Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with

the instantaneous values of the modulating signa

Need for Modulation

Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel longer
distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier wave,
which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.
Advantages of Modulation
The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced. The
range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel a distance without getting
distorted.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication
systems.

 Reduction of antenna size

 No signal mixing
 Increased communication range
 Multiplexing of signals
 Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
 Improved reception quality

Amplitude Modulation

“The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information
varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at each instant. This can be well
explained by the following figures.
The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the
carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the last one is
the resultant modulated wave.
It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are interconnected
with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This
imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message
signal.

Mathematical Expressions
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.

Time-domain Representation of the Waves

Let the modulating signal be,

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)
and the carrier signal be,

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)
Where,

Am
and Ac
are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.

fm
and fc
are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.

Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be

s(t)=[Ac+Amcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
(Equation 1)

Modulation Index
A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an
attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of
modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.

Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.

s(t)=Ac[1+(AmAc)cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
⇒s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
(Equation 2)

Where, μ
is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am
and Ac
. Mathematically, we can write it as

μ=AmAc
(Equation 3)

Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when
the amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known.

Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1.
We can use this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and
minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave are known.

Let Amax
and Amin
be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt)
is 1.

⇒Amax=Ac+Am
(Equation 4)

We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt)
is -1.

⇒Amin=Ac−Am
(Equation 5)

Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.

Amax+Amin=Ac+Am+Ac−Am=2Ac
⇒Ac=Amax+Amin2
(Equation 6)

Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.

Amax−Amin=Ac+Am−(Ac−Am)=2Am
⇒Am=Amax−Amin2
(Equation 7)

The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.

AmAc=(Amax−Amin)/2(Amax+Amin)/2
⇒μ=Amax−AminAmax+Amin
(Equation 8)

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The
modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage
of Modulation. We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the
modulation index value with 100.

For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the
percentage of modulation should be 100%.
For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the
modulated output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation.
Such a wave is called as an under-modulated wave.

Under Modulated Wave

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be
an over-modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

Over Modulated Wave

As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180o phase
reversal, which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an
over-modulated wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of AM Wave
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the
signal. Mathematically, we can write it as

BW=fmax−fmin
Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
⇒s(t)=Ac cos (2πfct)+Ac μ cos(2πfct) cos(2πfmt)
⇒s(t)=Ac cos (2πfct)+Ac μ 2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Acμ2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]
Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency
fc
, upper sideband frequency fc+fm
and lower sideband frequency fc−fm
Here,

fmax=fc+fm
and fmin=fc−fm
Substitute, fmax
and fmin
values in bandwidth formula.

BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)
⇒BW=2fm
Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice
the frequency of the modulating signal.
 single tone amplitude modulation .

. amplitude modulation in which the modulating or baseband signal consists of only one
(single) frequency i.e. modulation is done by a single frequency or tone. This type of amplitude
modulation is known as single tone amplitude modulation .
Let the carrier signal be :

c(t) = A cos ωct ……………….(2)

We know that the general expression for AM signal is :

s(t) = [A + x(t)] cos ωct

or,

s(t) = A cos ωct + x(t) cos ωct ………………..(3)

Putting the value of x(t), we get

s(t) = A cos ωct + Vm cos ωmt cos ωct

or,

s(t) = A cos ωct + Vm cos ωct cos ωmt

or,

In this case, we have

|x(t)|max = Vm

Therefore,

Putting this value ma of in equation (4) we get

s(t) = A cos ωct [ 1+ ma cos ωmt ] …………….(5)
This is the desired expression for single-tone modulated signal.
The expression in equation (4) may further be simplified to observe the frequency components
present in AM signal.

s(t) = A cos ωct [ 1+ ma cos ωmt ]

or,

s(t) = A cos ωct + A . ma cos ωct cos ωmt

or,

Derive an expression for Single Tone Amplitude Modulated Wave and draw its frequency
spectrum
AMPLITUDE MODULATION BY SASMITA NOVEMBER 24, 2015

Single Tone Amplitude Modulation (AM) Definition

Till now, we discussed amplitude modulation in which we assumed that baseband or modulating
signal is a random signal which contains a large number of frequency components. This means
that a carrier signal (fixed frequency signal) is modulated by a large number of frequency
components.

In this section we shall discuss amplitude modulation in which the modulating or baseband
signal consists of only one (single) frequency i.e. modulation is done by a single frequency or
tone. This type of amplitude modulation is known as single tone amplitude modulation .
Mathematical Expression
Let us consider a single tone modulating signal as :

x(t) = Vm cos ωmt ……………….(1)

which contains a single frequency ωm.
Signal x(t) may be a voltage signal or a current signal. Here, we have assumed that x(t) is a
voltage signal with maximum amplitude equal to Vm.
Let the carrier signal be :

c(t) = A cos ωct ……………….(2)

We know that the general expression for AM signal is :

s(t) = [A + x(t)] cos ωct

or,

s(t) = A cos ωct + x(t) cos ωct ………………..(3)

Putting the value of x(t), we get

s(t) = A cos ωct + Vm cos ωmt cos ωct

or,

s(t) = A cos ωct + Vm cos ωct cos ωmt

or,

In this case, we have

|x(t)|max = Vm
Therefore,

Putting this value ma of in equation (4) we get

s(t) = A cos ωct [ 1+ ma cos ωmt ] …………….(5)
This is the desired expression for single-tone modulated signal.

The expression in equation (4) may further be simplified to observe the frequency components
present in AM signal.

s(t) = A cos ωct [ 1+ ma cos ωmt ]

or,

s(t) = A cos ωct + A . ma cos ωct cos ωmt

or,

Frequency Spectrum
With the help of these frequency components, we can plot the frequency spectrum of single-tone
amplitude modulated (AM) wave . Figure 1 shows the one-sided frequency spectrum of single-
toned AM wave.
 Fig 1: Single-sided frequency spectrum of single-tone AM wave

Power Calculations of AM Wave

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
GENERATION OF AM WAVE
High-level modulators:

A high-level modulator is one that modulates a circuit with a high power section,
typically the final RF amplifier.
When the modulating voltage is delivered to the collector/plate circuit of the final power
amplifier, high-level modulation occurs.
It has the advantage of not requiring linear amplifiers for the RF amplification stages
after AM modulation.
Low-level modulators

In a Low-level Amplitude Modulation system, modulation is done at the low power of

the carrier and modulating signal. Hence, the output power of modulation is low. As a
result, power amplifiers are needed to increase the signal to the required level of power.
 A low-level AM modulator is one that applies modulation to the transmitter's low power
stages, typically in the RF generation stages or via the digital signal processing areas.
The disadvantage of this approach is that the RF stages require linear amplification.
Low-level modulation has the benefit of using less modulating signal strength to obtain a
high percentage of modulation.

 The generating circuits for AM wave are called as amplitude modulator circuits.
 The modulator circuits are classified into two categories:
1. Low level modulation.
2. High level modulation.

Now observe the image carefully-

This block diagram shows 3 main blocks-
#Low level AM modulator
#Wideband power amplifier and
#RF carrier oscillator
in the diagram that low level AM modulator has two inputs. At its first input we apply the
modulating signal source (message signal) and it's second input is supplied by the RF carrier
oscillator.
Since it is low level amplitude modulation therefore before applying the modulating signal to the
low level AM modulator, we do not amplify it. In the same way, RF carrier is also not amplified.
Therefore you observe here that in low level AM modulation, neither the modulating signal nor
the RF carrier is amplified before applying to low level AM modulator.

But when we get the amplitude modulated wave at the output of this low level AM modulator,
then it is amplified by the wide band power amplifier.
This wideband power amplifier amplifies the power level of the amplitude modulated wave. The
wideband is used to preserve the sidebands of the amplitude modulated wave and then it is
transmitted with the help of this antenna.
High Level Amplitude Modulation (Block Diagram)
The image below is the block diagram of high level amplitude modulation.

The main building blocks of high level amplitude modulation include-

#Wideband power amplifier
#RF carrier oscillator
#Narrow band power amplifier and
#High level AM modulator

As this is high level amplitude modulation, therefore it uses a high level AM modulator which
operates at high level. Before applying the message signal and the carrier wave to the high-level
AM modulator, both of these signals are amplified.
The modulating signal is power amplified by the wide band power amplifier to preserve the
sidebands of the modulating signal but the RF carrier is amplified by the narrow band power
amplifier as the carrier wave has fixed frequency. Therefore narrowband power amplifier is
sufficient for its amplification.
Now after amplification of both the signals, they are applied to the high level AM modulator.
Then this amplitude modulated signal is transmitted by the antenna.
The example of high level Amplitude Modulation is the collector modulation method.

So this was all about the generation of amplitude modulation with the help of low level
amplitude modulator and high level amplitude modulator.
Square Law Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

Square Modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t)

and Acos(2πfct)
respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer
block produces an output, which is the addition of the modulating and the carrier signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as
The standard equation of AM wave is

s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)
Where, Ka
is the amplitude sensitivity

By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard equation of AM wave,
we will get the scaling factor as k1
and the amplitude sensitivity ka as 2k2/k1
.