Module4 OS
Module4 OS
Module4 OS
MODULE 4
Memory Management
Text Book:
1) Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne: Operating Systems Principles,
8th Edition, Wiley – India.
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● The base and limit registers can be loaded only by the operating system, which
uses a special privileged instruction. Since privileged instructions can be executed
only in kernel mode only the operating system can load the base and limit
registers.
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● The address generated by the CPU is a logical address, whereas the memory
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Dynamic Loading
● This can be used to obtain better memory-space utilization.
● A routine is not loaded until it is called.
Advantages:
1. An unused routine is never loaded.
2. Useful when large amounts of code are needed to handle infrequently occurring
cases.
3. Although the total program-size may be large, the portion that is used (and hence
loaded) may be much smaller.
4. Does not require special support from the OS.
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● With static linking library modules get fully included in executable modules,
wasting both disk space and main memory usage, because every program that
included a certain routine from the library would have to have their own copy of
that routine linked into their executable code.
● With dynamic linking, however, only a stub is linked into the executable
module, containing references to the actual library module linked in at run time.
● The stub is a small piece of code used to locate the appropriate memory-
resident library-routine.
● This method saves disk space, because the library routines do not need to be
fully included in the executable modules, only the stubs.
● An added benefit of dynamically linked libraries (DLLs, also known as shared
libraries or shared objects on UNIX systems) involves easy upgrades and
updates.
Shared libraries
● A library may be replaced by a new version, and all programs that reference the
library will automatically use the new one.
● Version info. is included in both program & library so that programs won't
accidentally execute incompatible versions.
Swapping
Disadvantages:
1. Context-switch time is fairly high.
2. If we want to swap a process, we must be sure that it is
completely idle. Two solutions:
i) Never swap a process with pending I/O.
ii) Execute I/O operations only into OS buffers.
Example:
Assume that the user process is 10 MB in size and the backing store is a standard hard disk
with a transfer rate of 40 MB per second.
The actual transfer of the 10-MB process to or from main
memory takes 10000 KB/40000 KB per second = 1/4
second
= 250 milliseconds.
Assuming that no head seeks are necessary, and assuming an average latency of 8
milliseconds, the swap time is 258 milliseconds. Since we must both swap out and swap in,
the total swap time is about 516 milliseconds.
2. Memory Allocation
Two types of memory partitioning are:
1. Fixed-sized partitioning
2. Variable-sized
partitioning 1. Fixed-
sized Partitioning
2. Variable-sized Partitioning
● The OS keeps a table indicating which parts of memory are available and which
parts are occupied.
● A hole is a block of available memory. Normally, memory contains a set of holes
of various sizes.
● Initially, all memory is available for user-processes and considered one large hole.
● When a process arrives, the process is allocated memory from a large hole.
● If we find the hole, we allocate only as much memory as is needed and keep the
remaining memory available to satisfy future requests.
Three strategies used to select a free hole from the set of available holes:
1. First Fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough. Searching can start either at
the beginning of the set of holes or at the location where the previous first-fit
search ended.
2. Best Fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough. We must search the entire
list, unless the list is ordered by size. This strategy produces the smallest leftover
hole.
3. Worst Fit: Allocate the largest hole. Again, we must search the entire list, unless
it is sorted by size. This strategy produces the largest leftover hole.
First-fit and best fit are better than worst fit in terms of decreasing time and storage
utilization.
3. Fragmentation
1. Internal Fragmentation
The general approach is to break the physical-memory into fixed-sized blocks
and allocate memory in units based on block size.
The allocated-memory to a process may be slightly larger than the requested-
memory.
The difference between requested-memory and allocated-memory is called
internal fragmentation i.e. Unused memory that is internal to a partition.
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2. External Fragmentation
External fragmentation occurs when there is enough total memory-space to
satisfy a request but the available-spaces are not contiguous. (i.e. storage is
fragmented into a large number of small holes).
Both the first-fit and best-fit strategies for memory-allocation suffer from
external fragmentation.
Statistical analysis of first-fit reveals that given N allocated blocks, another 0.5 N
blocks will be lost to fragmentation. This property is known as the 50-percent
rule.
Paging
Paging is a memory-management scheme.
This permits the physical-address space of a process to be non-contiguous.
This also solves the considerable problem of fitting memory-chunks of varying
sizes onto the backing-store.
Traditionally: Support for paging has been handled by hardware.
Recent designs: The hardware & OS are closely integrated.
The basic method for implementing paging involves breaking physical memory
into fixed-sized blocks called frames and breaking logical memory into blocks of
the same size called pages.
When a process is to be executed, its pages are loaded into any available memory
frames from the backing store.
The backing store is divided into fixed-sized blocks that are of the same size as
the memory frames.
The page size (like the frame size) is defined by the hardware.
The size of a page is typically a power of 2, varying between 512 bytes and 16
MB per page, depending on the computer architecture.
The selection of a power of 2 as a page size makes the translation of a logical
address into a page number and page offset.
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If the size of logical address space is 2m and a page size is 2n addressing units
(bytes or words), then the high-order m – n bits of a logical address designate the
page number, and the n low-order bits designate the page offset.
When a process requests memory (e.g. when its code is loaded in from disk), free
frames are allocated from a free-frame list, and inserted into that process's page
table.
Processes are blocked from accessing anyone else's memory because all of their
memory requests are mapped through their page table. There is no way for them
to generate an address that maps into any other process's memory space.
The operating system must keep track of each individual process's page table,
updating it whenever the process's pages get moved in and out of memory, and
applying the correct page table when processing system calls for a particular
process. This all increases the overhead involved when swapping processes in
and out of the CPU.
Figure 17: Free frames (a) before allocation and (b) after
allocation.
Hardware Support
Translation Look aside Buffer
A special, small, fast lookup hardware cache, called a translation look-aside
buffer (TLB).
Each entry in the TLB consists of two parts: a key (or tag) and a value.
When the associative memory is presented with an item, the item is compared
with all keys simultaneously. If the item is found, the corresponding value field
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In addition, we add the page-number and frame-number to the TLB, so that they
will be found quickly on the next reference.
If the TLB is already full of entries, the OS must select one for replacement.
Percentage of times that a particular page-number is found in the TLB is called hit
ratio.
Protection
Shared Pages
Disadvantage:
Systems that use inverted page-tables have difficulty implementing shared-memory.
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1. Hierarchical Paging
● Problem: Most computers support a large logical-address space (232 to 264). In
these systems, the page-table itself becomes excessively large.
● Solution: Divide the page-table into smaller pieces.
● where p1 is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the displacement within
the page of the inner page table
The address-translation method for this architecture is shown in below figure. Because
address translation works from the outer page table inward, this scheme is also known as a
forward- mapped page table.
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Advantage:
1. Decreases memory needed to store each page-table
Disadvantages:
1. Increases amount of time needed to search table when a page reference occurs.
2. Difficulty implementing shared-memory
Segmentation
● Virtual memory is a technique that allows for the execution of partially loaded process.
● Advantages:
A program will not be limited by the amount of physical memory that is available user
can able to write in to large virtual space.
Since each program takes less amount of physical memory, more than one program
could be run at the same time which can increase the throughput and CPU utilization.
Less i/o operation is needed to swap or load user program in to memory. So each user
program could run faster.
● Virtual memory is the separation of users logical memory from physical memory. This
separation allows an extremely large virtual memory to be provided when there is less physical
memory.
● Separating logical memory from physical memory also allows files and memory to be shared
by several different processes through page sharing.
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DEMAND PAGING
● A demand paging is similar to paging system with swapping when we want to execute a
process we swap the process into memory otherwise it will not be loaded in to memory.
● A swapper manipulates the entire processes, where as a pager manipulates individual pages of
the process.
▪ Bring a page into memory only when it is needed
▪ Less I/O needed
▪ Less memory needed
▪ Faster response
▪ More users
▪ Page is needed ⇒ reference to it
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▪ invalid reference ⇒abort
▪ not-in-memory ⇒ bring to memory
▪ Lazy swapper– never swaps a page into memory unless page will be needed
▪ Swapper that deals with pages is a pager.
● Basic concept: Instead of swapping the whole process the pager swaps only the necessary pages in
to memory. Thus it avoids reading unused pages and decreases the swap time and amount of
physical memory needed.
● The valid-invalid bit scheme can be used to distinguish between the pages that are on the disk and
that are in memory.
With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v ⇒ in-memory, i⇒not-in-memory)
Initially valid–invalid bit is set to ion all entries
Example of a page table snapshot:
● During address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table entry is I ⇒ page fault.
● If the bit is valid then the page is both legal and is in memory.
● If the bit is invalid then either page is not valid or is valid but is currently on the disk. Marking
a page as invalid will have no effect if the processes never access to that page. Suppose if it access the page
which is marked invalid, causes a page fault trap. This may result in failure of OS to bring the desired page in
to memory.
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Fig 5: Page Table when some pages are not in main memory
Page Fault
If a page is needed that was not originally loaded up, then a page fault trap is generated.
Steps in Handling a Page Fault
1. The memory address requested is first checked, to make sure it was a valid memory request.
2. If the reference is to an invalid page, the process is terminated. Otherwise, if the page is not present
in memory, it must be paged in.
3. A free frame is located, possibly from a free-frame list.
4. A disk operation is scheduled to bring in the necessary page from disk.
5. After the page is loaded to memory, the process's page table is updated with the new frame number,
and the invalid bit is changed to indicate that this is now a valid page reference.
6. The instruction that caused the page fault must now be restarted from the beginning.
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Pure Demand Paging: Never bring a page into main memory until it is required.
● We can start executing a process without loading any of its pages into main memory.
● Page fault occurs for the non memory resident pages.
● After the page is brought into memory, process continues to execute.
● Again page fault occurs for the next page.
Hardware support: For demand paging the same hardware is required as paging and swapping.
1. Page table:-Has the ability to mark an entry invalid through valid-invalid bit.
2. Secondary memory:-This holds the pages that are not present in main memory.
Performance of Demand Paging: Demand paging can have significant effect on the performance of the
computer system.
Let P be the probability of the page fault (0<=P<=1)
Effective access time = (1-P) * ma + P * page fault.
▪ Where P = page fault and ma = memory access time.
Effective access time is directly proportional to page fault rate. It is important to keep page fault rate
low in demand paging.
Demand Paging Example
Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
Average page-fault service time = 8milliseconds
EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8milliseconds)
= (1 – p x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800
If one access out of 1,000 causes a page fault, then EAT = 8.2 microseconds. This is a slowdown by
a factor of 40.
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COPY-ON-WRITE
Technique initially allows the parent and the child to share the same pages. These pages are
marked as copy on- write pages i.e., if either process writes to a shared page, a copy of shared
page is created.
Eg:-If a child process try to modify a page containing portions of the stack; the OS recognizes
them as a copy-on-write page and create a copy of this page and maps it on to the address
space of the child process. So the child process will modify its copied page and not the page
belonging to parent. The new pages are obtained from the pool of free pages.
The previous contents of pages are erased before getting them into main memory. This is
called Zero – on fill demand.
Fig 7:
b) After process 1 modifies page C
Fig 8:
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PAGEREPLACEMENT
● Page replacement policy deals with the solution of pages in memory to be replaced by a new page
that must be brought in. When a user process is executing a page fault occurs.
● The hardware traps to the operating system, which checks the internal table to see that this is a page
fault and not an illegal memory access.
● The operating system determines where the derived page is residing on the disk, and this finds that
there are no free frames on the list of free frames.
● When all the frames are in main memory, it is necessary to bring a new page to satisfy the page
fault, replacement policy is concerned with selecting a page currently in memory to be replaced.
● The page i,e to be removed should be the page i,e least likely to be referenced in future.
Fig 10:
Belady’s Anomaly
● For some page replacement algorithm, the page fault may increase as the number of allocated
frames increases. FIFO replacement algorithm may face this problem.
more frames ⇒ more page faults
Example: Consider the following references string with frames initially empty.
▪ The first three references (7,0,1) cases page faults and are brought into the empty frames.
▪ The next references 2 replaces page 7 because the page 7 was brought in first. x Since 0 is the next
references and 0 is already in memory e has no page faults.
▪ The next references 3 results in page 0 being replaced so that the next references to 0 causer page
fault. This will continue till the end of string. There are 15 faults all together.
Fig 11:
Fig 12:
Optimal ikk
▪ Optimal page replacement algorithm is mainly to solve the problem of Belady’s Anomaly.
▪ Optimal page replacement algorithm has the lowest page fault rate of all algorithms.
▪ An optimal page replacement algorithm exists and has been called OPT.
The working is simple “Replace the page that will not be used for the longest period of time”
Example: consider the following reference string
▪ The first three references cause faults that fill the three empty frames.
▪ The references to page 2 replaces page 7, because 7 will not be used until reference 18. x The page 0
will be used at 5 and page 1 at 14.
▪ With only 9 page faults, optimal replacement is much better than a FIFO, which had 15 faults. This
algorithm is difficult t implement because it requires future knowledge of reference strings.
▪ Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
Fig 13:
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Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm 17CS64
● The LRU (Least Recently Used) algorithm, predicts that the page that has not been used in the
longest time is the one that will not be used again in the near future.
● Some view LRU as analogous to OPT, but here we look backwards in time instead of forwards.
Fig 14:
The main problem to how to implement LRU is the LRU requires additional h/w assistance.
Note: Neither optimal replacement nor LRU replacement suffers from Belady’s Anamoly. These are called
stack algorithms.
Fig 15:
ALLOCATION OF FRAMES
The absolute minimum number of frames that a process must be allocated is dependent on system
architecture.
The maximum number is defined by the amount of available physical memory.
Allocation Algorithms
After loading of OS, there are two ways in which the allocation of frames can be done to the
processes.
1. Equal Allocation- If there are m frames available and n processes to share them, each process gets
m / n frames, and the left over’s are kept in a free-frame buffer pool.
2. Proportional Allocation - Allocate the frames proportionally depending on the size of the
process. If the size of process i is Si, and S is the sum of size of all processes in the system, then
the allocation for process Pi is ai= m * Si/ S. where m is the free frames available in the system.
Consider a system with a 1KB frame size. If a small student process of 10 KB and an interactive
database of 127 KB are the only two processes running in a system with 62 free frames.
with proportional allocation, we would split 62 frames between two processes, as follows
m=62, S = (10+127)=137
Allocation for process 1 = 62 X 10/137 ~ 4 Allocation for process 2 = 62 X 127/137 ~57
Thus allocates 4 frames and 57 frames to student process and database respectively.
Variations on proportional allocation could consider priority of process rather than just their size.
Global versus Local Allocation
Page replacement can occur both at local or global level.
With local replacement, the number of pages allocated to a process is fixed, and page replacement
occurs only amongst the pages allocated to this process.
With global replacement, any page may be a potential victim, whether it currently belongs to the
process seeking a free frame or not.
Local page replacement allows processes to better control their own page fault rates, and leads to
more consistent performance of a given process over different system load levels.
Global page replacement is over all more efficient, and is the more commonly used approach.
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Non-Uniform Memory Access (New)
Usually the time required to access all memory in a system is equivalent.
This may not be the case in multiple-processor systems, especially where each CPU is physically
located on a separate circuit board which also holds some portion of the overall system memory.
In such systems, CPU s can access memory that is physically located on the same board much
faster than the memory on the other boards.
The basic solution is akin to processor affinity - At the same time that we try to schedule
processes on the same CPU to minimize cache misses, we also try to allocate memory for those
processes on the same boards, to minimize access times.
THRASHING
● If the number of frames allocated to a low-priority process falls below the minimum number
required by the computer architecture then we suspend the process execution.
● A process is thrashing if it is spending more time in paging than executing.
● If the processes do not have enough number of frames, it will quickly page fault. During this it
must replace some page that is not currently in use. Consequently it quickly faults again and
again.
● The process continues to fault, replacing pages for which it then faults and brings back. This high
paging activity is called thrashing. The phenomenon of excessively moving pages back and forth
b/w memory and secondary has been called thrashing.
Cause of Thrashing
● Thrashing results in severe performance problem.
● The operating system monitors the cpu utilization is low. We increase the degree of multi
programming by introducing new process to the system.
● A global page replacement algorithm replaces pages with no regards to the process to which they
belong.
Fig 16:
Locality of Reference:
● As the process executes it moves from locality to locality.
● A locality is a set of pages that are actively used.
● A program may consist of several different localities, which may overlap.
● Locality is caused by loops in code that find to reference arrays and other data structures by
indices.
● The ordered list of page number accessed by a program is called reference string.
● Locality is of two types :
1. spatial locality
2. temporal locality