz veins derived from one event, La Granja, Peru.
B - Multi-directional stockwork quartz veins derived from 4 vein events associated with multiple intrusion emplacement, Ridgeway,
Australia.
C - Sheeted porphyry AB veins, Goonumbla, Australia.
D - Sheeted porphyry M cut by B veins, Namosi, Fiji.
E - Laminated quartz-magnetite vein with bornite on the crack partings and cut by a B and then later C which exploit to re-opened
crack-seal partings, discussed in section 5, Ridgeway, Australia.
F - Sheeted wallrock porphyry A veins within volcaniclastic host rocks, Cadia East, Australia.

3.3.2 Porphyry vein formation
The evolution of mineralised porphyry veins is
Porphyry vein type and orientation are influenced by a interpreted to include a paragenetic sequence of
number of factors which vary according to: events characterised as:
• Mainly the stress pattern active at the time of
quartz vein formation, typically at failure of an 3.3.2.1 Initial emplacement of a stock or spine-
overpressurised carapace. These patterns might be like intrusive body of molten magma results in
distinguished as: the development of a chilled margin to the inward
• Vertical (and no doubt some lateral) cooling intrusion and formation of adjacent hornfels
compression stress. developed as contact metamorphosed wall rocks,
• Localised collapse. which together combine to act as a seal to constrain
• Orthogonal extension. volatiles within the intrusion carapace (figure 3.50 A).
• Transpression.
• Time as the stress patterns vary, especially as
triggers for mineralisation.
• Crustal level from within or above an intrusion.
• Host rock competency.
STAGED PORPHYRY VEIN DEVELOPMENT
A. INTRUSION EMPLACEMENT B. COOLING C. CARAPACE FAILURE

Volatiles migrate Stockwork
hornfels and sheeted
to porphyry
chilled carapace quartz vein
margin formation
inward
cooling
ptygmatic
A veins intrusion
magmatic source magmatic source magmatic source
E. POLYPHASAL PORPHYRY D. MINERALISATION

EMPLACEMENT
Sulphides within Ore fluids derived from
additional stockwork the magmatic source
as sheeted quartz exploit quartz veins,
veins and exploit to deposit sulphides,
pre-existing veins locally extending into
wallrocks within sheeted
quartz veins
magmatic source magmatic source CORBETT ai1575
Figure 3.50 Stages in the development of mineralised porphyry quartz veins discussed herein.

3.3.2.2 Cooling of the molten spine-like intrusion nature of many barren (figure 5.15) and mineralised
features separation of the solid and volatile M veins (figure 5.16) supports repeated activation of
components as hot pressurised fluids (water and gases) the same dilatant structural setting to promote quartz,
rise and gather towards the carapace of the vertically magnetite and later sulphide deposition. The later
attenuated intrusion. The sealed carapace traps the variable sulphide introduction provides an explanation
rising fluids from not only the spine-like intrusion, for the presence of barren quartz-magnetite (M) veins
but also derived from the cooling magmatic source at particularly in the cores of some porphyry intusions
depth, causing the uppermost portion of the intrusion (section 5.2.4.2).
to become over-pressurised (figure 3.50 B). The
magma source at depth and possibly the core of the Most economic porphyry Cu-Au deposits are
intrusion have not solidified at this stage. characterised by the presence of many individual
porphyry intrusions, each with several overprinting
3.3.2.3 Failure of the over pressurised carapace vein styles which may introduce additional
is described in the model of retrograde boiling mineralisation along with overprinting hydrothermal
(Phillips, 1973), to take place when the volatile fluid alteration (sections 5.2.4 & 5.2.5).
pressure exceeds the lithostatic (confining) pressure
and tensile strength of the confining rock. However, In summary, several stages in the development
more recent field studies (Corbett and Leach, 1998) of quartz-sulphide porphyry veins feature quartz
suggest external structural processes may also initiate deposition in response to pressure drop upon
failure of the carapace. The regional structure which failure of an over pressurised intrusion carapace
has localised a porphyry intrusion might be expected and evolution of ore fluids from a magmatic source
to feature repeated movement and so crack the brittle at depth using the same dilatant fracture system.
over pressurised carapace. Failure of the carapace Earlier dilatant quartz veins may be reactivated and
results in a dramatic drop in fluid pressure which exploited by later sulphide mineralisation which may
promotes quartz deposition (figure 3.50 C) developed either parallel earlier events, or fracture and cross-cut
as veins filling fractures locally dilated by the stress pre-existing brittle quartz veins, including as C veins
regime active at that time. Pressure exerts the prime (figure 3.48 E).
control to silica solubility (Corbett and Leach, 1998).
Thus, vein orientations may be used to estimate The exploration implication is that this process of
the stress prevailing at the time of carapace failure, repeated porphyry emplacement and mineralisation
essentially porphyry emplacement. It is also possible may upgrade a sub-economic single-event porphyry to
to estimate the sense of movement on any controlling form an economic ore system.
major structure during vein development.
3.3.3 Porphyry vein orientations
3.3.2.4 Cu-Au mineral deposition no doubt began
with initial depressurisation and quartz vein formation Porphyry vein orientations are controlled by several
as early linear A veins host sulphide mineralisation factors dominated by the stress regime active at the
(section 5.2.4.1). However, Corbett and Leach (1998) time of carapace failure and quartz vein formation,
point out much of the Cu-Au mineralisation in many which generally also facilitated sulphide introduction.
porphyry deposits has been introduced following Several variations in stress regime and hence vein
initial quartz vein formation, at a lower temperature. configuration recognised in porphyry deposits (figure
Textures in the discussion of porphyry mineralisation 3.51) include:
herein (sections 5.2.4 & 5.2.5) illustrate the common
parallelism of quartz and sulphide veins as the 3.3.3.1 Forceful upward intrusion emplacement
latter exploit central vein terminations (B veins), without other stresses or host rock anisotropy,
or laminations within banded quartz-magnetite (M in which a pronounced vertical σ1, results in the
veins), as an indication that the same stress regime development of radial fractures (Phillips, 1974)
responsible for quartz vein development has been grading from the intrusion into the adjacent and
active to facilitate later sulphide introduction (figures overlying wall rocks, which may be exploited by
5.16, 5.19 & 5.20), although sulphide (as C veins) porphyry style quartz-sulphide veins as recognised at
may also cross-cut quartz veins (figures 5.21 & 5.22). San Juan, Arizona or thicker D vein style lodes such as
A significant proportion of the later sulphides are at Cargo, eastern Australia (figures 3.51 A & 3.52).
derived from the progressively cooling magma source
at depth and utilised the dilatant structures, originally
exploited by quartz, to rise to higher crustal levels
of ore deposition (figure 3.50 D). The laminated
VERTICAL COMPRESSION ORTHOGONAL COMPRESSION ORTHOGONAL EXTENSION TRANSPRESSION
pull-apart basin at
porphyry structural high crustal level
veins grain &
localising
lodes structure eliptical
intrusion splay
fault
concentric σ1 σ1
fractures
sheeted quartz sheeted conjugate

radial lodes/veins veins veins fractures
tension sheeted
veins veins strike-
slip
fault
stockwork
radial quartz
concentric veins
fractures
resulting
from σ1
collapse
CORBETT ai1577a
Figure 3.51 Different quartz vein configurations formed in varying structural settings. The sheeted veins in the transpressional setting
may rise above the porphyry environment to form wallrock porphyry deposits.
A B
Zn
Au
Cu Mo
ad
ro
lode
propylitic phyllic
potassic
TN MN
C 0 500m
Rangott & Weston 1987
CORBETT ai1375
Figure 3.52 Fracture/veins overlying forcefully vertically

emplaced intrusions.
A - Radial and concentric fractures formed marginal to the upper
portions of a porphyry intrusion, at San Juan, Arizona (from
Heidrick and Titley, 1982).
B - Lodes which radiate from a breccia at the Cargo prospect,
eastern Australia (from Rangott and Weston, 1987 unpublished).
C - Radial fractures at the Cargo porphyry prospect which
contain sulphide lodes and later andesite dykes.

3.3.3.1.1 A component of collapse, most commonly localised by intersection of NE-trending splay faults,
recognised in association with breccia pipes, and and the NS-trending Falla Oeste (West Fault) of the
also many intrusions, follows intrusion emplacement Domeyko Fault System, such that porphyry veins,
and degassing. Caldera ring dyke complexes develop sericite alteration and Mo distribution form roughly
following collapse of some major magma sources NE trending horsetail arrays (Lindsay, 1997; Lindsay
such as the Permo-Carboniferous Lochaber and et al., 1995). At Didipio, Philippines, NW trending
Bagstow Ring Dyke Complexes south of Kidston sheeted veins within the spine-like Dinkidi porphyry
in NE Australia (Branch, 1966). Concentric quartz developed in response to sinistral movement on the
veins rim porphyry intrusions such as at San Juan, NS controlling structures, governed by the regional
Arizona (figure 3.52), here forming a stockwork with sinistral transpression, apparent on the Philippine and
the intersecting radial fractures, or kink as straight associated faults (figure 3.53; Corbett unpubl. report,
segments around the margins of breccia pipes such as 1995 in Garrett, 1996).
at Kidston (figure 4.17).
There is an exploration implication that the dilatant
3.3.3.2 Oblique convergence (transpression) provides sheeted veins are interpreted to not only host sulphide
a common control to porphyry mineralisation in mineralisation, but to have participated in the bleeding
settings where a component of strike-slip movement of ore fluids from the magmatic source at depth, to a
on throughgoing structures has localised the higher crustal level where mineral deposition occurs
porphyry intrusion, typically within splay faults, while in cooler conditions. Consequently, parallel sets of
mineralisation is hosted within dilatant structures overprinting sheeted veins may host elevated metal
varying from lodes to sheeted porphyry veins, which grades, discernible as elevated Au in bornite-bearing
parallel the splay faults (figure 3.51 D). M veins (figure 3.47) and must be tested with correctly
oriented bore holes. The activation of sheeted veins
The Chuquicamata porphyry deposit, Chile, is is discussed further in the context of triggers for
mineralisation, below.
A B C
sh ear
Biak
ral
ine
-m
post
calc-silicate
D F
0 100m sheeted
quartz veins
CORBETT ai1709
E
Tjuna (dark diorite) - biotite-clinopyroxene-monzonite
Quan - crowded hornblende quartz monzonite porphyry
Bugoy breccia
Bufu - quartz monzonite (syenite)
Calc-silicate 1711
Figure 3.53 Sheeted veins developed by oblique convergence, Dinkidi, Philippines.

A - The Dinkidi intrusion at Didipio, Philippines also shown as part of a wider angle view in figure 2.27 E which includes the marginal
barren shoulders of alteration.
B - Plan view of the Dinkidi intrusion and NS faults which, by a component of strike-slip movement, facilitated the development of
tensional sheeted veins.
C - Spine-like polyphasal porphyry intrusion, redrawn from Garrett (1996).
D - Sheeted quartz veins in outcrop.
E - Legend

3.3.3.1 The Browns Creek skarn is localised by the 3.3.3.3.1 In the Goonumbla district, eastern Australia
intersection of a NS structural corridor with the (figure 3.55 A), strongly vertically attenuated spine-like
contact between the Carcoar Granodiorite and a quartz monzonite porphyry intrusions are linked to
limestone (metamorphosed to marble) unit within a batholitic larger magmatic source of equigranular
the Blayney Volcanics (section 6.2.4). While some quartz biotite monzonite at depth (Heithersay et al.,
(post-mineral) fault slices of Au-Cu skarn trend NS, 1990). Several of these intrusions and the Nash’s
most Au production was from a set of NW trending Hill barren shoulder of advanced argillic alteration
en echelon skarn bodies constrained between the NS are aligned along the NNW-NS trending Tenandra
faults (figure 6.17). High Au grades are associated with structural corridor which locally forms a shoulder-
the wollastonite-bornite dominant skarn, while highest like batholith margin (Corbett and Leach unpubl.
Au grades with a 15 g/t head grade were recognised report, 1995). Sheeted quartz veins from the E26
where NW trending sheeted quartz veins transect porphyry (figure 3.55 B) occur as a 340° set which
the skarn. The model proposed (Corbett, unpubl. overprints 240° and 290° conjugate veins (Harris and
report, 1997) suggested sinistral strike-slip movement Holcombe, 2014). Similarly, the E48 ore body on the
on the NS structural grain provided the dilatant same structure is dominated by roughly NS trending
structural environment for skarn and higher Au grade sheeted quartz-sulphide veins (figure 3.55 C). A major
sheeted quartz vein development (figure 3.54). A contributor to the development of the Goonumbla
component of post-mineral dextral fault movement ore systems has been the reactivation of high
has dismembered some skarns as fault slices. temperature sheeted quartz veins formed in the 600-
800° C range as dilatant brittle fractures for the later
transport of cooler ore fluids in the 200-400° C range,
from the magmatic source at depth into the spine-like
intrusions (Corbett and Leach, unpubl. report, 1995).
The bornite-rich ore is Au rich and is locally enhanced
in the presence of sericite overprint on potassic
alteration, including quartz-albite.
Metal grades of the Au-rich bornite ore is locally

skarn
enhanced in the presence of sericite overprint on
potassic alteration, including quartz-albite. The
consistent NS sheeted quartz vein orientation
is interpreted to result from the trigger for vein
development, and mineralisation, provided by EW
extension on the regional NS structural grain derived
from transient relaxation of subduction-related EW
compression.
sheeted quartz veins
Figure 3.54ai1713
CORBETT Structural control to the Browns Creek Au skarn
using data in figure 6.17.
3.3.3.3 Orthogonal extension

may provide for the development of both sheeted
quartz veins (figure 3.51; Goonumbla, Eastern
Australia), or stockwork quartz veins, the latter
formed either by the exploitation of pre-existing
conjugate fractures (Batu Hijau, Indonesia, figure **),
intersections of a principle fracture direction and an
orthogonal set (Golpu, Papua New Guinea, figure
5.14), or other vein sets.

A B
600000 E D
C
Silurian to Devonian cover Wombin Volcanics
Monzonite Goonumbla Volcanics
Monzodiorite Mines and prospects

630000 N 1715
Figure 3.55 Sheeted quartz vein formation at the Goonumbla

district, Eastern Australia.
-20m Gal B ougue
A - Sheeted quartz veins from the E26 porphyry in hand
gravity a n omaly
specimen.
E48 B - Sheeted quartz veins showing bornite mineralisation from
E48 porphyry.
C - Geological setting of the E 26 and E48 porphyry systems, from
E26
Owens et al., in press; and Corbett and Leach, unpubl. report,
1995.
D - Legend
transfer
A
Nash’s
structures
Hill
635000 N
Tenandra
Structural Corridor
0 20 km
CORBETT ai1714
3.3.3.4 Orthogonal compression, may promote

the formation of veins parallel to the direction of
B
principle stress (figure 3.51).
3.3.3.4.1 The Cadia Valley, Eastern Australia,

includes the Cadia Hill and Cadia East wallrock
porphyry sheeted veins and the Ridgeway vertically
attenuated spine-like porphyry, each with sheeted
and laminated veins aligned along the WNW trend
of the arc-normal Lachlan Transverse Zone (Wilson
et al., 2007 and references therein). A prominent
magnetic anomaly is associated with the elongation
of the interpreted buried magmatic source for
mineralisation (Newcrest Mining Staff, 1996), along
with magnetite skarn deposits. Only Ridgeway Figure 3.56 Cadia East wallrock porphyry.
displays overprinting intrusion and vein relationships A - Sheeted A type quartz veins with auriferous pyrite and Mo
and K-feldspar alteration selvages.
to form local stockwork veins where the NW veins B - Down-drop on veins-hosting fractures within the wall rock.

overprint minor radial veins (figure 3.51). However,
the vertically attenuated nature of the sheeted veins 3.3.3.4.2 Thrust fault control is not as common in
at the wallrock porphyry deposits, to well over 1000m porphyry-epithermal deposits as would be expected
at Cadia East (Wilson et al., 2007), is indicative of a in compressional magmatic arcs (above). Packages of
strongly dilatant structural setting which hosts Au-Mo shallow dipping quartz veins are locally recognised
wallrock porphyry mineralisation (figure 3.56) Some within dilatant flatter dipping portions of moderate
structural elements of the Lachlan Transverse Zone at dipping thrust faults (figure 3.57 A). Typical
Ridgeway and Cadia East represent early growth faults economic porphyry deposits develop as a result of
reactivated to host lodes and quartz vein packages, the migration of ore fluids from the magmatic source
similar to that recognised in pull-apart basin scenarios at depth to the mineralised intrusion apophysis, best
(figures 3.17 & 3.19), with down-drop indicative of in association with steep dipping dilatant sheeted
extension normal to the Lachlan Transverse structures. veins. Consequently, thrust controlled porphyry
mineralisation will be limited by the quality of any
connection between the magmatic source and setting
of the sheeted quartz veins. Shallow dipping sheeted
veins may also form decompression of batholitic
magma bodies during uplift and erosion (figure 3.57 D
& E, Rawbelle, Eastern Australia, Corbett et al., 2009).
A D
B D
Figure 3.57 Flat dipping porphyry quartz veins.

A - Thrust-hosted alteration zone, Ortiga, Argentina.
B - Flat dipping thrust with alteration and quartz veins, Hinoba-
an, Philippines.
C C - Flat dipping sheeted veins from B above.
D - Flat dipping batholith-hosted fracture/veins in outcrop,
Rawbelle, eastern Australia, from Corbett et al., 2009.
E - Flat dipping batholith-hosted fractures with alteration
selvages drill core from D above.

3.4 TRIGGERS FOR MINERALISATION The listric faults at Ladolam slid along the anhydrite
matrix brecciated at the top of a monzonite porphyry
Triggers initiate the rapid and forceful emplacement intrusion to facilitate rapid unroofing and then these
of intrusions and fluids responsible for vein same structures hosted later epithermal mineralisation
and breccia mineralisation which were formerly (figure 3.11), best developed in the steeper-dipping
constrained within fertile magma source rocks at portions of the listric faults portions (section 3.2.1.1).
depth during compression, and these dynamic events Consequently, at Ladolam, while porphyry intrusions
contribute towards the development of elevated metal were emplaced during volcanism, sector collapse
grades (Corbett and Leach, 1998). The formation of triggered the change from subeconomic porphyry to
quality mineralisation might therefore be promoted by economic epithermal Au mineralisation derived from
changes in the geological environment such as: the deeper magmatic source.
• Rapid depressurisation as:
• Sector collapse of volcanic edifices. 3.4.1.2 Thrust erosion has been proposed to account
• Thrust erosion. for distribution and timing of Au mineralisation at
• Rapid uplift and erosion of the magmatic Porgera and Mt Kare, Papua New Guinea (Corbett,
arc. 2005b). The Waruwari open pit carbonate-base
• Transient changes in the nature of convergence metal Au mineralisation is closely associated with
• From orthogonal compression to augite hornblende diorite intrusions of the Porgera
components of oblique deformation. Intrusion Complex formed at a high temperature
• Relaxation of orthogonal convergence, and characterised by dark Fe-rich high temperature
typically manifest as a change from sphalerite and local pyrrhotite at the Jez Lode (figure
compression to extension. 3.13; section 7.2.1.24.1; Corbett et al., 1995 and
Tectonic triggers may also responsible for changes in references therein). The overprinting epithermal
the nature of magmatism, including from intermediate quartz Au style quartz-gold-roscoelite bonanza grade
to felsic magmatism, commonly synchronous with Au mineralisation is best developed within Porgera
the onset of epithermal mineralisation (Coromandel Zone VII of the Romane Fault and was mainly mined
Peninsula, New Zealand; Japan; Far Eastern Russia), underground, although it extends into Waruwari open
locally overprinting deeper level epithermal (Porgera, pit. It formed at a low temperature and shallow crustal
Papua New Guinea) of porphyry intrusions (Bilimoia, level and is associated with post-carbonate-base metal
Papua New Guinea). However, an age gap is likely mineralisation felsite intrusions (figure 3.13; Corbett
in other instances where porphyry and epithermal et al., 1995; Corbett and Leach, 1998). Although
alteration and mineralisation are recognised at the there must be at least 600 m vertical distance between
same exploration projects (Woodlark Is. and Misima the crustal level of formation of the two intrusion
Is., Papua New Guinea). and mineralisation events, they are dated at roughly
the same age (Ronacher et al., 2002) and much the
3.4.1 Rapid depressurisation same age as the similar Mt Kare mineralisation, at
about 6.0 m.y. (Richards and Ledlie, 1993). Mt Kare
3.4.1.1 Sector collapse such as that recognised as the is located about 17 km from Porgera down plunge in
1980 Mt St Helens failure of a portion of a volcanic the direction of thrust movement in the fold-thrust
edifice (figure 3.11) may provide sufficient unroofing deformation of the Papua New Guinea Highlands.
to depressurise the rising high level magma and While Au mineralisation at Mt Kare is of a similar
promote an explosive volcanic eruption as well as carbonate-base metal Au and quartz-Au-roscoelite
brecciation and degassing of a buried magma source style and hosted within essentially similar Chim
at greater depth. At the Ladolam ore body, Lihir Is., Formation sediments, there are fewer intrusions and
Papua New Guinea, the Luise volcanic edifice, built the ore zones are less distinct. Detailed drilling at
up over the last 1 m.y. of the 3 m.y. period of island Mt Kare (figure 3.58) demonstrated mineralisation
building, underwent seaward sector collapse at about bottomed in a flat lying fault (Corbett, unpubl. reports
100,000 years ago (Wallace et al., 1983). The youthful 1996-7; Corbett, 2005b) which separates the upper
trace of the collapsed detritus derived from the mineralised sequence from a lower very incompetent
volcanic edifice failure is easily recognised within Luise unaltered brown shale. Thrust erosion is speculated
Harbor on the offshore seismic data on (figure 3.11). (Corbett, 2005b) to have removed a substantial body
Similar listric faults to those which participated in of rock (at least 600 m vertically) from above the
the Mt St Helens sector collapse have been identified active Porgera system to initiate a change from mafic
in drill ore and open pit exposures at the Ladolam to felsic magmatism and deep to shallow epithermal
Gold Mine (Corbett et al., 2001; Corbett, 2005b). Au mineralisation, and the thrust-off top of Porgera
occurs down-plunge at Mt Kare. The Dari Limestone
A B
C D
E
SE NW
LOOKING SOUTHWEST
18 m @ 1.8 g/t Au
sandstone 23 m @ 2.0 g/t Au
2800 m 19 m @ 1.0 g/t Au
and 5 18 m @ 1.4 g/t Au
siltstone 32 m @ 3.1 g/t Au
27 m @ 3.3 g/t Au
mudstone
puggy breccia 31
29
28
r ust
44 Th
mudstone
3 0 50 m
2700 m
4
Corbett 1447
Figure 3.58. Thrust erosion of the top of speculated to now occur as Mt Kare.
F
A - Slide looking Radar image shows Porgera within a coincident topographic
and magnetic circular interpreted (Corbett et al., 1995) to reflect a buried
intrusion source for the outcropping stocks at Waruawri (figure 3.13).
B - Felsite dyke with clast of an earlier carbonate-base metal vein.
C - Thrust in the Waruwari open pit.
D - Double thickness of Dari Limestone at Mts. Paim and Kajende, from
Waruwari, 1980.
E - Mt Kare cross-section.
F - Coarse grained augite hornblende diorite from a stock within in the early
Waruwari open pit mine.

which overlies the Chim Formation caps the eastern 3.4.2 Transient changes in the nature of
portion of Mt Kare but is absent from Porgera, convergence
although a thrusted double thickness of limestone
crops out a few km south of Porgera at Mt Paim and As suggested above, vein kinematics provide an
Mt Kajende (figure 3.58) and between Porgera and Mt indication of the tectonic conditions under which
Kare. porphyry and epithermal deposits were formed and
so are commonly consistent with regional scale trends.
3.4.1.3 Rapid uplift and erosion may unroof In the Philippines may NW veins or breccia are
a magma source in order to promote intrusion constrained between NS sinistral strike-slip structures
emplacement locally capped by magmatic related to sinistral movement on the Philippine Fault
hydrothermal breccias. Skewes and co-workers suggest (Lepanto & Dinkidi in Luzon or others in Mindanao).
in Central Chile in the late Miocene, major porphyry- Similarly, NE trending epithermal veins in the
related breccia events result from late stage rapid uplift Coromandel Peninsular, New Zealand are associated
and erosion due to the flattening of the subduction with country-scale dextral oblique plate movement,
angle (Skewes and Stern, 1994; Skewes et al., 2003). well developed at Thames (figure 3.20) and Waihi
(figure 3.31).
The Ok Tedi Porphyry Cu-Au in Papua New Guinea
is interpreted (above) to have been emplaced in By contrast, analyses of ore deposit veins suggests
conditions of rapid uplift and erosion (section many deposits formed in kinematic conditions
5.1.7), in a terrain characterised by substantial lateral contrary to the expected regional kinematics active
(65 mm/y) and vertical movement at a collisional in that region at that time and these discrepancies
plate boundary (figure 3.4). The spatially dominant may be consistent for many ore deposits throughout
intrusions, Sydney monzodiorite and Fubian districts across geological time. Consequently, working
monzonite porphyries are of 2.6 and 1.1-1.2 Ma in the SW Pacific rim Corbett and Leach (1998)
respectively in age, with the latter forming the main proposed a model that transient, and locally multiple,
host to mineralisation (Page, 1975; Rush and Seegers, changes from orthogonal to oblique convergence,
1990), yet this porphyry is well exposed by erosion. active for only a brief period of time, facilitated the
Assuming a depth of emplacement of 1-2 km to development of dilatant structural sites in which ore
the top of the porphyry now exposed by erosion, formation took place, but as only brief events are not
then even the wet tropics rate of 1-2 km per million readily apparent in other aspects of the geological
years or 1 m per 1,000 years represents a high rate of record. The change in the nature of convergence
erosion. Rather, is assumed many porphyry intrusions has provided a trigger for magma and ore fluids
are emplaced into settings of rapid uplift and erosion. constrained at depth in conditions of orthogonal
Similarly, elsewhere in Papua New Guinea younger convergence to be forcefully emplaced into the
epithermal deposits occur in proximity to porphyry dilatant structural sites. Intrusions may include
intrusions (Bilimoia, Woodlark Is., Misima Is.) in polyphasal spine-like porphyry bodies. Importantly,
response to rapid uplift and erosion. this model has the potential to resolve the space
problem associated with the emplacement of porphyry
The Copper Hill, Cu-Au porphyry deposit in Eastern intrusions within compressional magmatic arcs.
Australia (Hayward et al. (2015) interpret progressive The forceful emplacement contributes towards the
syn-mineral uplift and erosion accounts for development of porphyritic textures and rapid cooling
overprinting events of mineralisation and alteration of ore fluids to promote the development of elevated
emplaced at progressively shallower crustal levels as: metal grades. The link zones developed within cross-
NW trending low grade Cu-Au mineral associated with structures as individual dilatant sites, locally present
tonalite intrusion, followed by EW trending laminated as negative flower structures (figure 3.17) grading
and sheeted quartz veins associated with microdiorite vertically from surficial pull-apart basins downwards to
intrusion, higher crustal level carbonate-base metal Au fissure veins (which host epithermal veins) and splay
mineralisation typically within the same EW trending faults (which localise porphyry intrusions). Repeated
veins, overprinted by late stage low temperature fault activation and multiple fluid flow forms banded
laumontite + gypsum veins. epithermal veins.
In conclusion, transient changes in the nature of

convergence provide triggers to facilitate the rapid
emplacement of magma and ore fluids within dilatant
structural sites, to high crustal levels where rapid

cooling promotes metal deposition. This model A model proposed (Corbett and Leach, 1998) to
developed in the SW Pacific rim (Corbett and Leach, account for the general NW trend of many ore
1998) has since been found to apply to ore formation systems constrained between structures of the NS
in other magmatic arcs. structural grain in the Lachlan Orogen of eastern
Australia, utilised a transient change from orthogonal
3.4.2.1 Transient changes from orthogonal to to oblique compression as illustrated in (figure 3.59).
oblique compression In many cases the major structures may also represent
arc-parallel terrain boundaries or sutures, locally
The activation of conjugate-like cross structures present at corridors of individual structural elements
provides dilatant sites which host ore during transient such as fractures, faults or shears, with a reverse sense
changes in convergence commonly recognised as of movement during orthogonal compression. It is
changes from orthogonal compression to oblique possible, in response to orthogonal compression,
convergence (Corbett and Leach, 1998; Corbett, for a major arc-parallel structure to be offset by the
2012). Many ore systems appear to be localised by the cross-structures which then form link zones between
intersection of a cross structure with major structural segments of the major structure, or elements of
corridors such as arc-parallel sutures or terrain a structural corridor apparent at perturbations in
boundaries. For instance, the La Escondida porphyry throughgoing fractures (figure 3.59 A & B). Later
Cu appears to be localised within the Domeyko Fault transient changes to sinistral oblique convergence may
System by the intersection of a NW conjugate fracture reactivate the major structure or structural elements
(figures 3.2 & 3.37) and the Kelian epithermal Au with a strike-slip sense of movement (figure 3.59
deposit lies at the intersection of a Kalimantan Suture C). Correctly oriented perturbations may act as link
and a NS structure, which facilitated formation of zones to facilitate the transfer of strike-slip movement
a pull-apart basin (figure 3.24). Intersections of NS between elements of the structural corridor and
cross structures with the Lachlan Transverse Zone become dilated in that process (figure 3.579C;
no doubt also play a role in the localisation of the section 3.2.2). Dilatant sites such as these represent
individual Cadia Valley porphyry-related deposits. common sites for the forceful emplacement of
porphyry intrusions and development of structurally
A B C D
σ1 σ1
σ1
link
zone dilation compression
CORBETT ai1717
Figure 3.59 Formation of dilatant ore-hosting sites by the activation of cross structures during transient changes in the nature of
convergence.
A – Typical structural scenario characterised by a major structure, here an arc-parallel terrain boundary with a reverse sense of
movement, and conjugate-style cross structures in conditions of arc subduction-related compression.
B – Offset of the major structure by cross fracture and development of a link zone during compression.
C – Transient change to oblique convergence, here suitably oriented to facilitate reactivation of the former reverse faults and strike-slip
structures and development of a dilatant site in the link zone suitable of hosting porphyry or vein emplacement.
D – Non-suitably oriented convergence results in the development of anti-dilatant sites which might be manifest as folds, domes or
thrusts with lesser potential to host mineralisation than C.

controlled epithermal veins. Alternatively, other link 3.4.2.1.2 In Chile, dextral movement on the Domeyko
structures, including those developed by relaxation Fault system (figure 3.2), evidenced by the splay
of convergence, may be oriented in a anti-dilatant fault and parallel veins is interpreted to account for
or compressional orientations as sites of dome or development of the Chuquicamata porphyry and
thrust fault formation (figure 3.59 D), the latter only also localisation of the giant La Escondida porphyry
locally associated associated with lesser ore formation within a link structure between individual fault
(section 3.2.3.3). elements (figures 3.36 & 3.37). As the Domeyko
Fault system is widely regarded as a terrain boundary
3.4.2.1.1 In the Lachlan Orogen, Eastern Australia with a reverse sense of movement, transient dextral
many ore systems (figure 3.3) were interpreted sense of movement may have provided a trigger to
(Corbett and Leach, 1998) to have formed in initiate porphyry emplacement and mineralisation.
conditions of sinistral movement on the roughly Furthermore, the El Peñon low sulphidation
NS structural grain of the district (Mineral Hill, epithermal deposit and La Coipa and El Indio high
Sofala, Cowal, the entire Cobar district in the data sulphidation epithermal deposits (figure 3.23) are
of Glen, 1987; Browns Creek, skarn-sheeted veins; also to have developed in response to episodes of
all the deposits along the Gilmore suture such as dextral transpression on the NS structural grain of
Gidgingung, Adelong; West Wyalong, etc). This the district. Thus in Chile, repeated changes from
sinistral sense of movement continues north in the orthogonal compression, to dextral transpression,
Lachlan Origin of Queensland (Gympie goldfield; are interpreted herein to have provided triggers for
Corbett and Leach, 1998 and elsewhere in that region) porphyry and epithermal ore formation. The West
and is also recognised as alternating events in Triassic Fault (Falla Oeste) formed as part of the Domeyko
sedimentary basins (Babaahmadi et al., 2015). Most Fault System, displays complex movement over
reconstructions suggest the arc displayed an overall time and space, as some workers (Dilles et al., 1997;
orthogonal character in the Ordovician (Glen, 2013 Tomlinson and Blanco, 1997) record sinistral sense of
and references therein; pers commum, 2013), although movement at Chuquicamata and El Abra, although
potential for sinistral convergence is included in the ore bodies such as MM are unlikely to be faulted off
recent model of Cayley (2015). Nevertheless, the portions of Chuquicamata.
difficultly of any estimates for the conditions of
formation of such old and subsequently deformed
arcs cannot be overlooked. The transient change from
orthogonal compression to sinistral transpression was
provided as the trigger for the onset of mineralisation,
repeatedly active over geological time (Corbett and
Leach, 1998).
More on this topic to come.


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3 STRUCTURE precious metal grades, and are most easily discernible

on long sections as plots of width x grade, commonly

arc parallel structures σ1

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 1

2 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

La Cobar was folded above the

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 3

4 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

The Jurassic Deseado Massif of Argentine

gravity high dyke

gravity low Proteozoic underlain by

Figure 3.6 Conjugate fractures in north Queensland influence of

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 5

* bonanza normal hydrothermal

6 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Figure 3.8 Listric faults at the Arcata Au-Ag mine, Peru.

Figure 3.9 Listric faults at Corani, Peru. D

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 7

8 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 9

10 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

line of Feldspar porphyries

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 11

4.8 m @ 22 g/t Au + 97 g/t Ag

Figure 3.13 Hanging wall setting of the Tolukuma vein, Papua

12 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

In settings of simple oblique (strike-slip) movement

Negative flower structures (figure 3.17) provide a

Figure 3.16 The terminology used herein to describe subsidiary

Figure 3.17 Illustration of a negative flower structure as described herein.

14 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Figure 3.18 Small scale fault jogs evident as fill of dilatant

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 15

DASHT-E BAYAZ, IRAN EARTHQUAKE link or subsidiary

16 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

ers Lookout Rocks

Day alteration zone

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 17

18 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Figure 3.22 Golden plateau, Link structure, Cracow goldfield, SE Queensland.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 19

continues CORBETT ai1687

20 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 21

22 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

shape due to dipping

ore shoot pitches pit F

Figure 3.25 The development of the Plaza de Gallos ore

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 23

Trans Sumatran Fault

6S Way Linggo District Sumba

24 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Figure 3.27 Small scale flexures.

Corbett Short Course Manual Section 3 25

high grade ore

σ1 local laminated quartz

from the mapping multiple of flexures, illustrates

26 Section 3 Corbett Short Course Manual

Figure 3.29 Flexure-hosted ore shoot mineralisation at Vera Nancy, Australia.

3.2.2.5.1 The Waihi Mine, New Zealand, provides