EARTH SCIENCE

b) oceanic-continental
- Volcanic arc
Layers of the Earth
- Trenches
 Crust
c) oceanic-oceanic
- outermost layer (thinnest)
- Volcanic island chains
 Mantle
- Mid-ocean ridges
- Largest layer (rocky)
- Contains the:
 Transform fault boundary
- Lithosphere (upper)
- Asthenosphere (lower) - plates slide past each other
 Outer core
- Liquid material
- Molten iron and nickel Convection Currents
 Inner core
- These currents cause hot
- Solid material material to rise and cool
- Solid iron and nickel material to sink, creating a
cycle of rising and sinking
currents within the mantle.
 Continental Crust
- thick, less dense, old
 Mantle Convection - is the process of
 Oceanic Crust
thermal convection in the Earth's
- thin, dense, young
mantle, where hot rocks and magma
move due to temperature differences.
Tectonic Plates Theory
- a theory that describes the
 Asthenosphere - a soft and less rigid
Earth's lithosphere, as being
upper part of the mantle.
divided into several rigid
plates.
 Ridge Push - the weight of the raised
 Tectonic Plates - are large, rigid
ridge at a divergent boundary pushes
pieces of the Earth's lithosphere that
the older oceanic crust towards the
fit together like a puzzle.
trench at a subduction zone.
 Continental Drift Theory
 Slab Pull - occurs when a heavier
- Alfred Wegener
subducting plate pulls down the
 Seafloor Spreading Theory
trailing slab into a subduction zone
- Harry Hess and Robert Dietz
Seismic waves
Plate boundaries
- Energy that travels through
- are the regions where tectonic
the earth
plates meet.
-
Two types of waves:
 Subduction - the process where one
 Body waves
tectonic plate is forced beneath
- Travelling through the interior
another plate into the mantle.
of the earth
o Primary waves (P waves)
a) Divergent boundary
o Secondary waves (S waves)
- plates move apart
 Surface waves
b) Convergent boundary
- Travelling through the crust
- plates move towards each
other
o Love waves - side to side
a) continental-continental
o Rayleigh waves - up and down, side
- Rift valley to side
- Mountains
Volcanoes  The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into
- Also occur when to plates three eras:
meet 1. Paleozoic era (prehistoric
life) – the existence of marine
Types of volcanoes: invertebrates; the development
(Classified according to shape) of marine life.
 Cinder cone volcano 2. Mesozoic era (middle life) –
 Shield volcano the existence of largest
 Composite volcano creatures.
3. Cenozoic era (recent life) –
(Classified according to activity) the existence of warm-blooded
 Active volcano animals and humans.
- have recent history of
eruptions  Period - Eras are further subdivided
 Dormant volcano into periods
- erupted but are now quiet and  Epochs - Periods are further divided
inactive into epochs, which even shorter
 Extinct volcano intervals of time.
- no records of eruptions
Layers of the Atmosphere
Earthquakes - The atmosphere consists of
- are seismic events caused by the layers of gases that surround
sudden release of energy in the the Earth.
Earth's crust. - Most abundance gases are
 Epicenter - location at the surface oxygen (21%) and nitrogen
where earthquake starts (78%).
 Hypocenter - location below the - The earth is divided into 5
surface atmospheric layers
 Focus - actual location of maximum 5 Layers:
movement
 Fault - surface where they slip
 Foreshock - smaller earthquakes as
larger earthquake follows
 Mainshock - main earthquake,
largest
 Aftershock - smaller earthquakes  Troposphere - layer closest to the
occur afterwards surface of Earth. Nearly all life and
 Magnitude - size of the earthquake all weather occur in this layer
 Seismographs - instruments that  Stratosphere - cold layer but ozone
record earthquakes warms up the upper region of this
 Seismogram - record they make layer by absorbing the UV rays heat.
 Mesosphere - It’s the coldest layer of
Geological time scale the atmosphere that protects earth
 a timetable of the earth’s history. from meteoroids
 Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago  Thermosphere - hottest layer and
 Developed by Giovanni Avduina where space begins.
 Exosphere - The exosphere is the
Divisions of Geologic Time farthest layer extending from the
 Pre-Cambrian Super Eon - largest thermosphere into outer space
unit of time
 Era - subdivisions of eons and  Ozone layer - A protective layer in
represent significant intervals of the stratosphere that blocks harmful
time. UV rays.
 BIOLOGY reactions – breaking down fats and
carbohydrates.
Cell
- basic unit of life

Animal cell 4. Ribosomes

 It is made up of RNA and other protein. It
o Cell Membrane main function is for synthesizing proteins.

▪ It is the outermost layer in the animal cell.

5. Vesicles
 They carry materials in and out of the cell.
6. Peroxisomes
▪ It keeps all the parts of the cell inside.  They absorb nutrients that cell has
acquired.
▪ It controls what enters and exits the cell 7. Chromosomes
such as water, nutrients, waste and  Located in the nucleus and is made up of
protects and supports the cell. DNA. Contain instructions for traits &
characteristics.
o Cytoplasm 8. Nucleolus
 It is located inside the nucleus and
▪ It is large and fluid-filled
contains RNA to build protein. It is
(called protoplasm) surrounded by a fluid called nucleoplasm.
▪ It is where membrane-bound organelles 9. Vacuole
 The vacuole stores food or nutrients a cell
are located. might need to survive.
o Nucleus

▪ It controls and regulates all cell activities. Plant Cell

o Cell Wall
▪ It is the control center of the cell and it
contains the cell’s DNA ▪ Allow materials like water and nutrients;
waste, oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass to
Organelles Found Only in an Animal Cells and from the cell membrane.
These organelles are found in animal cells o Cell Membrane
but are not present in plant cells.
1. Centrosomes ▪ It is semi-permeable and controls what
It is a microtubule-organizing center found enters and exits the cell such as water,
near the nuclei of animal cells. The nutrients and waste and thereby protects
centrosome replicates itself before a cell and supports the cell.
divides. o Chloroplast
2. Lysosome
They transport undigested material to cell ▪ It is only found in plant cells. They are
membrane for removal.
responsible for photosynthesis.

▪ It is color green because of the pigment

Organelles Found in Both Animal and Plant Cell
1. Endoplasmic reticulum called chlorophyll.
o Cytoplasm
 It is referred to as the “highway” of the cell
that moves materials around to other parts. ▪ It is large and fluid-filled (called
2. Golgi bodies
 It packages, stores, and secretes energy. protoplasm)
3. Mitochondria ▪ It is jelly-like substance compose of
 the “Powerhouse” of the cell. It also
mainly water as well as dissolved nutrients
produces energy through chemical
o Nucleus
  carries a copy of the genetic information out
▪ It is located in the cytoplasm of the cell. of the nucleus

▪ It controls and regulates all cell activities. There are 3 types of RNA:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
▪ It is the control center of the cell and it - transcribes the DNA nucleotide bases to RNA
contains the cell’s DNA. nucleotide bases
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- binds the mRNA and tRNA to ensure that codons
are translated correctly
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- translates the mRNA codons into the correct
amino acids
Organelles Found Only in an Animal Cells
There are two stages of protein synthesis:
1. Plastids 1. Transcription
These are double-membraned organelles 2. Translation
found mainly in plants.
Types: Important Codons:
a. Chloroplasts Start Codons: AUG (starts the translation stage);
b. Chromoplasts Stop Codons: UAG, UGA, UAA (stops the
c. Leucoplasts translation stage)

2. Vacuoles
It stores food, enzymes, and other materials Biodiversity
needed by the cell.  Term used to describe the number
and variety of life found on Earth.
Three types: genetic, species, and
DNA ecosystem.
 Deoxyribonucleic acid A. Genetic diversity - variation of genes
 It is like a blueprint that determines how within species.
living things develop and function. B. Species diversity - variety and
 located inside a chromosome in the nucleus abundance of species within a region.
of the cell. C. Ecosystem diversity - the variation
among groups of organisms in different
 Double Helix is the srtucture of DNA
physical settings.
 Gene - A segment of DNA that carries the  Population - the number of
instructions for a specific trait or organisms of the same species living
characteristic. in the same region
 Communities - composed of different
 Chromosome - Structures made of DNA and organisms living in the same region.
proteins found in the cell nucleus. Humans  Biodiversity scale - a scale of the
have 23 pairs of chromosomes. diversity of plant and animal species
in a given area.
 Nucleotide - The building blocks of DNA,  Limiting factors - lack of particular
consisting of a sugar molecule, a phosphate resources like the food, water, and
group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, space.
thymine, cytosine, or guanine).  Carrying capacity - Increasing the
number of population size that an
RNA area can support
 Ribonucleic acid
Evidence of Evolution
 carries genetic information from DNA and is
I. Evidence of Fossil
involved in the production of proteins.
II. Comparative Anatomy
 - Homologous and Analogous Structure
 Homologous - similar structure but
different function
 Analogous - different structure but similar
function
III. Vestigial Structure - lost their original
function through time
IV. Embryology - comparing the embryonic
development of different

Theories of Evolution
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck - a French
naturalist was the first evolutionist who
believed that organisms change over time.

He developed three theories:

1. Theory of Need - suggests that
organisms change to adapt to their
environment, leading to size increase
or function changes.
2. Theory of Use and Disuse - states
that unused organs disappear while
used ones develop.
3. Theory of Acquired Characteristics -
body changes due to an organism’s
behavior

Charles Darwin - his theory of evolution,

based on natural selection. Outlined in his
book;

 On the Origins of Species - explains

that giraffes with longer necks
survived due to their ability to reach CHEMISTRY
food on tall trees. Short-necked
giraffes were eliminated as they Mixtures
couldn't access higher vegetation  Homogeneous - uniform
during food scarcity.  Heterogeneous - non-uniform
 Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection
was inspired by his observations Matter
during his voyage to the Galapagos  Anything that occupies space and
Islands. He noted finches with mass.
different beak structures adapted to o Solid
various food sources on different  Definite shape and volume
islands.  Closely packed together in fixed
 Natural Selection - The process position
which organisms that are better  Strong attractive force
adapted to their environment tend to o Liquid
survive and reproduce more  Definite volume
successfully  less attractive force
o Gas
  Gas particles are far from each other carbon and hydrogen atoms; forming
 Weak attractive force carbon dioxide and water as the products.
General equation: CnHn + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Gas Laws
 Boyle's law 6. Acid-Base Reaction or Neutralization
 Pressure and volume are inversely Reaction - special kind of double
proportional displacement reaction that takes place
 P1V1 = P2V2 when an acid and a base react.
 Charles' law General equation: Acid + Base → Salt +
 Temperature and volume are directly Water
proportional HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H20
 V1/T1 = V2/T2
 Gay Lussac's law
 Pressure and temperature are
directly proportional Law of Conservation of Mass
 P1/T1 = P2/T2 - The mass of all reactants
 Combined gas law must be equal to the mass of
 P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 the products
 Avogadro's law
 Volume is proportional to amount of  Chemical equation - a symbolic
molecules representation of a chemical
 V1/n1 = V2/n2 reaction.
 Reactants - substances that serve as
Chemical Reaction the starting material to form new
 chemical reaction is the process substances in a chemical reaction.
where a material is transformed into  Products - substances that were
a new one, possessing a new formed from the starting materials during
composition. the reaction process.

TYPES of CHEMICAL REACTION Chemical Equation:

1. Combination or Synthesis - a reaction H2 + O2 → H20 = 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
when two or more elements combine 4=2x2 - H - 2x2=4
to form a single product. 2 - O -1x2= 2
General equation: A + B → AB

2. Decomposition - a single reactant breaks Atom

down into simpler ones.  smallest unit of matter that retains the
General equation: AB → A + B identity of the substance.

3. Single Displacement (Replacement) – Subatomic particles:

capable of replacing one of the atoms of a  Electron
given compound.  negative
General equation: AB + C → AC + B  outside the nucleus
 Proton
4. Double Displacement (Replacement) – a
 positive
reaction in which ions get exchanged
 In the nucleus
between two reactants, resulting to the
formation of a new  Neutron
compound.  In the nucleus
General equation: AB + CD → AD + CB  Nucleus - at the center of the atom

5. Combustion (Burning) Reaction – a Elements & Compounds

reaction wherein oxygen gas combines with  Elements
a hydrocarbon; a compound containing  made up of atom or atoms of the same
kind.
 They are the simplest type of matter and
cannot be broken down into components.
 Each element is made entirely from one
type of atom.
 Compounds
 are combination of two or more elements
 can be broken down into its components
through a chemical process and formed
when two elements are combined.
 like water which is a combination of
Hydrogen and Oxygen

Biomolecules
 Any numerus substance that are produced
by cells and living organisms
Four major types:
1. Carbohydrates
- source of energy for the body
1. Monosaccharides (one) - simplest sugar and
basic subunit of carbo
2. Disaccharides - consist of two
monosaccharides that are chemically
combined
3. Polysaccharides - contains numerous
monosaccharide
1. Lipids
 any organic compounds that are soluble in
water
 Function storing energy
1. Nucleic acid
 Are genetic material of the cell and are
composed of recurring monomeric units
called nucleotides
1. Proteins
 known as poly peptide, polymers of amino
acid
 Functions: enzymes, pigments and steroid
hormones
 Sources of Light

Light
 A type of radiation that is visible to the
human eye

Natural light
 Light produced or emitted naturally
Ex.
1. Sun
2. Moon
3. Stars
4. Fireflies
5. Jellyfish
PHYSICS 6. Glow-worm

Electromagnetic wave (EM wave) Artificial light

 a wave that is created as a result of  light made or produced by humans
vibrations between an electric field  man-made
and magnetic field Subdivided by:
 They travel in a vacuum at a speed of  Electric-based sources
3x108 m/s.  devices that emit light through the use of
electricity
 Electromagnetic spectrum  Ex: flashlight & bulbs
lowest frequency to highest frequency:
 Combustion-based sources
 Radio waves
 produce light through the process of
 Microwaves
 Infrared combustion or burning
 Visible light  Ex: bonfires
 Ultraviolet
 X-ray Scalar and Vector Quantities
 Gamma ray
 Scalar
 Have magnitude only
 Described by a numerical value and units
 Do not have direction
Examples:
1. Mass
2. Speed
3. Temperature
4. Energy
5. Density
6. Time
 Energy is directly proportional to the 7. Volume
frequency equivalently, inversely
proportional to the wavelength Vector
 The higher the frequency, the higher  Have both magnitude and direction
its energy. Examples:
 As wavelengths get smaller, 1. Displacement
frequencies and energy get higher 2. Velocity
3. Acceleration
4. Force
Characteristics of images formed by a
5. Momentum
plane mirror:
6. Weight 1. Image is virtual;
7. Gravitational field 2. Same size as the object;
3. Same orientation as the object; and
4. Same distance from the mirror as the
object.

Reflection on Spherical Mirrors

 Most curved mirrors are called
spherical mirrors because their
shape follows the surface of a sphere.

Images
Mirror
 A mirror is a reflective surface that
Refraction
 Bending of light when it travels allows light to bounce off its surface,
creating a visual representation or
Reflection projection of an object known as an
 Bouncing of light rays when it hits a surface. image.

Two types of mirror:

Types of Reflection of Light

 Specular/Regular reflection.  Concave mirror (converging)

Reflection of smooth surface - a converging mirror, reflecting
 Diffused/Irregular Reflection. surface that curves inwards.
Reflection of rough surface  Convex mirror (diverging)
- a diverging mirror, has an
outer bulging surface that
Reflection in Plane Mirror reflects light.
 When light hits an object, every part
of that object reflects light in all Lenses
direction  also known as a diverging mirror,
has an outer bulging surface that
reflects light.
There are two types of images formed by
reflecting surfaces. Two types of lenses:

o Real Image
 Concave Lens (diverging)
1. formed when light rays converge
- thinner at the center and
2. upright
thicker at the edges.
3. inverted with respect to the object.
- It diverges light rays, virtual
4. formed by a concave mirror.
and upright images.
- negative
o Virtual Image
Uses:
1. formed when light rays diverge
o Concave Lenses and Myopia
2. inverted
(nearsightedness) Correction
3. erect with respect to the object.
o Concave Lenses and Myopia
4. The image of an object formed by a
convex mirror. (nearsightedness) Correction
  Convex Lens (converging)
- thicker at the center and
thinner at the edges.
- It converges light rays,
creating real and inverted
images.
- positive
Uses:
o Microscope
o Camera lenses
o Human eye analogies