polymers

Review
Recent Advancements of Polysaccharides to Enhance Quality
and Delay Ripening of Fresh Produce: A Review
Wen Xia Ling Felicia 1 , Kobun Rovina 1, * , Md Nasir Nur’Aqilah 1 , Joseph Merillyn Vonnie 1 ,
Kana Husna Erna 1 , Mailin Misson 2 and Nur Fatihah Abdul Halid 3

1 Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia;
felicialingling.97@gmail.com (W.X.L.F.); aqilah98nash@gmail.com (M.N.N.);
vonnie.merillyn@gmail.com (J.M.V.); mn1911017t@student.ums.edu.my (K.H.E.)
2 Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia;
mailinmisson@ums.edu.my
3 Borneo Marine Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia;
fatihahhaliddd@ums.edu.my
* Correspondence: rovinaruby@ums.edu.my; Tel.: +60-88-320000 (ext. 8713); Fax: +60-88-320993

Abstract: The freshness of fruits and vegetables plays a significant role in consumers’ decision
to purchase a product at the supermarket. Fresh-cut products are the latest trend in fulfilling
society’s restless needs, and the food industry is faced with the challenge of maintaining the quality
of fresh produce. The food industry is concerned with the natural maturation and degradation
of fruits and vegetables, primarily due to enzymatic reactions. It has been demonstrated that
polysaccharide coatings effectively preserve the freshness of these products, extending their shelf life
depending on the preservation method used. This review informs readers about the different types



of polysaccharides and their novel applications as natural food preservatives in the past five years


(2018–2022). The key findings summarized the properties of the antimicrobial agent, the molecular
Citation: Felicia, W.X.L.; Rovina, K.;
Nur’Aqilah, M.N.; Vonnie, J.M.; mechanism of action, coating methods, and formulation for the preservation approach. Additionally,
Erna, K.H.; Misson, M.; Halid, N.F.A. we discuss the scientific factors influencing polysaccharide processing and preservation efficacy,
Recent Advancements of allowing it to be used in post-harvest management.
Polysaccharides to Enhance Quality
and Delay Ripening of Fresh Produce: Keywords: polymers; antioxidant; antimicrobial; shelf life; natural preservative
A Review. Polymers 2022, 14, 1341.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
polym14071341

Academic Editor: Dalius Jucius

1. Introduction
Fruits and vegetables are rich in micronutrients, including vitamins C and K, minerals,
Received: 26 January 2022
fiber, and phytochemicals, which are all beneficial to human health [1]. Those foods are
Accepted: 16 March 2022
considered perishable products because they wilt, shrivel, and degrade over time, reducing
Published: 25 March 2022
their commercial viability and consumer preference. Thus, they have a short shelf life,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral resulting in significant food waste. Approximately half of all manufactured products are
with regard to jurisdictional claims in discarded per year [2]. Fruit and vegetable waste is abundant, consisting primarily of peels
published maps and institutional affil- and other inedible parts of produce, representing approximately 25–30% of total waste [3].
iations. Furthermore, the decay of fruits and vegetables is primarily due to the retailer’s quality
standard grading system. Non-compliance with quality standards devalues food regarding
its intended use and economic value, increasing food waste.
Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence post-harvest quality. Intrinsic factors
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
include genetic variables, harvest maturity stage, susceptibility to physiological illness
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
affected by fungal pathogens, and ethylene gas production. Extrinsic factors include har-
distributed under the terms and
vesting, packaging, shipping, storage, marketing concerns, technologies, such as irradiation
conditions of the Creative Commons
and chemical treatments of fruits and vegetables, and environmental factors, including
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// temperature and relative humidity control [4]. Additionally, Elik et al. [5] stated that faulty
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and ineffective packaging material will not fully protect fresh produce from damage and
4.0/).

Polymers 2022, 14, 1341. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071341 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 2 of 23

may even hasten deterioration. Appropriate packaging materials and advanced packaging
technologies significantly apply in preserving the quality of harvested produce.
Food packaging research has resurged, most notably with the appearance of edible
coatings on more environmentally friendly commodities, which can be used as a modern
and advanced food preservation system to maintain the quality of produce. This significant
advancement in food packaging technology reduces food and packaging waste while
fostering healthier and safer crops. Over the last five years, there has been much ground-
breaking news about edible coatings. Parven et al. [6] and Shah and Hashmi [7] found
that polysaccharide-based coatings have the potential to change organoleptic properties
in fruits, such as mango, papaya, cherry tomato, and capsicum. Color and firmness, for
example, increases shelf life by limiting moisture transfer and gas permeability, inhibits the
invasion of a fungal pathogen, and improves nutritional value by reducing ascorbic acid
losses in fruits, all of which contribute to a well-balanced diet.
Nonetheless, the surface polymers’ particular nature properties preclude their vast
range of intended applications, necessitating their modification via various techniques. For
instance, the presence of hydroxyl groups renders the surfaces hydrophilic, a feature that is
not inherent in other polymeric surfaces. Thus, intrinsically nonconforming surfaces must
undergo treatment to ease their usage in various industrial applications and overcome
their significant limitations. Polymer modification is a frequently utilized technique for
imposing desired short- and long-term effects necessary for efficient performance. While
surface treatments improve the performance of current materials, they also expand the
application range of polymers due to the versatility of bulk material qualities, such as
elasticity, tensile strength, and density [8].
Edible coatings are a thin layer of edible material applied on the surface of a product
during post-harvest processing to help maintain the quality of fruits and vegetables while
reducing the use of non-biodegradable packaging materials. The significant edge of edible
coatings is that they serve as an additional coating that covers the stomata, lowering
transpiration and, as a result, reducing weight loss in commodities [9]. This review informs
readers about the different types of polysaccharides and their novel applications as natural
food preservatives in the past five years (2018–2022). Polysaccharide-based edible coatings
can lengthen shelf life and retard ripening. The Food and Agriculture Organization has
designated polysaccharide-based coatings that are considered safe for consumers and
environmentally friendly, such as natural gums, as Generally Recognized as Safe [10].
The ability of the coatings to be eaten attests to their safety; however, they must also be
acceptable to consumers, retaining the product’s original flavor, texture, and appearance
while remaining undetectable on the tongue.

2. Types and Properties of Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are classified as homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides, de-
pending on whether they contain one or more types of repeating units, as shown in Figure 1.
The glycosidic linkages that link monomers together to form polymers have a significant
effect on the physical properties of polysaccharides [11]. Homopolysaccharides include
starch, dextran, pullulan, and cellulose, whereas heteropolysaccharides include chitosan,
agar, alginate, and natural gums (xanthan gum, konjac glucomannan, and gellan gum) are
frequently used as edible coatings. Polysaccharides have significant potential in advanced
fruit and vegetable packaging due to their ability to protect food from deterioration.
Polymers
Polymers2022,
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Figure 1. Classification of polysaccharides as an edible coating.

Figure 1. Classification of polysaccharides as an edible coating.
2.1. Homopolysaccharide
2.1. Homopolysaccharide
2.1.1. Starch
2.1.1. Starch
Starch is highly susceptible to water and has a low water vapor barrier capacity due
to itsStarch is highly
hydrophilic susceptible
essence. to water
However, and has
a coating madea low ofwater
starchvapor barrier capacity
can significantly due
lengthen
to
theitslife
hydrophilic essence. However,
of fruits, vegetables, and other a products.
coating made of starchstarch-based
Combining can significantly
polymerslengthen
with
the
otherlifehydrophobic
of fruits, vegetables,
substances andtoother
reduceproducts. Combining starch-based
their hygroscopicity polymers with
shows a cost-effective and
other hydrophobic
versatile strategy forsubstances
producingto reduce their
innovative hygroscopicity
materials with bettershows a cost-effective
properties [12]. Previously,and
versatile
Oyom et strategy for producing
al. [13] modified innovative
sweet potato starchmaterials
and fabricatedwith better
cuminproperties
essential oil[12]. Previ-
to develop
ously,
an edibleOyom et al. [13]
coating. The modified
modified sweet
ediblepotato
coating starch and fabricated
displayed cumin essential
positive antifungal impacts oil on
to
‘early crisp’ by significantly reducing rot lesion infections on
develop an edible coating. The modified edible coating displayed positive antifungal im-pears, which is commonly
caused
pacts onby Alternaria
‘early crisp’ alternata. Aside from
by significantly that, the
reducing developed
rot lesion edibleon
infections coating
pears,has successfully
which is com-
showncaused
monly to delay bychanges
Alternariain alternata.
respiration rate,from
Aside weight loss,
that, thechlorophyll degradation,
developed edible coatingcolor,
has
and firmness.
successfully Furthermore,
shown to delay Trinh
changeset al.
in [14] stabilized
respiration cornstarch
rate, withchlorophyll
weight loss, beeswax emulsion degra-
and cellulose
dation, color, andnanocrystals
firmness. (CNC) to produce
Furthermore, Trinhanetedible
al. [14]coating thatcornstarch
stabilized significantlywith reduces
bees-
deterioration of fruits and other produce. The effect of beeswax
wax emulsion and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) to produce an edible coating that signif- and CNC emulsion
displayed
icantly beneficial
reduces impacts of
deterioration onfruits
fresh-cut
and apples, strawberries,
other produce. and bananas
The effect of beeswax in preserving
and CNC
emulsion displayed beneficial impacts on fresh-cut apples, strawberries, and minimizing
color and freshness of the products, as well as limiting oxygen activity and bananas in
moisture loss.
preserving color and freshness of the products, as well as limiting oxygen activity and
On the moisture
minimizing other hand, Rather et al. [15] used lotus stem starch incorporated with gelatin
loss.
waste On the other hand, Rathershelf-life
from poultry to prolong et al. [15]ofused
cherry tomatoes
lotus by retaining
stem starch its firmness
incorporated with and pH
gelatin
to a greater extent. Besides, the coating material of starch incorporated
waste from poultry to prolong shelf-life of cherry tomatoes by retaining its firmness and with gelatin revealed
a positive
pH to a greatercontribution in minimizing
extent. Besides, the coatingweight loss during
material the incorporated
of starch storage period. with Similarly,
gelatin
Ghoshal and Chopra [16] enhanced the tamarind seed starch with
revealed a positive contribution in minimizing weight loss during the storage period. Sim- gelatin and incorporated
apricot
ilarly, essential
Ghoshal andoilChopra
to improve the physicochemical
[16] enhanced the tamarindproperties
seed starch of with
grapes by reducing
gelatin and in-
weight loss and firmness as well as providing antimicrobial
corporated apricot essential oil to improve the physicochemical properties of grapes properties. Chen et al. [17]
by
proposed a bilayer film composed of a hydrophobic outer layer
reducing weight loss and firmness as well as providing antimicrobial properties. Chen and absorbent inner layer
et
of corn
al. starch andapolylactic
[17] proposed acid.composed
bilayer film The film isoffurther enriched with
a hydrophobic outereucalyptus
layer andessential
absorbent oil
microcapsules to improve the tensile strength, elongation at break, and barrier properties
inner layer of corn starch and polylactic acid. The film is further enriched with eucalyptus
of the film. The enriched starch-based film effectively inhibited the respiration rate of
essential oil microcapsules to improve the tensile strength, elongation at break, and barrier
mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), reduced consumption of organic matter, and retained its
properties of the film. The enriched starch-based film effectively inhibited the respiration
moisture content along with prolonging the shelf life of A. bisporus to a greater extent.
rate of mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), reduced consumption of organic matter, and re-
Furthermore, Kawhena et al. [18] studied the effect of the combination of starch
tained its moisture content along with prolonging the shelf life of A. bisporus to a greater
and gum arabic coating enhanced with two polyliners on pomegranate fruit. Coated
extent.
pomegranate fruit showed reduction in weight loss and respiration rate. Additionally,
Furthermore, Kawhena et al. [18] studied the effect of the combination of starch and
the coating retained the total soluble solids while preventing decay on the appearance
gum arabic coating enhanced with two polyliners on pomegranate fruit. Coated pome-
of the fruit. Besides, Kusnadi et al. [19] employed maize starch in the development of
granate fruit showed reduction in weight loss and respiration rate. Additionally, the coat-
edible coatings along with k-carrageenan and agar as matrix. The developed coating has
ing retained the total soluble solids while preventing decay on the appearance of the fruit.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 4 of 23

been reported to retain color, delay browning, and reduce mass shrinkage of fresh cut
apples (L. plantarum). It was also reported that the proposed film was actively against
the growth of Escherichia coli. Starch-based coatings commonly show low water barrier
capacity; therefore, enrichment with other hydrophobic compounds, such as essential oils,
can help in improving the water vapor barrier properties of the coating.

2.1.2. Dextran
Dextran is an exopolysaccharide, a flavorless food-grade chemical that is highly
biocompatible and non-toxic, and may be used in novel food packaging. Dextran was
hypothesized to be an oxygen scavenger and a moisture-resistant compound that acts as
an adequate water vapor barrier [20]. In comparison to other polysaccharides, it is an
excellent biopolymer for edible coatings that support lengthening the shelf life of food
products. Dextran-based coatings on fruits and vegetables have received less attention in
the past five years (2017–2022) in the research field. Davidovic et al. [21] optimized dextran-
based coating with sorbitol, and they were observed under response surface methodology.
The research reported that the coating displayed a favorable impact in reducing water
vapor permeability whilst having good tensile strength and elasticity. Davidovic et al. [22]
developed an edible coating based on dextran that was synthesized from lactic acid bacteria
of Leuconostoc mesenteroides and plasticized with polyglycerol. The coating was tested
on blueberries to evaluate the quality of the coated fruits. Coated blueberries presented
low water vapor permeability and indicated that the film was able to inhibit the fruits
from drying out, therefore proving able to efficiently prolong the shelf-life of blueberries
than when untreated, as evidenced by lower weight loss, total sugar solids values, and
titratable acidity.

2.1.3. Pullulan
Pullulan is a colorless, odorless, oxygen and carbon dioxide impervious exopolysac-
charide derived from the fungus Aureobasidium pullulans [23]. Pullulan-based coatings
outperform other polymer compounds in adhesion, mechanical strength, and food com-
ponent resistance [24]. These beneficial properties identify pullulan as edible “active”
coatings. Pullulan, a polysaccharide Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS), was employed
in the study to extend fruit shelf life. Antecedently, Ganduri [25] formulated pullulan with
calcium chloride and lemon juice to be applied on Rastali and Chakkarakeli bananas. This
research demonstrated that coated bananas were well preserved, with the evidence of mini-
mum change in weight, color, browning index, and total and residual sugar. Aside from
that, the coating has shown to decrease peelpulp ratio, vitamin c contain, and maintain the
firmness of fruit. Meanwhile, Kumar et al. [26] functionalized pullulan/chitosan composite
coating with pomegranate peel extract to preserve mango fruit (Mangifera indica) with its
exceptional antioxidative properties. The enhanced composite film effectively decreased
physiological loss in weight, and retained pH, acidity, and total soluble solids of coated
mango fruits. Incorporation of pomegranate peel extract into the coating matrix sustained
fruit firmness, color, texture, taste, freshness, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity
of fruits. Similarly, Kumar et al. [27], Kumar et al. [28], and Kumar et al. [29] exploited
pullulan/chitosan/pomegranate peel extract edible coatings to evaluate the effects on
quality, sensory characteristics, and shelf-life of litchi fruit (Litchi Chinensis Sonn.), green bell
peppers, and tomatos (Solanum lycopersicum L.), respectively. Indistinguishable findings
have been reported for this research; coated fruits exhibited low weight loss, acidity, and
color browning, as well as contributed to antioxidant activity. The combined effects of the
coating were capable of extending the shelf life of tomatoes by 9 days at temperatures of
23 ◦ C and 4 ◦ C.
Zhou et al. [30] proposed an active edible film based on pullulan and carboxymethyl
chitosan fabricated with galangal essential oil to characterize the physical and structural
properties and preservation effect on mangoes. The eco-friendly packaging presented
a promising alternative in preserving mangoes by inhibiting weight loss and sustaining
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 5 of 23

firmness, titratable acidity, and soluble solids. Most of the pullulan-based coating is
commonly synthesized with chitosan polysaccharide due to its antimicrobial properties.
Research has been performed to investigate the synergistic effect of pullulan and chitosan
on fresh papayas. In general, synergistic interaction of both polysaccharides helps in
maintaining post-harvest quality (weight, firmness, color, pH, titratable acidity, vitamin c
and soluble solids contents) and lengthening shelf life of fresh papaya [31]. Furthermore,
Krasniewska et al. [24] constructed an edible coating solely based on pullulan to improve the
quality and shelf life of the highbush blueberry. The study indicated that pullulan coating is
capable of protecting perishable fruits by functioning as a barrier against respiration, quality
deterioration, and microbial growth. Moreover, Pobiega et al. [32] reduced cherry tomato
microbial contamination with an edible coating of pullulan and ethanolic extract of propolis
(EEP). The combined effect of the coating has proven to have antimicrobial properties
against various foodborne pathogens. Besides, incorporation of EEP enhanced the pullulan
action and hence decreased the weight loss and ripening time of cherry tomatoes.

2.1.4. Cellulose
Cellulose is a polymeric composite that is edible, biodegradable, and may increase
nutritional value while reducing synthetic packaging and waste in the environment. It can
readily encapsulate antibacterial and antioxidant chemicals [33]. The high concentration
of intramolecular hydrogen bonds in cellulose contributes to its water resistance and
crystalline structure, making it an excellent coating material due to its flexibility, durability,
transparency, and resistance to fats and oils [34]. Additionally, it assists in preserving
structural integrity through improved mechanical handling, preventing chlorophyll loss,
and maintaining the color of food. As a result, cellulose prevents and reduces microbial
degradation during long-term food storage [35].
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is one of cellulose derivatives. Recently, Yu et al. [36]
sustained postharvest quality of pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) vegetables using CMC-based
coating crosslinked with liquid paraffin. The synergistic interaction of ionic bonding of
CMC and paraffin significantly reduced moisture loss and enhanced nutrition and appear-
ance of fresh pakchoi. The treated samples displayed low lipid peroxidation due to the
scavenging ability of the coating to scavenge reactive oxygen species. Kowalczyk et al. [37]
evaluated the physiological, quality, and microbiological count of Brussels sprouts with
CMC/candelilla wax emulsion. In contrast, the treated sprout is unaffected in terms of
weight loss, texture, and moisture content. Sequentially, the coating decreased rate of respi-
ration hastened chlorophyll degradation and accelerated polyphenol oxidase, and hence
reduced sensory attributes of the vegetables. The coating negatively impacts the sample by
favoring fungal growth due to the accumulation of ethylene and poor performance of gas
exchange. Chen et al. [38] designed a novel edible coating based on CMC incorporated with
ethanol extract of Impatiens balsamina L. stems, citric acid, sucrose ester, calcium propionate,
and glycerol to be applied on “Xinyu” tangerines. The coating displayed both inhibitory
effects on mold growth and antioxidant properties on fruits.
Formerly, Zhang et al. [39] successfully inhibited natural spoilage microorganisms on
cantaloupe rind and fresh-cut pulp by creating a surface barrier protection against oxygen-
dependent microorganisms. The surface on fruits were coated with cellulose nanofiber-
based/chitosan coating enriched with trans-cinnamaldehyde. Saba and Amini [40] function-
alized nano-zinc oxide onto cellulose-based active coating to subside mesophilic bacteria
count and growth on the arils surface of pomegranate fruits. The cumulative effect of the
coating decreased weight loss and maintained overall quality of the fruits. Xie et al. [41]
stabilized beeswax onto the cellulose nanofibrils/carboxymethyl chitosan coating matrix.
The emulsified coating solution presented good stability and antimicrobial properties by
inhibiting S. aureus and E. coli. Moreover, the coating solution has optimistic potential
in keeping berry fruits fresh via its good mechanical and barrier properties. Meanwhile,
Liu et al. [42] loaded asparagus waste extract in hydroxyethyl cellulose/sodium alginate
edible coating and applied it to the surface of fresh strawberries. The edible coating ex-
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 6 of 23

hibited inhibition mechanisms against Penicillium italicum and, remarkably, sustained the
quality of the strawberry.

2.2. Heteropolysaccharide
2.2.1. Chitosan
Chitosan is a polysaccharide that is water-soluble at an acidic pH, making it suitable
for use as a coating agent on fresh fruits and vegetables, and has been shown to inhibit
pathogenic microorganisms and extend shelf life [43]. Its reactive groups will limit the
growth of microorganisms by enhancing the quality, safety, and use of fruits and vegetables.
Recently, Shebis et al. [44] synthesized chitosan-based coating enriched with quercetin
to enhance the antimicrobial and antioxidative properties of the film. The efficacy of the
film was tested on fresh-cut fruit, such as ‘Galia’ melons and ‘Gala’ apples, and success-
fully reduced microbial spoilage and browning of the fruits. Besides, enhancement with
quercetin ameliorates the activity of chitosan by preventing moisture and weight loss.
Meanwhile, Liu et al. [45] proposed a composite film composed of carboxymethyl chitosan
enriched with Camellia essential oil to prolong the shelf-life of blueberry by improving
the physicochemical properties of fruits, such as retaining firmness, decreasing weight
loss, and reducing soluble solids formation. Guo et al. [46] loaded chitosan with thymol
to retard chestnut decay during storage. The study beneficially influences the starch and
nutrient content in soluble sugar along with reducing the respiration rate and weight
loss as well as inhibiting the growth of yeast and mold. Correspondingly, Saki et al. [47]
combined chitosan coating with thymol to retain quality and prolong the shelf life of fresh
fig fruits. The combined coating of chitosan-thymol provided better efficacy in preserving
the fruit as compared to solely chitosan coating. Coated fresh fig fruits have low weight
loss, respiration rate, TSS, TSS/TA, and fungal decay incidence. Moreover, they show
excellent appearance in terms of firmness and color after 20 days of storage at 6 ◦ C.
Comparably, Qiao et al. [48] investigated the impact of chitosan/nano-titanium diox-
ide/thymol/tween on cantaloupe fruit quality. The composite film has proven to lengthen
shelf life and decrease malondialdehyde content, water activity, polyphenol oxidase, and
total soluble solids of the fruits. Zheng et al. [49] constructed an edible film based on a
combination of chitosan and acorn starch enriched with eugenol to improve physicochemi-
cal, structural, barrier, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties of the film. Incorporation
of eugenol onto the modified film is attested to enhance the film flexibility, hydrophobic-
ity, barrier, antioxidative and antimicrobial properties. Aside from being supplemented
with edible essential oils, chitosan-based coating can also be reinforced with nanoparti-
cles to improve the performance, efficacy, and efficiency of the coating. Research done by
La et al. [50] investigated the effect of fabricating zinc oxide nanoparticles on chitosan/gum
arabic edible coating on the preservation of bananas. The coating considerably increased
the quality and shelf life of bananas, including fruit firmness, weight loss, titratable acid-
ity, and reducing sugar. Coated bananas were able to keep their freshness for almost
17 days compared to 13 days for the uncoated bananas. Additionally, the coating was
able to provide antimicrobial properties, as the fabricated ZnO nanoparticles on the film
matrix are proven to have excellent antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus,
Bacillus subtilis, and Escherichia coli.
Little research has been done to investigate the chitosan/vanillin coating effect on
the tomato fruit. The combined edible coating remarkably decreased disease incidence
and disease severity by 74.16% and 79%, respectively. Aside from that, the enhanced
coating successfully proved to reduce weight loss and retain firmness, soluble solid con-
centration, and color, as well as reduce respiration and ethylene production rate. The
chitosan/vanillin coating also notably reduced the defense enzyme activities, such as
peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, and increased the
lifespan of tomatoes to 25 days at room temperature. Additionally, the combined coating
displayed antimicrobial properties by inhibiting Fusarium oxysporum fruit rot on toma-
toes [51]. Moreover, active chitosan/vanillin coating containing zeolite that exhibits the
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 7 of 23

highest capacity of ethylene scavenger activity delayed the disease incidence of Nam Dok
Mai mango fruit by providing the lowest onset of anthracnose disease. As mentioned
in previous research, chitosan/vanillin coating was able to retain the physicochemical
qualities of mango fruits, including weight loss, firmness, titratable acidity, total soluble
solid, and color [52]. Chitosan-based coating supplemented with vanillin and geraniol
exhibited bactericidal effects on apple cubes stored under refrigerated temperatures by
retarding the growth of mesophiles, psychrotrophs, and yeasts and molds [53].

2.2.2. Agar and Alginate

Agar and alginate are hydrophilic polysaccharide coatings made from seaweed of
linear copolymers. 3-O-substituted-d-galactopyranosyl units are connected to 3,6-anhydro—
d-galactopyranosyl units via (1 → 4) linkages to form agar. Alginate can also produce
transparent, homogeneous, and water-soluble coatings but are less permeable to fats, oils,
and oxygen [54]. These coating films protect the quality of fresh produce by decreasing
moisture and weight loss due to its low water vapor permeability. Furthermore, incor-
poration of agar and alginate also increased the tensile strength, surface hydrophobicity,
and thermal stability of the films through physical entanglement [55]. Post-harvest films
and coatings help keep the quality of fruits, such as sweet cherry, peach, and tomato, from
shrinkage, oxidative rancidity, oil absorption, flavor, and color loss. Alginate extends fruit
and vegetable shelf life by preventing degradation by hampering microbial growth and res-
piration [56]. Previously, Medina-Jaramillo et al. [57] used alginate-based coating enriched
with carvacrol essential oil to develop an edible coating to be applied on Andean blueber-
ries. Coated blueberries outlasted untreated blueberries over the course of three weeks
as a result of lower respiration rate and water loss. The coatings also improved the fruits’
appearance and inhibited growth of mesophilic aerobic bacteria and mold/yeast on fruits.
Das et al. [58] combined alginate with vanillin to eradicate food pathogens and prolong
the lifespan of leafy vegetable lettuce. Coated lettuces were found to significantly reduce
weight loss and bacterial loads by efficiently eliminating sessile cells of biofilm-associated
foodborne pathogens. Sangsuwan and Sutthasupa [59] encapsulated clove and lavender
essential oils along with vanillin onto the alginate/chitosan beads matrix to prevent Botrytis
cinerea in table grapes. Grapes packed with enriched beads have shown to have no visible
sign of mold on grapes until Day 28, while retaining freshness, odor, flavor, firmness and
overall acceptability of the grapes compared to the unpacked grapes.
Hu et al. [60] incorporated thyme oil into an alginate-coating matrix to investigate
the microbial effect on fresh-cut “Red Fuji” apples. The combined usage of the coating
effectively prevents the growth of microorganisms, and reduces weight loss, browning,
and respiration rate, as well as retains the firmness of fresh-cut apples. Bambace et al. [61]
combined alginate and vanillin to synthesize an edible coating. The synthesized coating
was applied on apple cubes and the fruit was treated with high-pressure processing (HPP)
in order to increase the performance of the film in retarding microbial growth. Utilization of
HPP treatment onto the coating left L. monocytogenes and E. coli counts below the detection
limit while maintaining the firmness and appearance of the apple as well as retaining
the phenolic compounds in apple cubes. Additionally, Shakerardekani et al. [62] also
enhanced sodium alginate coating with thyme essential oil to investigate its effect on fresh
pistachio. Similar findings were reported for the effectiveness of the coating in reducing
weight loss and microbial growth while maintaining firmness, color, soluble sugar, and
chlorophyll content.
Instead of solely using alginate-based coating, cocoa was incorporated into the coating
matrix to improve the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory properties of fresh-cut
oranges. Coated orange samples retained their highest post-harvest quality over the storage
period, including maintaining excellent sensory properties and having low yeast and
mesophilic aerobic bacteria count [63]. Sodium alginate-based coating incorporated with
thymol has proven to preserve the quality of fresh-cut apples. The prominent antibacterial
and antioxidant activities of thymol overcame the non-antibacterial and poor mechanical
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 8 of 23

properties of alginate. Enhancement with thymol essential oils remarkably inhibited

foodborne pathogens on fresh-cut apples, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus
aureus, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Escherichia coli by damaging and inactivating the cell
membrane of the pathogens. Aside from that, a combination of thymol/sodium alginate
composite coating has shown to have better tensile strength, elongation at break, and
capabilities of blocking UV-vis light. The coating also notably scavenged 1,1-diphenyl-
2-picrylhydrazyl radicals and considerably decreased weight loss and retained nutrition
and color of the apples [64,65]. Incorporation or fabrication of other compounds, such as
essential oil onto alginate-based coatings, is essential to improve the efficacy of the coating
as standard sodium alginate commonly displays poor water vapor permeability, water
solubility, and swelling ratio.

2.2.3. Mucilage
Mucilage is a hydrophilic hydrocolloid that improves barrier properties in low relative
humidity, form slimy abundances that take longer to degrade than natural gums, and
form durable edible coatings. Due to their low cost and eco-friendliness, basil, quince,
flaxseed, and wild sage are the most frequently used seeds in mucilage-based biodegradable
films [66]. Mucilage used in edible films and coatings shows antibacterial and antioxidant
properties, making it an ideal platform to improve the appearance of food products [67].
Recently, Shahbazi et al. [68] developed an edible coating by combining okra mucilage-
quince seed mucilage with bacterial cellulose nanofibers and Eryngium planum extract. The
proposed coating auspiciously prolonged the shelf-life of fresh strawberries for 12 days
under refrigerated temperature. Coated strawberries presented excellent physicochemical
(pH, color, weight loss, and titratable acidity), microbial count (yeast and molds count,
psychrotrophic bacterial count, and total viable count) and barrier (water vapor resistance,
oxygen permeability, and thickness) properties. Nourozi and Sayyari [69] proposed the
combined usage of aloe vera gel and basil seed mucilage on preserving the qualitative
parameters of apricot fruits. Combination of the polymers notably decreased weight loss,
soluble solid content, respiration, and ethylene production rate, hence further reducing the
ripening index of apricot fruits. Uncoated fruits displayed fruit softness and low titratable
acidity. Combined effects provided better antioxidative activity, thus enhancing the total
phenolic content (TPC) and ascorbic acid of the fruits. The utilization of the coating on the
fruits demonstrated no changes in organoleptic properties of apricot fruits.
Mohammed et al. [70] also designed an edible coating based on aloe vera gel combined
with linseed mucilage to lengthen the lifespan of plums. Indistinguishable from the
previous study, the combined effect of aloe vera and mucilage reduces respiration rate,
weight loss, pH, titratable acidity, and chroma index. However, this research reported
that firmness and soluble solid content of fruits were not influenced by the coating. Kozlu
and Elmaci [71] developed an edible coating solely based on quince seed mucilage for the
purpose of extending the shelf life of mandarin fruit. This research has proven that mucilage
is able to maintain firmness, color, antioxidant activity, and total phenolic content, reduce
weight loss, as well as preserve sensory attributes of fruits. Liguori et al. [72] evaluated
the performance of the combination of Opuntia ficus-indica mucilage and ascorbic acid
edible coating on postharvest quality, sensory characteristics, and microbiological counts of
strawberry fruit. Uncoated strawberries were negatively influenced as they showed a linear
increase in loss in terms of weight, ascorbic acid, and total soluble solid content. However,
the proposed coating does not exhibit antimicrobial effects on the fruits. Despite lacking
antimicrobial properties, the coating was reported to significantly limit the development of
pathogens on the coated strawberry fruit.

2.2.4. Natural Gums

A recent study critically looked into the use of edible coatings to improve the shelf-life
of fresh fruits and vegetables. Unlike manufactured polymers, these natural polymeric
polysaccharides are biodegradable, nontoxic, cheap, and readily available. Natural poly-
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 9 of 23

mers found in plant gums enable the formation of films and coatings with excellent barrier
qualities against the transfer of gases, such as moisture, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Be-
sides, it is linked topically by dipping or spraying onto fruit or vegetable surfaces, then
dried by air [73]. Formerly, Hashemi and Jafarpour [74] incorporated Lactobacillus plantarum
strains onto Konjac-based edible coating to inhibit fungi growth and maintain physicochem-
ical attributes of fresh-cut kiwis. The presence of L. plantarum as probiotics considerably
decreased the amount of decay and color changes while maintaining chlorophyll and ascor-
bic content of the fruits. Probiotics treatment notably decreased mold and yeast counts.
Meanwhile, Sati and Qubbaj [75] synthesized gum arabic/cactus mucilage edible coating
incorporated with calcium chloride to compare the postharvest attributes of coated and
uncoated tomato fruits. Combined usage of the coating beneficially reduced the weight loss
and decay incidence and retained firmness, color, titratable acidity, and total soluble solids
content of the tomato fruits. Criado et al. [76] developed a coating based on gellan gum and
enhanced with cellulose nanocrystals to create surface protection and lengthen the shelf
life of Agaricus bisporus mushrooms. Implementation of nanomaterials exhibited outstand-
ing capabilities in improving the barrier capacity of materials. Results demonstrated that
coated mushrooms showed a reduction in color change and respiration rate. Ergin et al. [77]
extracted gum exudates from cherry and apricot trees to be used as edible coating material.
The extracted gum exudates were applied on strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) and loquat
(Eriobotrya japonica) fruits to improve the antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of the
fruits. Additionally, the coating was reported to be heat-resistant up to 400 ◦ C and used
as a preserving film in reserving shelf life, organoleptic, and microbiological properties
of fruits.
In addition, Nasiri et al. [78] exploited tragacanth gum along with Satureja khuzis-
tanica essential oil to serve as a natural preservative for button mushrooms. This coating
lengthened the shelf-life of button mushrooms by maintaining tissue firmness and sensory
attributes of the mushrooms as well as reducing microbial count, such as yeast and molds
and Pseudomonas. Besides, the coating also reduced the rate of decomposition of functional
compounds of mushrooms. Sarpong et al. [79] prepared a film based on karaya gum,
xanthan gum, and acacia Senegal, and applied it on applied slices. The ameliorative effect
of the gum coating inhibited polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, and ascorbic acid oxidase
activities as well as reduced browning indexes. Meanwhile, Saleem et al. [80] implemented
usage of gum arabic as edible coatings in prolonging shelf life of persimmon fruits stored
under ambient temperature. Treated samples displayed lower weight loss, H2 O2 , malondi-
aldehyde content, and membrane leakage. Gum arabic is proven to inhibit enzyme activity,
such as polygalacturonase, cellulase, and pectin methylesterase, while, contradictorily, it
supports catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase activities.
Treated persimmons depicted higher total phenolics, ascorbic acid, antioxidant activity,
and titratable acidity.

3. The Coating-Forming Agents Designed to Preserve Fruits and Vegetables

Key quality aspects of edible films or coatings are the protective characteristics against
water vapor, gases, and chemical migration; physical and mechanical protection; and
influence on product appearance, including color and gloss [81]. Post-harvest quality loss
of fresh goods is connected to biochemical and physiological changes in the living tissue
caused by mass transfer phenomena, such as moisture and oxygen exchanges, undesirable
odor absorption, ethylene production, or flavor loss [82]. Post-harvest losses are related to
microbial changes, fungal deterioration, increased risk of food-borne disease, and shorter
storability. Antibacterial chemicals in the polymeric matrix are another prominent topic in
coating design. Besides, the effectiveness of edible coating relies on the wettability of the
product and is impacted by both the surface qualities of fresh food and the chemical compo-
sition and structure of coating-forming polymers. Plasticizers, surfactants, antimicrobials,
and antioxidants can alter the coating process’ efficacy and affect the film thickness during
coating development [83].
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 10 of 23

Other factors, such as tensile strength, affect edible coating efficiency. Tensile strength
and stretchability are crucial film parameters that can be utilized to monitor the film’s
integrity and resistance to environmental stress throughout the coating treatments [84].
Mechanical resistance prevents coating film cracking and protects fruits and vegetables
from impact, pressure, and vibrations while in storage [85]. The problems in terms of mass
transfer qualities of coatings include reducing water vapor permeability levels to avoid
moisture loss, weight loss, or changes in texture, taste, and appearance [86]. Water loss
and gain are often seen negatively. The coating must also have low oxygen permeability
since this respiration process boosts sugar and other chemical consumption, increasing
ethylene production and triggering senescence [82]. A varied minimum oxygen transfer
rate may be necessary to avoid unwanted metabolic differences based on the fruit or
vegetable’s respiration rate. Coating extensibility and adhesion are essential factors in
enhancing coating functions and the quality and appearance of coated fruits and vegetables.
Some active chemicals incorporated in the edible coatings may modify the organoleptic
character of the coated product, causing unpleasant scents or functional modifications.
Active compounds, such as essential oils, can be harmful to plant cells or lose potency when
exposed to environmental or dietary elements [87]. Figure 2 shows the direct correlations
between coating qualities and the quality variables maintained in fruits and vegetables.
Polymers 2022, 14, x The interfacial interaction between the coating-forming chemicals and the surface energy 11 of 29

of a product affects how well a coating protects against abrasion.

Figure2.2. The
Figure The direct
direct correlations
correlations between
between coating
coating qualities
qualities and
and the
thequality
quality variables
variables preserved
preserved in
in
fruits and vegetables.
fruits and vegetables.

4.
4.Applications
Applicationsand andEffects ofof
Effects Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides Coating
Coatingon Fruits and Vegetable
on Fruits Postharvest
and Vegetable Post-
harvest
Fresh food degrades rapidly during harvesting, processing, transit, and storage, with
over half
Freshof food
the items ripening
degrades and during
rapidly decomposing during
harvesting, these activities.
processing, transit,Coatings manufac-
and storage, with
tured
over half of the items ripening and decomposing during these activities. Coatingsapplied
from edible materials are essential in this circumstance because they may be manu-
to fruits and
factured fromvegetables after harvesting,
edible materials employing
are essential in this electrospraying, conventional
circumstance because spraying,
they may be ap-
spreading, dipping, brushing, and layer by layer deposition processes [88]. Polysaccharides
plied to fruits and vegetables after harvesting, employing electrospraying, conventional
coatings
spraying, are selected for
spreading, industrial
dipping, application
brushing, basedbyonlayer
and layer the hydrophobicity, the roughness
deposition processes [88]. Pol-
of the fresh produce surface, and the physical features of each coating properties
ysaccharides coatings are selected for industrial application based on the hydrophobicity, of the
edible coatings, including coating emulsion stability, surface tension, viscosity, cost,
the roughness of the fresh produce surface, and the physical features of each coating prop- density,
erties of the edible coatings, including coating emulsion stability, surface tension, viscos-
ity, cost, density, and drying conditions [89]. Polysaccharide coatings are an innovative
method for increasing food quality for customer satisfaction. Non-toxic polysaccharide
coatings protect the nutrient content of fresh food while suppressing microbial develop-
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 11 of 23

and drying conditions [89]. Polysaccharide coatings are an innovative method for increas-
ing food quality for customer satisfaction. Non-toxic polysaccharide coatings protect the
nutrient content of fresh food while suppressing microbial development, creating a gas
and water vapor barrier, and preventing oxidation [90]. Combining active compounds
with the polymer matrix improves food’s sensory and nutritional quality. Table 1 displays
examples of polysaccharide coatings employed to enhance the quality of various fruits
and vegetables.
Fruits and vegetables are frequently affected by pathogenic microorganisms. For
example, gum arabic exhibited promising antimicrobial activity against pathogenic fungi,
such as C. gloeosporioides, Geotrichum citri-aurantii, and Penicillium digitatum. Gum arabic
and maize starch effectively coat pomegranate fruits for cold storage. In comparison
with uncoated samples of pomegranate, the coating significantly reduced decay [91,92].
Additionally, other studies have demonstrated that gum arabic is effective at inhibiting the
growth of fungi in perishable foods, such as avocado, mango, strawberries, and tomatoes,
when used as packaging materials.
Alginate-polysaccharides-based coatings minimize weight loss, preserve apple quality,
and extend shelf life [93]. Gum-based edible coatings reduce respiration and oxidation
rates by functioning as a semi-permeable barrier to oxygen and carbon dioxide [9]. López-
Córdoba and Aldana-Usme [94] investigated the effect of coatings of sodium alginate
and ascorbic acid on the physicochemical parameters of fresh-cut pineapple during stor-
age. Their findings showed that alginate gum coatings could preserve the appearance of
pineapple while refrigerated. According to Bal [95], edible coatings based on alginate gum
influence preserving plum quality during post-harvest storage. The combination of alginate
coating treatment and salicylic acid showed promising results in extending plum storage
life for 40 days at 0–1 ◦ C. Tomatoes can be preserved by polysaccharides coatings that act
as vapor, solute, and gas barriers. Das et al. [96] studied alginate-based edible coatings on
tomatoes to prevent postharvest ripening and retain quality. Their findings demonstrated
the benefits of delaying ripening by lowering respiration rate, ethylene production, and
ethylene-induced alterations, such as color change and loss of firmness.
Chitosan coatings increase the storability of fresh produce by slowing respiration and
reducing water loss. Chitosan coatings protect against bacterial contamination and moisture
loss from food products’ surfaces, thereby extending their shelf life. A chitosan-based edible
coating incorporating cellulose nanofibers and curcumin has been shown to prolong kiwi
fruits’ storability and quality, including less weight and firmness loss, slow respiration rate,
and a decrease in microbial growth [97]. Sun et al. [98] previously examined the shelf life of
kiwis, strawberries, nectarines, avocados, apricots, and bananas coated with three bio-based
nanomaterials of chitin, chitosan, and cellulose. The most potent antifungal agents were
wood nanocrystals and chitosan nanofibers. Kumar et al. [28] evaluated green bell pepper
samples’ shelf life and quality parameters using chitosan-pullulan and pomegranate peel
extract. The coatings considerably reduced physiological weight loss and color browning.
Moreover, the chitosan also inhibits the growth of fungi, which degrades the quality of
fresh-cut cucumbers when they are stored [99]. In addition, the papaya, which experiences
a 20–30% post-harvest loss, was also studied [100]. Post-harvest degradation of papayas
makes them a target for infections, reducing their acceptability and shelf life.
Similarly, another study conveyed that the ripening of peanut samples was delayed
by using a pullulan, pectin, and grape seed extract as bioactive binary coatings [101]. As
a result, there was a decrease in lipid oxidation, which delayed their rancidity, thereby
improving the storability of coated samples. Antibacterial activity of the pectin, pullulan,
and grape seed film was demonstrated against E. coli and L. monocytogenes. Lara et al. [102]
studied the effects of fresh-cut lotus roots coated with different xanthan gum concentrations.
Citric acid was present in all previously mentioned solutions as an anti-browning agent,
which reduced the enzymatic browning of fresh-cut lotus roots and glycerol was included
as a plasticizer. The treated samples exhibited a lower microbial count than the untreated
fresh-cut lotus root samples after 24 h. Khorram et al. [103] investigated the effects of
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 12 of 23

different compounds, including edible gelatin, Persian gum, and shellac, as coatings for
oranges. The results show that different coating agents enhanced shelf life and physical-
chemical qualities. The most notable benefits for fresh-cut fruits are reduced water loss,
enhanced solid soluble content, and color preservation.

Table 1. Examples of polysaccharide coatings employed to enhance the quality of various fruits
and vegetables.

Polysaccharides Additives/Surfactants Coated Fruits/Vegetables Effects on Fruits and Vegetables References

• Reduced postharvest decay and

Ponkan orange membrane lipid peroxidation
Gum arabic Glycerol • Maintained nutritional quality [91]
(Citrus poonensis)
• Retarded fruit quality deterioration

Pomegranate • Prevented weight loss during

Gum arabic, maize starch Lemongrass oil, glycerol storage to maintain quality [92]
(Punica granatum)

Strawberry • Inhibited fungal growth completely

Gum arabic Glycerol • Preserved visual quality [73]
(Fragaria ananassa)

Tomato • Reduced water activity

Gum arabic - during storage [104]
(Solanum lycopersicum)

• Retarded weight loss

Avocado • Delayed color changes and
Gum arabic, cellulose Moringa leaf extract [105]
(Persea americana) inhibited growth of C. gleosporioides

• Prevented weight loss

Mango • Reduced acidity loss
Gum arabic Aloe vera gel, ethanolic [106]
(Mangifera indica) • Delayed ripening process

Apple • Reduced weight loss and microbial

Alginate Citric acid, ascorbic acid contamination [93]
(Malus pumila)

Pineapple • Preserved the color

Alginate Ascorbic acid • Inhibited the polyphenol oxidase [94]
(Ananas comosus)

• Reduced weight reduction

Plum (Prunus salicina L. cv. • Delayed in respiration rate changes
Alginate Salicylic acid, oxalic acid [95]
‘Black amber’) • Extended shelf life for 40 days

Orange essential oil, • Inhibited the growth of bacteria

Alginate Tomato • Prevented ripening and spoilage [96]
Tween 80

• Minimized weight loss, firmness

Kiwi fruit loss, respiration rate, and microbial
Chitosan, cellulose Curcumin [97]
(Actinidia deliciosa) count for 10 days storage at 10 ◦ C

Kiwi, avocado, strawberry, • Retained fruit freshness with

Chitosan, chitin, cellulose - excellent antifungal action [98]
banana, nectarine, apricot
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 13 of 23

Table 1. Cont.

Polysaccharides Additives/Surfactants Coated Fruits/Vegetables Effects on Fruits and Vegetables References

• Retained phenolic, flavonoid, and

antioxidant properties
Green bell pepper • Retained physicochemical properties
Chitosan, pullulan Pomegranate peel extract [28]
(Capsicum annuum) • Retained organoleptic quality
over 18 days

• Preserved fresh-cut cucumber

Cucumber freshness and shelf life up to 12 days
Chitosan Acetic acid [99]
(Cucumis sativus) • Reduced fungal count

• Extended storability
Papaya • Reduced the growth of
Chitosan Calcium chloride [100]
(Carica papaya L.) decay-causing fungi

• Reduced bacterial growth

Grape seed extract Peanut and rancidity
Pectin, pullulan • Prevented lipid oxidation and [101]
(Vitis vinifera) (Arachis hypogaea)
prolonged shelf life

Lotus root • Decreased enzymatic browning

Xanthan gum Citric acid, glycerol • Inhibited growth of Bacillus subtilis [102]
(Nelumbo nucifera)

• Reduced water loss and

Persian gum Gelatin, shellac ‘Valencia’ orange imparted gloss [103]
• Reduced weight and firmness loss

5. Preservation Mechanisms
Due to internal and external factors, the post-harvest quality of fruits and vegetables
may deteriorate. Recent advances in polysaccharide-based edible coatings have demon-
strated favorable effects on preserving fresh fruit quality, most notably by providing
antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant qualities. As indicated in Table 2, these systems
aim to use the polysaccharide’s barrier properties against physical and mechanical im-
pacts, chemical reactions, and microbial invasion. Polysaccharides are also biodegradable,
readily available, and inexpensive. This latter reduces the need for non-biodegradable
synthetic packaging materials. Polysaccharides can also be modified to improve their
physicochemical properties.
The polysaccharides-based coating provided antimicrobial preservative mechanisms
on the fresh produce. Du et al. [107] stated that a combination of chitosan and sodium algi-
nate (SA/CS) had shown antibacterial activity by preventing mold growth on strawberries.
Chitosan polysaccharide enriched with cinnamon oil has decreased the rate of respiration
and controlled the ripening of sweet cherries during storage by increasing the exosmosis
ratios of Penicillium citrinum and Aspergillus flavus, where the development of spores
and mycelium was inhibited and killed [108]. In addition, Nourozi and Sayyari [69] have
proposed that aloe vera gel-based coverings coated with basil seed mucilage imparted
antimicrobial preservative mechanisms by preventing pathogen growth. Moreover, cationic
starch and anionic sodium alginate were reported to provide antimicrobial properties via
the inhibition zone method [109]. Previously, Wu [110] said that polysaccharides of cactus
Opuntia dillenii showed bacteriostatic activity, which can inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Besides providing antimicrobial properties to fresh produce, polysaccharides-based
coatings also anticipated antifungal properties, which inhibited fungus that caused rot
to appear on the crop. Previously, Nicolau-Lapena [111] has mentioned that aloe vera
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 14 of 23

gel possessed antifungal preservative mechanisms where the bioactive components of

aloe vera gel aided in enhancing the quality attributes of fruits, such as grapes, tomatoes,
peach, sweet cherry, litchi fruit, fresh-cut papaya, white button mushroom, fresh-cut guava,
and pomegranate arils. Similarly, Nair et al. [112] reported that a combination of chitosan
and alginate enriched with pomegranate peel extract is indicated to inhibit Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides by disrupting the cell wall of the fungal. The addition of nanoparticles, such
as ZnO, in the antimicrobial coating of alginate and chitosan manifested extra antifungal
activity by inhibiting the growth of fungus Phyllosticta psidicola [109]. Correspondingly,
Kharchoufi et al. [113] has disclosed that the coating of chitosan and locust bean gum
enriched with pomegranate peel extract significantly inhibited P. digitatum in oranges.
Hajji et al. [114] also reported the findings of the antifungal activity found on strawberries
coated with a combination of chitosan enriched with carotenoproteins coatings. When used
alone, the enhancement of dietary fibers and essential oils onto chitosan coating generated
superior antifungal properties than chitosan [115].
Polysaccharides-based coatings have been reported to improve the antioxidant prop-
erties of coated fruits and vegetables to improve the product’s titratable acid, vitamin C,
and phenolic content. Aloe vera gel delivers antimicrobial properties in a fruit coating
and provides antioxidant properties to the fresh produce due to bioactive components in
aloe vera gel [111]. Earlier, Alvarez et al. [115] reported incorporating dietary fibers, such
as oligofructose and orange fiber, into sodium alginate, and a chitosan coating provides
antioxidant properties due to high content phytochemicals and phenols in it. Notably,
chitosan alone retains antioxidant properties, thus inhibiting browning and controlling the
overproduction of ROS [116]. Panahirad et al. [117] discovered that carboxymethylcellu-
lose coating assists the preservation of plum fruit firmness, titratable acidity, vitamin C,
anthocyanin, and flavonoid content to its antioxidant qualities.
Previously, researchers reported that the effectiveness of polysaccharide-based coatings in
inhibiting respiration rate in fruits might be linked to engendering properties of polysaccharide-
based coatings, such as providing enzyme-related defense mechanisms [116,118] and the
ability of the coating to partially fill the apertures of the fruits’ dermal tissue, resulting in
a significant reduction of gas exchange and respiration [119]. The polysaccharides-based
coating may act as a semi-permeable barrier and serve as modified atmospheric packaging
to shield fruits from oxygen, carbon dioxide, and moisture, hence lowering the rate of fresh
product respiration [120].

Table 2. Application of polysaccharide’s barrier properties against physical and mechanical impacts,
chemical reactions, and microbial invasion.

Polysaccharides Fruits/Vegetables
Target Preservative Mechanisms Effect on Fresh Produce References
Used Used

• Provided
antibacterial properties
• Restricted gas exchange
Antimicrobial mechanisms of chitosan: and water loss
Positively charged chitosan molecules • Provided excellent oxygen
Sodium alginate + Strawberry Microbial cell and water vapor barrier
interacting with negatively charged bacteria [107]
Chitosan (SA/CS)3 (Fragaria ananassa) membrane characteristics
membranes inhibit microbial growth and
toxin buildup. • Reduced weight loss
• Reduced oxidative damage
during storage
• Inhibited mold growth

Antimicrobial mechanisms of chitosan: The

presence of chitosan micropores as a gas barrier
and a carrier for cinnamon oil, along with: • Decreased rate
The presence of hydroxyl groups inhibits of respiration
mycotoxin formation by creating hydrogen • Decreased O2 level
Chitosan(CH) + Sweet cherry Cell wall and • Increased CO2 in cherry
bonds with active enzymes. [108]
cinnamon oil (Prunus avium L.) cell membrane fruit packaging
Antimicrobial mechanisms of cinnamon oil:
Trans-cinnamaldehyde, a component in • Controlled the decay of
cinnamon, was shown to induce unevenness of fruits during storage
hyphae cell walls of fungus, mechanical
damage, and disrupted cell metabolism.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 15 of 23

Table 2. Cont.

Polysaccharides Fruits/Vegetables
Target Preservative Mechanisms Effect on Fresh Produce References
Used Used

• Reduced weight loss

Antimicrobial mechanisms of AVG and BSM: • Decreased soluble solid
Aloe vera gel + Basil Apricot (Prunus TPC accumulated in response to AVG and BSM. • Slowed respiration rate
seed mucilage armeanica cv. - Phenolic chemicals directly affect the defense • Lowered ethylene output [69]
(AVG + BSM) ‘Nouri’) process by inhibiting pathogen growth and • Lowered ripening index
reinforcing host tissues. • Maintained fitness of fruits

Grapes, Antifungal mechanisms of AVG:

Tomatoes, Peach, Bioactive compounds of aloe vera gel, Aloin, • Decreased respiration
Sweet cherry, and Barbaloin disrupt the lipid/water interface • Decreased ripening process
Litchi fruit, Phospholipid in negatively charged phospholipids, causing • Prevented
Aloe vera gel (AVG) fresh-cut papaya, bilayer of fungal bilayer core rupture. browning reaction [111]
white button fungal Antioxidant mechanisms of AVG: • Delayed firmness loss
mushroom, Aloe-emodin, one of the bioactive components • Inhibited weight loss
fresh-cut guava, in AVG, prevents the degradation of flavonoid, • Retained phenolic content
pomegranate arils FC and total phenolic content, TPC.

• Inhibited Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides
• Retained weight, firmness,
Chitosan (CH) + Antifungal mechanisms of pomegranate peel color, and ascorbic acid
Cell wall of • Inhibited the
Alginate (AL) + Capsicum (Cap- extract (PPE):
the microor- microbial growth [112]
Pomegranate peel sicum annuum L.) PPE is high in phenolics, which are
ganisms • Maintained
extract (PPE) antioxidants and antimicrobial compounds.
organoleptic properties
• Extended the storability up
to 25 days at 10 ◦ C

Preservative mechanisms of GG-GSE:

The formation of an extended network between
GG and hydrophilic molecules, such as phenols • Controlled water loss
via hydrogen bonding reduces respiration rate, • Retained firmness, ascorbic
Guar GUM (GG) + Sweet cherry acid, and total phenols
- water loss, and oxidation reaction. [118]
Ginseng extract (GSE) (Prunus avium L.) • Increased sweet cherry
Enzyme related-defense mechanisms:
High GSE bioactive component concentration shelf life by 8 days
reduces the oxygen supply needed for
enzymatic oxidation of phenols.

Antifungal activity of nanoZnO: • Prevented rot appearance

ZnO nanoparticles prevent the development of of fruits, especially the
Phyllosticta psidicola fungus when coated with fungus Phyllosticta
alginate and chitosan. psidicola
Antimicrobial activity of cationic starch and • Prevented bulk loss
Alginate + Chitosan + Guava (Psidium sodium alginate: in fruits
- [109]
ZnO nanoparticles guajava L.) Cationic groups are acquired via the • Retarded maturational
production of cationic starch. physicochemical changes
Anionic groups were created using sodium • Preserved guava for 20
alginate, a natural anionic polysaccharide. days vs. 7 days for
The antibacterial activity is measured by zone uncoated fruits
inhibition (disc diffusion method).

Preservative mechanism of reducing • Preserved avocado

respiratory rate: green color
Citrus pectin + Apertures Coating essentially seals the dermal tissue’s • Reduced respiration rate
broken rice grain Avocado (Persea present in the apertures, severely reducing gas exchange or • Provided firm appearance
on avocado [119]
flour + cellulosic rice americana Milll.) dermal tissue respiration. Coatings partially block natural
skin nanofiber of the fruit fruit apertures, acting as a modified • Extended shelf life
atmosphere package, slowing metabolism and • Delayed ripening by a
enzyme activity, notably pectinases. minimum of 8 days

Antifungal mechanisms of the coating: • Reduced disease

Chitosan (CH) + incidence significantly.
Inhibition halo requires both CH and LBG. CH
Locust Bean Gum Orange • Controlled Penicillium
- has an inherent inhibitory action. The P. [113]
(LBG) + Pomegranate (Citrus sinensis) digitatum growth
digitatum growth was considerably reduced by
Peel Extract (PPE) • Reduced postharvest decay
CH and LBG coatings supplemented with PPE.

Antifungal activity of the coating:

For maximum bacterial suppression, use higher • Reduced the fungal decay
CS and CP concentrations in edible • Reduced weight loss
Fungal film creation. • Inhibited phytopathogenic
Chitosan + Strawberries
reproductive CS and CP improved fungicidal growth on cold-stored fruit [114]
carotenoproteins (Fragaria ananassa)
structure growth inhibition. • Extended shelf-life
CS’s potency was related to its ability to alter of strawberries
the morphology of fungal
reproductive structures.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 16 of 23

Table 2. Cont.

Polysaccharides Fruits/Vegetables
Target Preservative Mechanisms Effect on Fresh Produce References
Used Used

• Inhibited the growth of

mesophilic bacteria and
Antioxidant activity of oligofructose and yeasts/molds
orange fiber: • Reduced degradation rate
The high amount of phytochemicals and by greater than 50%
Sodium Alginate +
phenols as well as an antioxidant capacity that • Boosted
Chitosan + Different Blueberries
Cell triggers the phenylpropanoid metabolism antioxidant properties
Dietary Fibers (apple (Vaccinium sect. [115]
membrane allowed more significant reductions in • Retained fruit firmness
fiber, orange fiber, Cyanococcus)
yeast/mold counts than CH alone. • Halted
inulin, oligofructose)
Antifungal activity of CH–OL and CH–OF: off-odor development
OF and OL extract may include plant-derived • Enhanced visual quality
bioactive substances with antifungal activity. • Increased blueberry
sensory shelf life by 6 days

Antifungal mechanism of CH and EO:

The capacity of EO to permeate cell membranes
damages biological processes, such as ion loss,
coagulation of bacterial cytoplasm, and direct • Controlled fungal growth
Chitosan + Bell pepper Cell wall and of anthracnose
damage to proton pump and ATP [121]
Lemongrass oil (C. capsici) cell membrane • Maintained food quality
generation sites.
A reduction in membrane potential causes
calcium ion leakage and other
vital components.

• Preserved firmness,
anthocyanin, flavonoid,
Antioxidant mechanism of CMC: titratable acidity, vitamin C,
The presence of carboxylic groups in CMC’s anthocyanin, and
chemical structure results in hydrogen bonding flavonoid content
Plum fruits within the coating matrix and between the • Maintained antioxidant
Carboxymethylcellulose
(Prunus - coating and the fruit peel. capacity of plum fruits [117]
(CMC)
domestica L.) Limiting O2 access and changing internal gas • Increased
composition, lowering oxidative metabolism peroxidase activity
via increased peroxidase activity, and delaying • Decreased polyphenol
textural changes in fruits. oxidase and
polygalacturonase

• Suppressed browning
Antimicrobial mechanism of ODP: • Decreased microbial
Bacterial ODP’s bacteriostatic effect slows bacterial growth
Cactus Opuntia dillenii • Reduced respiration rate
Fresh-cut potato cellular growth by interfering with bacterial protein [110]
polysaccharide (ODP) • Inhibited weight loss
activity production, DNA replication, or other cellular
metabolisms. • Inhibited total sugar
formation

• Prevented weight loss

• Improved firmness of fruits
Preservative mechanism of reducing • Decreased respiration rate
respiratory rate: • Slowed down the
Fenugreek and flax increment in TSS of apple
Apples (Malus Coating material alters the environment of fruit
polysaccharides - during storage [122]
domestica) by forming a thick surface layer, which reduces
coating • Slowed down the pH
the pace of respiration and the degradation
process by preventing gas exchange. changes in apples
• Maintained TA of
coated apple

Antioxidant mechanisms of the coating:

Chitosan inhibits browning and increases
antioxidant properties and controls the
overproduction of ROS, and suppresses lipid
peroxidation. • Inhibited
Enzyme related-defense mechanisms: enzymatic browning
Inhibit the polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity • Lowered
Fresh-cut lettuce
Alginate + Chitosan + and postpone the time to reach its maximum malondialdehyde content
(Lactuca sativa L. - [116]
Carrageenan level while triggering the formation of • Enhanced
var. ramosa Hort.)
phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL). antioxidant enzyme
Inhibit the phospholipase D, PLD and • Postponed senescence
lipoxygenase, LOX activity while dramatically
maintaining high activities of antioxidant
enzyme (catalase, CAT; peroxidase, POD;
superoxide dismutase, SOD; and ascorbate
peroxidase, APX.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 17 of 23

Table 2. Cont.

Polysaccharides Fruits/Vegetables
Target Preservative Mechanisms Effect on Fresh Produce References
Used Used

• Reduced weight loss

• Enhanced firmness
• Decreased browning
• Lowered
malondialdehyde content
• Increased physical
Preservative mechanism of reducing microstructure
respiratory rate: • Lowered enzyme activities:
Capability to operate as a semi-permeable protease, polyphenol
Polysaccharide Shiitake barrier to the flow of O2 , CO2 , moisture, and oxidase, peroxidase,
isolated from mushrooms - solutes, as well as to generate a modified phenylalanine ammonia [120]
Oudemansiella radicata (Lentinus edodes) environment to limit respiration rate. lyase, cellulase, chitinase
Coatings delay the loss of natural volatile • Produced mushrooms with
components, allowing the original mushroom high concentrations of
flavor to be preserved for a longer shelf life. superoxide dismutase and
catalase, monosodium
glutamate-resembling
amino acids, umami
50 -nucleotides,
and 1-octen-3-ol

6. Legislations and Safety Issues of Edible Films and Coatings

Polysaccharide coatings are regulated similarly to other dietary components and act as
an essential component of fruits and vegetables [123]. It can be used in developing edible
packaging if a substance has been approved as safe by the FDA, is categorized as GRAS,
and is used by Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). If the biopolymer component utilized
is still not GRAS-approved, the producer who wants to use it may request it, assuming its
safety can be demonstrated. Besides, the producer can submit a GRAS Affirmation Petition
to FDA or commercialize the product without FDA approval. Furthermore, active and
intelligent packaging might accommodate antimicrobials, antioxidants, colors, and other
nutrients to improve the function of the films or coatings. EU regulations required food
additives to be identified on packaging with their functional category and either their name
or E-number [124].
Regulatory statutes cover other significant issues related to allergenic components in
edible films and coatings. Protein residues are common in polysaccharide extracts [125].
For instance, guar gum extract might contain less than 10% protein, which may trigger
allergies [126]. In some cases, occupational asthma and allergies have been linked to guar
gum or guar gum dust exposure [127]. Nonetheless, guar gum is not a significant food
allergy due to the small number of cases reported [128]. Aside from polysaccharides, edible
films and coatings can be manufactured using wheat (gluten), milk (whey, casein), soy, and
peanut proteins, which are prominent as allergens [129].
Most countries consider chemical compounds introduced as antimicrobials as food
additives if their primary intent is to lengthen the shelf life of fruits and vegetables. National
regulations govern the application of edible coatings and their concentrations. The coating
is used in nations where the fresh product is exported. Generally, all substances listed on
the label must be accurately described because the edible films and coatings have become
an inseparable part of fresh food [124].

7. Benefits and Limitations of Natural Packaging

Natural-based films provide several advantages over directly adding preservatives to
food items to increase their shelf life, quality, and safety. By embedding preservatives into
the packing material, just the appropriate quantity of antibacterial or antioxidant agents
is employed, minimizing preservative interaction with the food product. Furthermore,
including antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds into films keeps them from seeping
across the food matrix and reacting with other food components, such as proteins and
lipids, resulting in a loss of effect. Another benefit of antimicrobial/antioxidant film is that
Polymers 2022,14,
Polymers2022, 14,1341
x 23 18
of of2923

itisallows the release

that it allows of these
the release ofagents in a controlled
these agents way. Figure
in a controlled 3 depicts
way. Figure a review
3 depicts of the
a review
advantages and disadvantages of natural packaging.
of the advantages and disadvantages of natural packaging.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Summary
Summary of
of benefits
benefits and
and limitations
limitations of
of natural
naturalpackaging.
packaging.

8.
8. Conclusions
Conclusions and Future Recommendations
Recommendations
According
According to the extensive analysis included
extensive analysis includedin inthis
thisreview,
review,ititwaswasconcluded
concludedthat that
polysaccharides-based
polysaccharides-based edible edible packaging
packaging isis an
an environmentally
environmentallyfriendlyfriendlytechnology
technologythat that
utilizes
utilizes biodegradable ingredientsubstances
biodegradable ingredient substancestotoeffectively
effectivelyprolong
prolongshelf
shelflife
lifeofoffresh
freshpro-
pro-
duce.
duce. The
The FDA
FDA and
and other
other food
foodsafety
safetyregulatory
regulatoryagencies
agencieshave
haveapproved
approvedthe theedible
ediblecoating
coat-
restrictions and and
ing restrictions recognized
recognized polysaccharides
polysaccharidesas GRAS. Edible
as GRAS. coating
Edible andand
coating filmfilm
packaging
pack-
technology has been
aging technology hasa been
boon afor agricultural
boon and horticultural
for agricultural products.
and horticultural Understanding
products. Under-
how polysaccharides-based
standing how polysaccharides-based edible coatings and filmand
edible coatings forming solutions
film forming contribute
solutions to the
contrib-
preservation of food products’ physicochemical qualities and shelf life,
ute to the preservation of food products’ physicochemical qualities and shelf life, as well as well as to the
development of novel of
as to the development formulas for prepared
novel formulas coatingcoating
for prepared solutions, is important.
solutions, is important.The edible
The
coating and film
edible coating andare both
film aregas
bothand
gaswater resistant.
and water Researchers
resistant. Researchershavehave
concentrated
concentrated their
efforts over the
their efforts lastthe
over few years
last fewon producing
years highly functional,
on producing nanostructured,
highly functional, and multilay-
nanostructured, and
ered polysaccharides-based
multilayered polysaccharides-basededible coating
edible and filmand
coating materials in a variety
film materials of combinations
in a variety of com-
and concentrations.
binations The commodity-specific
and concentrations. application
The commodity-specific technology
application would bewould
technology used. be Ad-
ditionally, this review
used. Additionally, study
this reviewrevealed
study previously created edible
revealed previously createdfilms enriched
edible films with other
enriched
substances, as well as their
with other substances, influence
as well oninfluence
as their fruits andonvegetables.
fruits and Further
vegetables.research
Further should focus
research
on the use and technique for commercializing highly functional polysaccharides-based
should focus on the use and technique for commercializing highly functional polysaccha-
coating and film
rides-based forming
coating materials.
and film forming materials.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization:

Author Contributions: Conceptualization:W.X.L.F.
W.X.L.F.and
andK.R.; resourcing
K.R.; andand
resourcing writing—original draft
writing—original
draft preparation:
preparation: K.R., W.X.L.F.,
K.R., W.X.L.F., M.N.N.,
M.N.N., J.M.V.
J.M.V. and and K.H.E.;
K.H.E.; writing—review
writing—review and editing:
and editing: K.R.,
K.R., W.X.L.F.,
W.X.L.F.,
M.M. and M.M., and supervision:
N.F.A.H.; N.F.A.H.; supervision: K.R. All
K.R. All authors authors
have readhave read and
and agreed to agreed to the published
the published version of
version
the of the manuscript.
manuscript.
Funding: Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Funding: Sabah (Grant
(Grant No:
No.:PHD0024-2019).
PHD0024-2019).
Institutional Review
Institutional Review Board
Board Statement:
Statement: Not
Not applicable.
applicable.
Informed Consent
Informed Consent Statement:
Statement: Not
Not applicable.
applicable.
Data Availability
Data Availability Statement:
Statement: Not
Not applicable.
applicable.
Acknowledgments: The
Acknowledgments: The authors
authors would
would like
like to
tothank
thankall
allthe
theresearchers
researchersinvolved
involvedininthe
theproject.
project.This
This
work was
work was supported
supported by
by the
the grant
grant from
from Universiti
Universiti Malaysia
Malaysia Sabah
Sabah (Grant
(GrantNo:
No.:PHD0024-2019).
PHD0024-2019).
Polymers 2022, 14, 1341 19 of 23

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interest or
personal relationships that could have influenced the research presented in this paper.

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