CIE 136 Completed

CIE 136
Structural Theory
This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA Education
Syllabus
PEN Code: CIE 136 Credit: 4 units

PEN Subject Title: Structural Theory Prerequisite: CIE 113
A. Subject Description:
A professional course common to all civil engineering students designed to provide
fundamental concepts, principles, and theories in the theory of structures and structural
analysis for internal actions in a structure and its deformations under load.
B. Objectives:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
1) Identify and classify various types of planar and spatial; structural systems and the
manner by which these are supported for stability;
2) Determine the state of static and kinematic determinacy and stability of structural
systems, externally and internally;
3) Apply the methods of structural analysis for external and internal actions on various
types of structural systems due to static and moving loads.
4) Develop intuition on deflected shapes of structures under loading.
C. Subject Outline and Time Allotment:
Lesson No. Topics Week No.

1 Introduction to Structural Analysis and Loads
1
2 Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses
3 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment 2
4 Double Integration Method 3
5 Moment Area Method 4

FIRST PERIODIC EXAM 5
6 Conjugate Beam Method 6
7 Virtual Work Method (Beams and Frames) 7

8 Virtual Work Method (Trusses) 8
SECOND PERIODIC EXAM 9

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures – Three Moment
9 10
Equation
1
10 Slope Deflection Method 11
11 Moment Distribution Method 12
THIRD PERIODIC EXAM 13
D. Textbook:
1. Hibbeler, R.C., Structural Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H and Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
3. Aslam Kassimali, Structural Analysis, SI Edition
E. Course Requirements
Requirements Due Date
Problem Set
Three Periodic Examinations and quiz for every periodic. Passing score for all
activities is 60%
F. Grading System:
The Final Grade is computed as follows:
FG = (0.17×P1) + (0.17×P2) + (0.16×P3) + (0.50×FE)
The 1st Periodical Grade is computed as follows:
P1 = 40%(EXAM) + 60%(Class Standing)
The 2nd Periodical Grade is computed as follows:
The 3rd Periodical Grade is computed as follows:
Passing Grade is 60.
2
CIE 136: Structural Theory
Student Activity Sheet #1
Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: __________________________________ Date: _______________
Lesson title: Introduction to Structural Analysis and Loads Materials:

Lesson Objectives: Notebook, Pen & Calculator
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: References:
1. Hibbeler, R.C., Structural
1. Identify different types of structures. Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
2. Familiarize with types of supports. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
3. Determine the determinacy and stability of a structure. Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
4. Compute for the reactions in a given structure. Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
Productivity Tip: Read over your lecture slides and corresponding textbook notes. Make a list of terms
and equations that are important. Make a special note which includes areas which you need
clarification. Don’t be afraid to ask.
A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
Hello! Good Day. Before we start I would like to congratulate you for enrolling in this subject. I am
expecting you to be more focus and thirsty to learn new things. Always remember, you’re halfway in
achieving your dream.
This subject was designed to provide fundamental concepts, principles, and theories in theory of
structures and structural analysis for internal actions in a structure and its deformation under load.
2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1. How will you identify the
determinacy of the structure?
2. Can you give two examples of
supports for a plane structure?
3. Can you enumerate two types
of structure?
This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION 1


B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important examples are related
to civil engineering includes buildings, bridges, and towers.
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer must account for its
safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration economic and environmental
constraints. Often this requires several independent studies of different solutions before final judgment
can be made as to which structural form is most appropriate. This design process is both creative and
technical and requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and the laws of mechanics which
govern material response. Once a preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the structure must then
be analyzed to ensure that it has its required stiffness and strength.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Structural Elements:
Tie Rods - Structural members subjected to a

tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or
bracing struts. Due to the nature of this load, these
members are rather slender, and are often chosen
from rods, bars, angles, or channels.
Beams - usually straight horizontal members

used primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite
often they are classified according to the way
they are supported, as indicated in the figure.
Beams are primarily designed to resist bending

moment; however, if they are short and carry
large loads, the internal shear force may
become quite large and this force may govern
their design.


When the material used for a beam is a metal

such as steel or aluminum, the cross section is
most efficient when it is shaped as shown in the
figure. Here the forces developed in the top and
bottom flanges of the beam form the necessary
couple used to resist the applied moment M,
whereas the web is effective in resisting the
applied shear V.
This cross section is commonly referred to as a

“wide flange,” and it is normally formed as a single
unit in a rolling mill in lengths up to 75 ft (23 m). If
shorter lengths are needed, a cross section
having tapered flanges is sometimes selected.
When the beam is required to have a very large
span and the loads applied are rather large, the
cross section may take the form of a plate girder.
Columns - Members that are generally

vertical and resist axial compressive loads
are referred to as columns. Tubes and wide-
flange cross sections are often used for
metal columns, and circular and square
cross sections with reinforcing rods are used
for those made of concrete. Occasionally,
columns are subjected to both an axial load
and a bending moment as shown in the
figure. These members are referred to as
beam columns.


Types of Structure
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is referred to
as a structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures.
Trusses
When the span of a structure is required to

be large and its depth is not an important
criterion for design, a truss may be
selected. Planar trusses are composed of
members that lie in the same plane and are
frequently used for bridge and roof support,
whereas space trusses have members
extending in three dimensions and are
suitable for derricks and towers. Due to the
geometric arrangement of its members,
loads that cause the entire truss to bend
are converted into tensile or compressive
forces in the members.
Cables and Arches
Two other forms of structures used to span

long distances are the cable and the arch.
Cables are usually flexible and carry their
loads in tension The Arch achieves its
strength in compression, since it has a
reverse curvature to that of the cable. The
arch must be rigid, however, in order to
maintain its shape, and this results in
secondary loadings involving shear and
moment, which must be considered in its
design. Arches and cables are frequently
used in bridge structures.


Frames are often used in buildings and are

composed of beams and columns. Like
trusses, frames extend in two or three
dimensions. The loading on a frame causes
bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint
connections, this structure is generally
“indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis.
The strength of such a frame is derived from
the moment interactions between the beams
and the columns at the rigid joints .
1.3 LOADS ON STRUCTURES

Once the structural form has been determined, the actual design begins with those elements that
are subjected to the primary loads the structure is intended to carry, and proceeds in sequence to the
various supporting members until the foundation is reached. Thus, a building floor slab would be
designed first, followed by the supporting beams, columns, and last, the foundation footings. In order
to design a structure, it is therefore necessary to first specify the loads that act on it.
National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015

Design codes provide detailed technical standards and are used to establish the requirements for the
actual structural design. It should be realized, however, that codes provide only a general guide for
design. The ultimate responsibility for the design lies with the structural engineer.
Gravity Loads
The vertical loads, due mainly to the occupancy, self-weight and snow or rain, are commonly
referred to as gravity loads.
Dead Loads
Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of any objects
that are permanently attached to the structure. The values for dead loads are shown in NSCP
Section 204, Tables 204-1 and 204-2 for common material densities and minimum design dead
loads for common components.
Live Loads


Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the weights of
objects temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces. NSCP Section 204,
Table 205-1 provides recommended design live loads depending on the use of the space.
Snow and Rain Loads

In some parts of the country, roof loading due to snow or rain can be quite severe, and therefore
protection against possible failure is of primary concern.
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials, the pressure developed by these
loadings becomes an important criterion for their design.
Impact Loads.
When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than those that would
be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually. The dynamic effect of the load
that causes this increase in stress in the structure is referred to as impact.
Wind Loads
When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into potential energy
of pressure, which causes a wind loading. The effect of wind on a structure depends upon the density
and velocity of the air, the angle of incidence of the wind, the shape and stiffness of the structure,
and the roughness of its surface.
Earthquake Loads
Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with the ground and its response
characteristics. These loadings result from the structure’s distortion caused by the ground’s motion
and the lateral resistance of the structure.
ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES
2.1 EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURE

A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to a
system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its members and parts are also
in equilibrium.
Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional) structure subjected to three- dimensional
systems of forces and couples, the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant couple can
be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as,


ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣFz = 0

ΣMx = 0 ΣMy = 0 ΣMz = 0
These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space structures and are the necessary
and sufficient conditions for equilibrium. The first three equations ensure that there is no resultant
force acting on the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is no resultant
couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar system of forces and couples,
the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣFz = 0
These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of plane structures.
2.2 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES
External Forces
External forces are the actions of other bodies on the structure under consideration. For the purposes
of analysis, it is usually convenient to further classify these forces as applied forces and reaction
forces. Applied forces, usually referred to as loads (e.g., live loads and wind loads), have a tendency
to move the structure and are usually known in the analysis. Reaction forces, or reactions, are the
forces exerted by supports on the structure and have a tendency to prevent its motion and keep it in
equilibrium. The reactions are usually among the unknowns to be determined by the analysis. The
state of equilibrium or motion of the structure as a whole is governed solely by the external forces
acting on it.
Internal Forces
Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a member or portion of the structure by the
rest of the structure. These forces develop within the structure and hold the various portions of it
together. The internal forces always occur in equal but opposite pairs, because each member or
portion exerts back on the rest of the structure the same forces acting upon it but in opposite


directions, according to Newton’s third law. Because the internal forces cancel each other, they do
not ap- pear in the equations of equilibrium of the entire structure. The internal forces are also among
the unknowns in the analysis and are determined by applying the equations of equilibrium to the
individual members or portions of the structure.
2.3 TYPES OF SUPPORTS FOR PLANE STRUCTURES

Supports are used to attach structures to the ground or other bodies, thereby restricting their
movements under the action of applied loads. The loads tend to move the structures; but supports
prevent the movements by exerting opposing forces, or reactions, to neutralize the effects of loads,
thereby keeping the structures in equilibrium. The type of reaction a support exerts on a structure
depends on the type of supporting device used and the type of movement it prevents.


2.4 STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND STABILITY
Determinacy of Structures
A structure is statically determinate if the number of equations equals the number of unknowns
(external+internal). If the number of unknowns exceeds the number of equilibrium equations, the
structure becomes statically indeterminate.
Degree of Indeterminacy(General Equations)
DI = number of unknowns – number of equations
Degree of Indeterminacy ( Specific Equations)
Structure Planar Case 3D Case

Beams DI = R – 3 -C DI = R – 6 -C
Frames DI = R + 3M – 3J – C DI = R + 6M – 6J – C
Trusses DI = R + M – 2j DI = R + M -3J
Where:
DI = degree of indeterminacy
R = number of external reactions
M = number of members
J = number of joints
C = number of releases ( or equations of conditions)
Equations of Conditions (Number of Releases)
Type of Connection Equations Known Conditions/s

ΣFx ≠ 0
Internal Hinge ΣFy ≠ 0 1
ΣM = 0
ΣFx = 0
Internal Roller ΣFy ≠ 0 2
ΣM = 0
ΣFx ≠ 0
Internal Fixed ΣFy ≠ 0 0
ΣM ≠ 0
ΣFx ≠ 0
Internal Slider ΣFy = 0 1
ΣM ≠ 0


Stability
In general, structures may be stable or unstable. If a structure is stable, it may be determinate or

indeterminate.
Internal Stability
A structure is internally stable if it maintains its shape and remains a rigid body when all external supports
are removed. Conversely, a structure is internally unstable if it cannot maintain its shape and may
undergo a large displacements when all external supports are removed.
Examples of Internally Stable Structure
Examples of Internally Unstable Structures


External Stability
Conditions for Stable Structures:

1. Number of unknowns (external + internal) must be greater than or equal to the number of
equilibrium conditions.
2. External reactions must not be parallel to each other.
3. External reactions must not be concurrent.
Sample Problems
For the structures shown below, identify whether the structure is unstable, statically determinate or
statically indeterminate. If the structure is indeterminate, state the degree of indeterminacy.
Solution:
a. Number of Reactions = 5 Number of Equations = 3
DI = R – 3 - C
DI = 5 – 3
DI = 2
Therefore, the beam is Statically Indeterminate and Internally Stable.
b. Number of Reactions = 5 Number of Equations = 3 Number of Releases = 2
DI = R – 3 – C
DI = 5 - 3 – 2
DI = 0
Therefore, the beam is Statically Determinate and Internally Unstable.
c. Number of Reactions = 6, Number of Members = 3


DI = R + 3M – 3J – C
DI = 6 + 3(3) – 3(4)
DI = 3
Therefore, the frame is Statically Indeterminate and Internally Stable.
d. Number of Reactions = 6 Number of Members = 2 Number of Releases = 1
DI = R + 3M – 3J – C
DI = 6 + 3(2) – 3(3) – 1
DI = 2
Therefore, the arch is Statically Indeterminate and Internally Unstable.
e. Number of Reactions = 5 Number of Members = 4 Number of Joints = 5

Number of Releases = 2
DI = R + 3M – 3J – C
DI = 5 + 3(4) – 3(5) – 2
DI = 0
Therefore, the frame is Statically Determinate and Internally Unstable.
Computation of Reactions
The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the reactions of plane statically
determinate structures subjected to coplanar loads.
1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the structure.

a) Show the structure under consideration detached from its supports and disconnected from all
other bodies to which it may be connected.
b) Show each known force or couple on the FBD by an arrow indicating its direction and sense.
Write the magnitude of each known force or couple by its arrow.
c) Show the orientation of the mutually perpendicular xy coordinate system to be used in the
analysis. It is usually convenient to orient the x and y axes in the horizontal (positive to the
right) and vertical (positive upward) directions, respectively. However, if the dimensions of the
structure and/or the lines of action of most of the applied loads are in an inclined direction,
selection of the x (or y) axis in that direction may considerably expedite the analysis.
d) At each point where the structure has been detached from a support, show the unknown
external reactions being exerted on the structure. The reaction forces are represented on the
FBD by arrows in the known directions of their lines of action. The reaction couples are


represented by curved arrows. The senses of the reactions are not known and can be
arbitrarily assumed. However, it is usually convenient to assume the senses of the reaction
forces in the positive x and y directions and of reaction couples as counterclockwise. The
actual senses of the reactions will be known after their magnitudes have been determined by
solving the equations of equilibrium and condition (if any). A positive magnitude for a reaction
will imply that the sense initially assumed was correct, whereas a negative value of the
magnitude will indicate that the actual sense is opposite to the one assumed on the FBD.
Since the magnitudes of the reactions are not yet known, they are denoted by appropriate
letter symbols on the FBD.
e) To complete the FBD, draw the dimensions of the structure, showing the locations of all the
known and unknown external forces.
2. Check for static determinacy. Using the procedure discussed above, determine whether or not the
given structure is statically determinate externally. If the structure is either statically or geometrically
unstable or indeterminate externally, end the analysis at this stage.
3. Determine the unknown reactions by applying he equations of equilibrium and condition (if any) to
the entire structure. To avoid solving simultaneous equations, write the equilibrium and condition
equations so that each equation involves only one unknown. For some internally unstable structures,
it may not be possible to write equations containing one unknown each. For such structures, the
reactions are determined by solving the equations simultaneously. The analysis of such internally
unstable structures can sometimes be expedited and the solution of simultaneous equations avoided
by disconnecting the structure into rigid portions and by applying the equations of equilibrium to the
individual portions to determine the reactions. In such a case, you must construct the free-body
diagrams of the portions of the structure; these diagrams must show, in addition to any applied loads
and support reactions, all the internal forces being exerted upon that portion at connections.
Remember that the internal forces acting on the adjacent portions of a structure must have the same
magnitudes but opposite senses in accordance with Newton’s third law.
4. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation that has not been used before to the entire structure to
check the computations. This alternative equation should preferably involve all the reactions that were
determined in the analysis. You may use a moment equilibrium equation involving a summation of
moments about a point that does not lie on lines of action of reaction forces for this purpose. If the
analysis has been carried out correctly, then this alternative equilibrium equation must be satisfied.


Example 1:
Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in the figure.
Solution:
Free-Body Diagram
Note that the roller at A exerts reaction RA in the direction perpendicular to the inclined supporting
surface.
Static Determinacy. The beam is internally stable and is supported by three reactions, RA,BX, and BY
, all of which are neither parallel nor concurrent. Therefore, the beam is statically determinate.
Support Reactions. Since two of the three reactions, namely, Bx and By, are concurrent at B, their
moments about B are zero. Therefore, the equilibrium equation ΣMB=0, which involves the
summation of moments of all the forces about B, contains only one unknown, RA. Thus,


+↶ ΣMB=0
−4
𝑅𝐴(20) + 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛60(10) − 6(5) = 0
5
RA = 4.62 k
The positive answer for RA indicates that our initial assumption about the sense of this reaction was
correct.
+ → ΣFx =0
3
(4.62) − 12 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 + 𝐵𝑥 = 0
5
BX = 3.23 k
ΣFy =0
4
(4.62) − 12 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 + 𝐵𝑦 − 6 = 0
5
BX = 12.7 k
NOTE: In order to avoid solving simultaneous equations in the preceding computations, we applied
the equilibrium equations in such a manner that each question contained only one unknown.


Example #2
Determine the reactions at the supports for the frame shown in the figure.
Static Determinacy: The frame is internally stable. Thus,

it is statically determinate.
Solution:
Computing for Support Reactions:
Free-Body Diagram
ΣFx = 0
1
𝐴𝑥 + (2.5)(18) − 15 = 0
2
Ax = -7.5 k
Ax = 7.5 k to the left
+↶ ΣMA =0
𝟏 𝟏𝟖
−( (𝟐. 𝟓)(𝟏𝟖))( ) − (𝟏. 𝟓(𝟏𝟖)(𝟗) + 𝟏𝟓(𝟏𝟐) + 𝑩𝒚(𝟏𝟐)
𝟐 𝟑
=𝟎
By = 16.5 k
ΣFy =0
Ay – 1.5(18)+16.5 = 0
Ay = 10.5 k


2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key)
I. Identify whether the structure is unstable, statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If the
structure is indeterminate, state the degree of indeterminacy.
II. Determine the reactions at the supports for the structure shown.
a. b.


3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding
A gable frame is subjected to a wind loading as shown in the figure. a) Determine the reactions at
its support due to the loading. b) Identify the determinacy and stability of the structure.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
FAQs
1. What makes a structure unstable?
An unstable structure generally cannot be analyzed. Therefore, it is useful to know if a structure is stable or
not before a structural analysis is conducted. There are four main ways that a structure may be geometrically
unstable. a) There are not enough reactions. b) The reactions are parallel. c) The reactions are concurrent.
d) There is an internal collapse mechanism.
2. If a system has more equations of equilibrium than no. of forces, then the system is?
In these cases, system is unstable and unsolvable and is termed as partially constrained.


Lesson title: Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses Materials:

1. Identify different types of Truss Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
2. Solve for the static determinacy of plane trusses. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
3. Know the analysis of truss by method of joints and method of Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
section Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
Productivity Tip: Rewrite your notes: A great exercise for studying is to completely rewrite you notes.
Furthermore, you can have your lecture slides pulled up and your textbook out so you can reference all
three at the same time.
A truss is an assemblage of straight members connected at their ends by flexible connections to form
a rigid configuration. Because of their light weight and high strength, trusses are widely used, and
their applications range from supporting bridges and roofs of buildings to being support structures in
space stations. Modern trusses are constructed by connecting members, which usually consist of
structural steel or aluminum shapes or wood struts, to gusset plates by bolted or welded connections.

1. What is truss?
2. Can you give three types of

truss?
3. How will you solve the
determinacy and stability of a
truss?


B. MAIN LESSON
INTRODUCTION
If all the members of a truss and the applied loads lie in a single plane, the truss is called a plane truss.
Plane trusses are commonly used for supporting decks of bridges and roofs of buildings. The figure below
shows a typical framing system for a roof supported by plane trusses. In this case, two or more trusses
are connected at their joints by beams, termed purlins, to form a three-dimensional framework. If all the
members of a truss and the applied loads lie in a single plane, the truss is called a plane truss.
Such trusses, which are called space trusses, are analyzed as three-dimensional bodies subjected to
three-dimensional force systems.
ASSUMPTIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES
The analysis of trusses is usually based on the following simplifying assumptions:

1. All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges in plane trusses and by frictionless
ball-and-socket joints in space trusses.
2. All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints.
3. The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting the centers of the adjacent
joints.


Common Bridge Trusses Common Roof Trusses


ARRANGEMENT OF MEMBERS OF PLANE TRUSSES – INTERNAL STABILITY
The term internal is used here to refer to the number and arrangement of members contained within
the truss. The instability due to insufficient external supports or due to improper arrangement of
external supports is referred to as external.
Basic Truss Element
The simplest internally stable (or rigid) plane truss can be formed by connecting three members at
their ends by hinges to form a triangle, as shown in figure. This triangular truss is called the basic
truss element. Note that this triangular truss is internally stable in the sense that it is a rigid body that
will not change its shape under loads. In contrast, a rectangular truss formed by connecting four
members at their ends by hinges, is internally unstable because it will change its shape and collapse
when subjected to a general system of coplanar forces.
Simple Trusses
A simple truss is formed by enlarging the basic truss element, which contains three members and
three joints, by adding two additional members for each additional joint, so the total number of
members m in a simple truss is given by:
m = 3 + 2(j-3) = 2j -3
In which j = total number of joints ( including those attached to the supports)


Compound Trusses
Compound trusses are constructed by connecting two or more simple trusses to form a single rigid
body. To prevent any relative movement between the simple trusses, each truss must be connected
to the other(s) by means of connections capable of transmitting at least three force components, all
of which are neither parallel nor concurrent.
Internal Stability
m < 2j – 3 internally unstable
𝑚 ≥ 2𝑗 – 3 internally stable
It is very important to realize that although the foregoing criterion for internal stability is necessary, it
is not sufficient to ensure internal stability. A truss must not only contain enough members to satisfy
the 𝑚 ≥ 2𝑗 – 3 condition, but the members must also be properly arranged to ensure rigidity of the
entire truss. Recall from our discussion of simple and compound trusses that in a stable truss, each
joint is connected to the rest of the structure by at least two nonparallel members, and each portion
of the truss must be connected to the remainder of the truss by connections capable of transmitting
at least three nonparallel and nonconcurrent force components.
STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND STABILITY OF PLANE TRUSSES
We consider a truss to be statically determinate if the forces in all its members, as well as all the
external reactions, can be determined by using the equations of equilibrium.


Since the two methods of analysis presented in the following sections can be used to analyze only
statically determinate trusses, it is important for the student to be able to recognize statically
determinate trusses before proceeding with the analysis.
m + r < 2j statically unstable truss
m + r = 2j statically determinate truss
m + r > 2j statically indeterminate truss
The first condition, for the static instability of trusses, is both necessary and sufficient in the sense
that if m < 2j – r, the truss is definitely statically unstable. However, the remaining two conditions, are
necessary but not sufficient conditions. In other words, these two equations simply tell us that the
number of members and reactions is sufficient for stability. They do not provide any information
regarding their arrangement. A truss may have a sufficient number of members and external reactions
but may still be unstable due to improper arrangement of members and/ or external supports.
Sample Problems
a. The truss shown contains 17 members and 10 joints and is supported by 3 reactions. Thus m+r=2j.


Since the three reactions are neither parallel nor concurrent and the members of the truss are properly
arranged, it is statically determinate.
b. For this truss, m = 17, j=10 and r=2. Because m+r<2j, the truss is unstable.
c. For this truss, m=21, j=10, and r=3. Because m+r>2j, the truss is statically indeterminate, with the
degree of indeterminacy, i = (m+r)-2j = 4.
d. This truss has m=16, j=10, and r=3. The truss is unstable, since m+r<2j.
e. This truss is composed of two rigid portions, AB and BC, connected by an internal hinge at B. The
truss has m=26, j=15, and r=4. Thus m+r=2j. The four reactions are neither parallel nor concurrent
and the entire truss is properly constrained, so the truss is statically determinate.
Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints.
In the method of joints, the axial forces in the members of a statically determinate truss are determined
by considering the equilibrium of its joints. Since the entire truss is in equilibrium, each of its joints
must also be in equilibrium. At each joint of the truss, the member forces and any applied loads and
reactions form a coplanar concurrent force system, which must satisfy two equilibrium equations,
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, in order for the joint to be in equilibrium. There are only two equations of
equilibrium at a joint, so they cannot be used to determine more than two unknown forces.
The method of joints consists of selecting a joint with no more than two unknown forces (which must
not be collinear) acting on it and applying the two equilibrium equations to determine the unknown
forces. The procedure may be repeated until all the desired forces have been obtained.
Identification of Zero-Force Members
Because trusses are usually designed to support several different loading conditions, it is not
uncommon to find members with zero forces in them when a truss is being analyzed for a particular
loading condition. Zero-force members are also added to trusses to brace compression members
against buckling and slender tension members against vibrating. The analysis of trusses can be
expedited if we can identify the zero-force members by inspection. Two common types of member
arrangements that result in zero-force members are the following:
1. If only two noncollinear members are connected to a joint that has no external loads or
reactions applied to it, then the force in both members is zero.
2. If three members, two of which are collinear, are connected to a joint that has no external
loads or reactions applied to it, then the force in the member that is not collinear is zero.


Sample Problem #1: Determine the force in each member of the Warren truss shown in the figure by
method of joints.
Solution:
Static Determinacy. The truss has 13 members and 8 joints and is supported by 3 reactions. Because
m+r=2j and the reactions and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate.
Zero-Force Members. It can be seen from the figure that at joint G, three members, CG, FG, and GH,
are connected, of which FG and GH are collinear and CG is not. Since no external load is applied at joint
G, member CG is a zero-force member.




Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Sections
The method of joints, presented in the preceding section, proves to be very efficient when forces in
all the members of a truss are to be determined. However, if the forces in only certain members of a
truss are desired, the method of joints may not prove to be efficient, because it may involve calculation
of forces in several other members of the truss before a joint is reached that can be analyzed for a
desired member force. The method of sections enables us to determine forces in the specific
members of trusses directly, without first calculating many unnecessary member forces, as may be
required by the method of joints.
Sample Problem
Determine the forces in member CD,DG and GH of the truss shown using method of sections


Analysis of Compound Trusses
Although the method of joints and the method of sections described in the preceding sections can be
used individually for the analysis of compound trusses, the analysis of such trusses can sometimes
be expedited by using a combination of the two methods. For some types of compound trusses, the
sequential analysis of joints breaks down when a joint with two or fewer unknown forces cannot be
found. In such a case, the method of sections is then employed to calculate some of the member
forces, thereby yielding a joint with two or fewer unknowns, from which the method of joints may be
continued.
Complex Trusses
Trusses that can be classified neither as simple trusses nor as compound trusses are referred to as
complex trusses. Two examples of complex trusses are shown in the figure. From an analytical
viewpoint, the main difference between simple or compound trusses and complex trusses stems from
the fact that the methods of joints and sections, as described previously, cannot be used for the
analysis of complex trusses. We can see that although the two complex trusses shown are statically
determinate, after the computation of reactions the method of joints cannot be applied because we
cannot find a joint at which there are two or fewer unknown member forces. Likewise, the method of
sections cannot be employed, because every section would pass through more than three members
with unknown forces. The member forces in such trusses can be determined by writing two
equilibrium equations in terms of unknown member forces for each joint of the truss and then solving
the system of 2j equations simultaneously.


I. Classify each of the plane trusses shown as unstable, statically determinate, or statically
indeterminate. If the truss is statically indeterminate, then determine the degree of static
indeterminacy.
II. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown by the method of joints.


III. Determine the forces in the members identified by “x” of the truss by the method of sections.

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)
Write your answer in the space provided.
When is the best time to use method of joints and method of section?
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C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. How are external static loads transferred to the supports?
Truss members provide the "load path" between the external loads and the supports. The load path can be
identified by determining the internal axial force in each truss member. For a given truss structure, the load
path depends on the locations and directions of the external forces as well as the support condition.
2. How do I pick the correct joint when using the method of joints to analyze a truss?
For a planar or a 2-D truss, we only have two equilibrium equations to analyze a joint. Therefore, we must
select a joint with no more than two unknown forces acting on it.
3. What role do the truss supports play?
The supports keep the truss stationary. A support exerts a reaction force on the truss in any direction along
which movement is restrained.


Lesson title: Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment Materials:
1. Present analysis of internal forces and moments that may develop Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
in beams, and in the members of plane frames. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
2. Draw shear, axial, and bending moment diagrams of a beam and Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
frames. Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
Productivity Tip: Actively review your notes: Speaking of notes, after you are done rewriting, actively
review either set by highlighting important pieces of information and writing additional notes or question
ideas in the margins.
Unlike trusses, considered in the preceding chapter, whose members are always subjected to only
axial forces, the members of rigid frames and beams may be subjected to shear forces and bending
moments as well as axial forces under the action of external loads. The determination of these internal
forces and moments (stress resultants) is necessary for the design of such structures.
Let’s begin by defining the three types of stress resultants—axial forces, shear forces, and bending
moments—that may act on the cross sections of beams and the members of plane frames. We next
discuss construction of the shear and bending moment diagrams by the method of sections.

1. What is shear force?
2. What is axial force?
3. What is bending moment?


B. MAIN LESSON
AXIAL FORCE, SHEAR, AND BENDING

MOMENT
The internal force Q in the direction of the

centroidal axis of the beam is called the
axial force.
The internal force V in the direction

perpendicular to the centroidal axis is
referred to as the shear force (or, simply,
shear).
The moment M of the internal couple is

termed the bending moment.
SIGN CONVENTION
An easy way to remember this sign convention

is to isolate a small segment of the member and
note that:
 Positive normal force tends to elongate

the segment, (b) ;
 Positive shear tends to rotate the
segment clockwise, (c); and
 Positive bending moment tends to bend
the segment concave upward, so as to
“hold water”, (d).


SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAM FOR BEAMS
Procedure for Analysis
1. Compute the reactions
2. Compute the values of shear at the change of the load points using V 2 = V1 + Atotal-diagram
3. Sketch the shear diagram, draw the correct shape and concavity of the shear diagram.
4. Locate the points of zero shear.
5. Compute values of bending moment at the change of load points and the points of zero shear using
M2 = M1 + Ashear-diagram.
6. Sketch the moment diagrams.


Properties of Shear Diagram
1. At every change of loading we have to investigate our shear.
2. For concentrated loads or reactions the left and right portion of the point where they are acting
must be investigated.
3. Whenever we have a concentrated load or reaction there will always be a vertical line in the
shear diagram.
4. The shear diagram is one degree higher than the load diagram.
5. Reference of the concavity of the shear diagram.
Properties of Moment Diagram
1. For every change in shear diagram, the moment must be investigate.
2. Consider only the moment at any point and not the left and right portion of the point except when
we have a moment load or reaction.
3. Analyze the point where the shear intersects the reference line (V=0) since when shear is zero
moment is maximum or minimum.
4. Vertical line will only be observed in the moment diagram whenever we have a moment load or
reaction.
5. The concavity of the moment diagram depends upon the load: if the load is downward, moment
diagram is downward.
6. The moment diagram is one degree higher than the shear diagram.
Sample Problem: Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown.


Solution




SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR FRAMES
Recall that a frame is composed of several connected members that are either fixed or pin connected
at their ends. The design of these structures often requires drawing the shear and moment diagrams
for each of the members.
This requires first determining the reactions at the frame supports. Then, using the method of
sections, we find the axial force, shear force, and moment acting at the ends of each member.
Provided all loadings are resolved into components acting parallel and perpendicular to the member’s
axis, the shear and moment diagrams for each member can then be drawn as described previously.
Sample Problem: Draw the shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams for the frame shown in
the figure.
Figure 5.21
Considering the equilibrium of the entire frame, we observe that in order to satisfy ΣFx = 0, the
reaction component Ax must act to the left with a magnitude of 18 k to balance the horizontal load
of 18 k to the right. Thus, Ax=18 k to the left.


(c)






Draw the shear and bending moment diagram for the beam and frames shown.
1.


2.


3.


Draw the shear, axial and bending moment diagram for the frame shown.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. What is the bending moment at end supports of a simply supported beam?
At the end supports, the moment (couple) developed is zero, because there is no distance to take the
perpendicular acting load. As the distance is zero, the moment is obviously zero.
2. What is the other name for a positive bending moment?
The bending moment at a section is considered to be positive when it causes convexity downwards such
bending moment is called sagging bending moment positive bending moment.


Lesson title: Deflections: Double Integration Method Materials:

1. Determine the elastic deflections of a beam using the method of Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
double integration. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
2. Solve the slope of a beam. Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
Productivity Tip: Be mindful of what you’re doing and focus on the material. Don’t just mindlessly recopy.
Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when subjected to forces. Other
common causes of deformations of structures include temperature changes and support settlements.
If the deformations disappear and the structure regains its original shape when the actions causing
the deformations are removed, the deformations are termed elastic deformations. The permanent
deformations of structures are referred to as inelastic, or plastic, deformations. In this lesson, we
will focus our attention on linear elastic deformations.
Double integration is used to obtain equations which define the slope and the elastic curve.

1. What is deflection?
2. What is the slope equation?
3. What is deformation?


B. MAIN LESSON
For most structures, excessive deformations are undesirable, as they may impair the structure’s
ability to serve its intended purpose. For example, a high-rise building may be perfectly safe in the
sense that the allowable stresses are not exceeded, yet useless (unoccupied) if it deflects excessively
due to wind, causing cracks in the walls and windows. Structures are usually designed so that their
deflections under normal service conditions will not exceed the allowable values specified in building
codes.
DIRECT INTEGRATION METHOD/DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

The direct integration method essentially involves writing the expression for M/EI (bending moment
divided by flexural rigidity of the beam) in terms of the distance x along the axis of the beam and
integrating this expression successively to obtain equations for the slope and deflection of the elastic
curve. The constants of integration are determined from the boundary conditions.
The following differential equation for the deflection of beams or the elastic curve of a beam:
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝑴
=
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝑬𝑰
also referred to as BERNOULLI-EULER BEAM EQUATION
If the equation above is integrated, assuming EI is constant, we obtain
This is the slope equation specifying the slope or value of dy/dx at any point. Note that M represent
the moment equation expressed in terms of x, and C1 is a constant to be evaluated from the given
conditions of loading.
If the equation above is again integrated, we obtain:
𝑬𝑰𝒚 = 𝑴𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒙 + 𝑪𝟏𝒙 + 𝑪𝟐
This is the required deflection equation of the elastic curve specifying the value of y any value of x;
C2 is another constant of integration that must be evaluated from the given conditions of the beam
and its loading.


FORMULATION OF BENDING MOMENT EQUATION BETWEEN CHANGE OF LOAD POINTS
Using M = (ΣM)L find the moment equations between the change of loads
Observe that the equation for MCD will also be valid for both MAB and MBC provided that the terms (x -
2) and (x - 3)2 are neglected for values of x less than 2 or 3, respectively. In other words, the terms
(x - 2) and (x - 3)2 are nonexistent for values of x for which the terms in parentheses are negative.
GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR COMPUTING DEFLECTION BY INTEGRATION
1. Select the interval or intervals of the beam to be used; next, place a set of coordinate axes on the
beam with the origin at one end of an interval and then indicate the range of values of x in each
interval.
2. List the variable boundary and matching conditions for each interval selected.
3. Express the bending moment M as a function of x for each interval selected and equate it to
EI(d2y/dx2).
4. Solve the differential equation from step 3 and evaluate all constants of integration. Calculate y
at specific points when required.


Example 1: A concentrated load of 300 N is supported as shown on the figure. Determine the
equations of elastic curve between each change of load point, and the maximum deflection in the
beam.
Now, try to solve first the value of our reactions to check if you have understand our previous topic.
(You should get 100 N for R1 and 200 N for R2)
Solution:
Writing the general moment equation for the last segment BC of the beam, applying the differential
equation of the elastic curve, and integrating twice, we obtain the following slope deflection equations:
To evaluate the two constants of integration which are physically equivalent to slope and deflection
at the origin, we apply the following boundary conditions:


1. At A where x = 0, the deflection y = 0. Substituting these values in eq. (c), we find that C2 =
0. Remember that < x-2 >3 is to be ignored for negative values.
2. At A where x = 3, the deflection is also 0. Knowing that C2 = 0 and substituting these values
in the deflection equation (c), we obtain
Having the constants of integration evaluated, we return to Equations. (b) and (c) to rewrite the
slope and deflection equations in the conventional form:
Segment AB (𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟐𝒎)
𝒅𝒚
𝑬𝑰 = 𝟓𝟎𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟑𝟑 𝑵 ∙ 𝒎𝟐 (d)
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚 𝟓𝟎 𝟑
𝑬𝑰 = 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝒙 𝑵 ∙ 𝒎𝟑 (e)
𝒅𝒙 𝟑
Segment BC (𝟐𝒎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟑𝒎)
𝒅𝒚
𝑬𝑰 = 𝟓𝟎𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟓𝟎(𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟐 − 𝟏𝟑𝟑 𝑵 ∙ 𝒎𝟐 (f)
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚 𝟓𝟎 𝟑
𝑬𝑰 = 𝒙 − 𝟓𝟎(𝒙 − 𝟐)𝟑 − 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝒙 𝑵 ∙ 𝒎𝟑 (g)
𝒅𝒙 𝟑
Continuing the solution, we assume that the maximum deflection will occur in the segment AB. Its
location may be found by differentiating Eq. (e) with respect to x and setting the derivative equal to
zero, or, setting the slope equation (d) equal to zero and solving for the point of zero slope. We obtain,
Since this value of x is valid for the segment AB, our assumption that the maximum deflection
occurs in this region is confirmed. Hence, to determine the maximum deflection, we substitute x =
1.63 in Eq. (e), which yields,
The negative value obtained indicates that the deflection y is downward from the X axis. If E = 10 x
109 N/m2 and I = 1.5 x 106 mm4 = 1.5 x 10-6 m4, the value of y is
𝑦 = −9.67 𝑥 10 m


y = -9.67 mm
Example 2: Determine the equations for the slope and deflection of the beam shown in the figure by
the direct integration method. Also, compute the slope at each end and the deflection at the midspan
of the beam. EI is constant.
Solution:
Reactions:
Equation for Bending Moment
To determine the equation for bending moment for the beam, we pass a section at a distance x from
support A, as shown in Fig. (b). Considering the free body to the left of this section, we obtain


Equation for M/EI
The flexural rigidity, EI, of the beam is constant, so the equation for M/EI can be written as
Equations for Slope and Deflection
The equation for the slope of the elastic curve of the beam can be obtained by integrating the
equation for M/EI as
Integrating once more, we obtain the equation for deflection as
The constants of integration, C1 and C2, are evaluated by applying the following boundary
conditions:
By applying the first boundary condition—that is, by setting x = 0 and y = 0 in the equation for y—we
obtain C2 = 0. Next, by using the second boundary condition—that is, by setting x = L and y = 0 in the
equation for y—we obtain


from which
Thus, the equations for slope and deflection of the beam are
Slopes at Ends A and B
By substituting x = 0 and L, respectively, into Eq. (1), we obtain
Deflection at Midspan
By substituting x = L=2 into Eq. (2), we obtain
Technique of Establishing Continuity of Loading


Here the distributed load extends only over the segment BC. We can create continuity, however, by
assuming that the distributed load extends beyond C and adding an equal upward-distributed load to
cancel its effect beyond C, as shown in fig. b. The general moment equation, written for the last
segment DE is:
Example 3: Find the value of EIy at the position midway between the supports and at the
overhanging end for the beam shown.
Solution:
Applying the differential equation of the elastic curve, and integrating it twice, we obtain:


To determine C2, we note that EIy = 0 at x = 0, which gives C2 = 0. Note that we ignore the negative
terms in the pointed brackets. Next, we use the condition that EIy = 0 at the right support where x =
6. This gives:
Finally, to obtain the midspan deflection, we substitute x =3 in the deflection equation for segment
BC obtained by ignoring negative values of the bracketed terms <x – 4>4 and <x – 6>3. We obtain:
Also, at the overhanging end where x = 8, we obtain:
Example 4: A simply supported beam carries the triangularly distributed load shown in fig. (a).
Determine the deflection equation and the magnitude of the maximum deflection.


Solution:
Because of symmetry, each reaction is one-half of the total load of ½ wL, or R1 = R2 = ¼ wL. In this
example, we take further advantage of symmetry to note that the deflection curve from A to B is the
mirror image of that from C to B. The conditions of zero deflection at A and of zero slope at B do not
require the use of a general moment equation. Only the moment equation for segment AB is needed,
and this is easily found with the aid of fig. (b).
Applying the differential equation of the elastic curve to segment AB and integrating twice, we obtain:
To evaluate the constants of integration, we note that at the support A, y = 0 at x =0. Hence from
Eq. (c), we have C2 =0. Also, because of symmetry, the slope dy/dx = 0at midspan where x = L/2.
Substituting these conditions in Eq. (b) yields


Hence the deflection equation from A to B (and also from c to B because of symmetry) becomes,
which reduces to
The maximum deflection at midspan, where x = L/2, is then found to be:
where W = ½ wL is the total load.
Example 5: Determine the equation of the elastic curve of a cantilever beam supporting a uniformly
distributed load of w N/m over part of its length as shown on the figure.
Solution:
At the wall, equilibrium conditions determine the shear and moment to be:


In terms of the general moment equation, the differential equation of the elastic curve becomes,
Integrating Eq. (a), we obtain the slope equation:
However, the slope dy/dx is zero at x = 0, so C1 =0. We may now integrate the slope equation (with
C1 = 0) and obtain the deflection equation:
Since y = 0 at x = 0, we find that C2 = 0 also. Observe that selecting the origin of axes at the perfectly
restrained wall where the slope and deflection are zero makes the constants of integration also zero.
The value of the maximum deflection, occurs at the free end, is denoted by δ. Evidently δ = -y; so on
substituting x = L and simplifying, we obtain
One important variation of this result occurs when a = 0. Then the entire length of the beam is
uniformly loaded and the maximum deflection is given by:
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities


1. Determine the slope and deflection at point B of the beam shown using double integration
method.
2. Determine the slope and deflection at point B of the beam shown by double integration
method.



4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (5 mins)


Determine the slope and deflection at point B of the beam shown by double integration method.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. What are the limitations of double integration method?
The main advantage of the double integration method is that a mathematical expression can be obtained to
calculate the deflections and rotations along the whole beam. The main disadvantage lies in the number of
operations necessary to solve the system of equations and determine the integration constants.
2. What is the boundary condition for a beam supported by pin at both ends?
Since there will always be a vertical support reaction, displacement at both ends will be zero.


Lesson title: Deflections: Moment-Area Method Materials:

1. Determine the elastic deflections of a beam using the Moment- Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
Area Method 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
2. Calculate the slope of a beam. Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
3. Construct Bending Moment Diagram by parts Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
Productivity Tip: “Push yourself because no one else is going to do it for you.” - Unknown
The moment-area method for computing slopes and deflections of beams was developed by Charles
E. Greene in 1873. The method is based on two theorems, called the moment-area theorems, relating
the geometry of the elastic curve of a beam to its M=EI diagram, which is constructed by dividing the
ordinates of the bending moment diagram by the flexural rigidity EI.
Also, when a beam is subjected to a combination of distributed and concentrated loads, determination
of the properties of the resultant M/EI diagram, due to the combined effect of all loads, can become
a difficult task. We can avoid this difficulty by constructing the bending moment diagram by parts. In
this module, constructing a separate bending moment diagram for each of the loads will be discuss.
This diagram usually consist of simple geometric shapes, so that it will be easier for us to analyze.

1. What is moment-area method?
2. What is the second moment-

area theorem?
3. What is elastic curve?


B. MAIN LESSON
The first moment-area theorem, which can be stated as follows:
The change in slope between the tangents to the elastic curve at any two points is equal to the area
under the M/EI diagram between the two points, provided that the elastic curve is continuous between
the two points.
The second moment-area theorem, which can be stated as follows:
The tangential deviation in the direction perpendicular to the undeformed axis of the beam of a point
on the elastic curve from the tangent to the elastic curve at another point is equal to the moment of
the area under the M/EI diagram between the two points about the point at which the deviation is
desired, provided that the elastic curve is continuous between the two points.


Rules of Signs
The deviation at any point is positive if the point lies above the tangent, negative if the point is below the
tangent.
Positive Deviation: B located above

reference tangent
Negative Deviation: B located below

reference target


Example 1: Determine the slopes and deflections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown
by the moment-area method.
Solution:
Bending Moment Diagram


M/EI Diagram:
As indicated in Fig.(a), the values of the moment of inertia of the segments AB and BC of the beam
are 6,000 in.4 and 3,000 in.4, respectively. Using I = IBC = 3,000 in.4 as the reference moment of inertia,
we express IAB in terms of I as:
IAB = 6,000 = 2(3000) =2I
which indicates that in order to obtain the M/EI diagram in terms of EI, we must divide the bending
moment diagram for segment AB by 2, as shown in the figure (c) .
Elastic Curve:
The elastic curve for the beam is shown in Fig. (d). Note that because the M/EI diagram is negative,
the beam bends concave downward. Since the support at A is fixed, the slope at A is zero (θ A = 0);
that is, the tangent to the elastic curve at A is horizontal, as shown in the figure.


Slope at B:
With the slope at A known, we can determine the slope at B by evaluating the change in slope θ BA
between A and B (which is the angle between the tangents to the elastic curve at points A and B, as
shown in Fig. (d)). According to the first moment-area theorem, θBA = area of the M/EI diagram
between A and B. This area can be conveniently evaluated by dividing the M/EI diagram into
triangular and rectangular parts, as shown in Fig. (c). Thus,
From Fig. (d), we can see that because the tangent at A is horizontal (in the direction of the
undeformed axis of the beam), the slope at B(θB) is equal to the angle θBA between the tangents at
A and B; that is,
Substituting the numerical values of E= 29,000 ksi and I = 3,000 in. 4, we obtain
Deflection at B:
From Fig. (d), it can be seen that the deflection of B with respect to the undeformed axis of the beam
is equal to the tangential deviation of B from the tangent at A; that is,
According to the second moment-area theorem,


Therefore,
Slope at C:
From figure (d), we can see that
Where,
Therefore,
` Deflection at C:
It can be seen from figure (d) that,


Where,
Therefore,
Example 2: Use the moment-area method to determine the slopes at ends A and D and the
deflections at points B and C of the beam shown in Fig. (a).
Solution:
M/EI Diagram
Because EI is constant along the length of the beam, the shape of the M/EI diagram is the same as
that of the bending moment diagram. The M/EI diagram is shown in Fig. (b).


Elastic Curve
The elastic curve for the beam is shown in figure (c)


Slope at A
The slope of the elastic curve is not known at any point on the beam, so we will use the tangent at
support A as the reference tangent and determine its slope, θA, from the conditions that the deflections
at the support points A and D are zero. From Fig. (c), we can see that
in which θA is assumed to be so small that tan θAAθA.
To evaluate the tangential deviation ΔDA, we apply the second moment-area theorem:
Therefore, the slope at A is
Substituting the numerical values of E and I , we obtain


Slope at D
From figure (c), we can see that
in which, according to the first moment-area theorem,
Therefore,
Deflection at B
Considering the portion AB of the elastic curve in Fig. (c), and realizing that θA is so small that tan
θA = θA, we write
From which
Where


Therefore,
Deflection at C
Finally, considering the portion CD of the elastic curve in Fig. (c) and assuming θD to be small (so
that tan θD = θD), we write
or
where
Therefore,


Example 3: Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown in figure (a) by the
moment-area method.
Solution:
M/EI Diagram
The M/EI
diagram is
shown in Fig.
(b).
Elastic Curve
The elastic curve
for the beam is
shown in Fig.
(c).


Slope at A
The slope of the elastic curve is not known at any point on the beam, so we will use the tangent at
support A as the reference tangent and determine its slope, θA, from the conditions that the deflections
at the support points A and C are zero. From Fig. (c), we can see that
To evaluate the tangential deviation DCA, we apply the second moment-area theorem:
Therefore, the slope at A is
Location of the Maximum Deflection
If the maximum deflection occurs at point D, located at a distance xm from the left support A (see
Fig. (c)), then the slope at D must be zero; therefore,
which indicates that in order for the slope at D to be zero (i.e., the maximum deflection occurs at D),
the area of the M/EI diagram between A and D must be equal to 1,333.33/EI. We use this condition
to determine the location of point D:


or
from which,
Maximum Deflection From Fig. (c), we can see that
Where
Therefore,
Substituting


Bending Moment Diagram by Parts
Two procedures are commonly used for constructing bending moment diagrams by parts. The first
procedure simply involves applying each of the loads separately on the beam and constructing the
corresponding bending moment diagrams. Consider, for example, a beam subjected to a combination
of a uniformly distributed load and a concentrated load, as shown in the figure.
To construct the bending moment diagram by parts, we apply the two types of loads separately on
the beam, as shown in Fig. (b) and (c), and draw the corresponding bending moment diagrams. It is
usually convenient to draw the parts of the bending moment diagram together, as shown in Fig. (d).
An alternative procedure for constructing bending moment diagrams by parts consists of selecting a
point on the beam (usually a support point or an end of the beam) at which the beam is assumed to


be fixed, applying each of the loads and support reactions separately on this imaginary cantilever
beam, and constructing the corresponding bending moment diagrams. This procedure is commonly
referred to as constructing the bending moment diagram by cantilever parts.
To construct the bending moment diagram by cantilever parts with respect to the support point B, we
imagine the beam to be a cantilever beam with fixed support at point B. Then we apply the two loads
and the reaction at support A separately on this imaginary cantilever beam, as shown in Fig. (b)–(d),
and draw the corresponding bending moment diagrams, as shown. The parts of the bending moment
diagram are often drawn together, as shown in Fig. (e).
The resultant bending moment diagram, as depicted in Fig. (a), can be obtained, if desired, by
superimposing the three parts shown in Fig. (b)–(d).
Example 4: Determine the deflection at point C of the beam shown in figure (a) by the bending
moment diagram by parts.


Solution:
M/EI Diagram
The bending moment diagram for this beam by cantilever parts with respect to the support point B
was determined in the previous figure. The ordinates of the bending moment diagram are divided by
EI to obtain the M/EI diagram shown in Fig. (b).
Slope at B
Selecting the tangent at B as the reference tangent, it can be seen from Fig. (c) that


By using the M/EI diagram (Fig. (b)) and the properties of geometric shapes, we compute
Therefore,
Deflection at C From Fig. (c), we can see that
Where
Therefore,


Determine the slope and deflection at point B of the beam shown by the moment-area
method.
1.


2.



Use the moment-area method to determine the slope and deflections at point B and C of the
beam shown.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. What is the difference between slope and deflection?
Slope is rotation. Deflection is a horizontal or vertical movement.
2. What is moment-area method?
In this method, the area of the bending moment diagrams is utilized for calculation of deflection.


Lesson title: Deflections: Conjugate Beam Method Materials:

1. Determine the elastic deflection using Conjugate Beam Method. Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
2. Convert real beam into its conjugate beam. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
Productivity Tip: “Don’t be the same. BE BETTER!”
The conjugate-beam method, generally provides a more convenient means of computing slopes and
deflections of beams than the moment-area method. Although the amount of computational effort
required by the two methods is essentially the same, the conjugate-beam method is preferred by
many engineers because of its systematic sign convention and straightforward application, which
does not require sketching the elastic curve of the structure.

1. What is conjugate beam?
2. What is real beam?
B. MAIN LESSON
A conjugate beam corresponding to a real beam is a fictitious beam of the same length as the real beam,
but it is externally supported and internally connected such that if the conjugate beam is loaded with the


M/EI diagram of the real beam, the shear and bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam are
equal, respectively, to the slope and deflection at the corresponding point on the real beam.
As the foregoing discussion indicates, the conjugate-beam method essentially involves computing the
slopes and deflections of beams by computing the shears and bending moments in the corresponding
conjugate beams.


Sign Convention
If the positive ordinates of the M/EI diagram are applied to the conjugate beam as upward loads (in
the positive y direction) and vice versa, then a positive shear in the conjugate beam denotes a positive
(counterclockwise) slope of the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real beam; also,
a positive bending moment in the conjugate beam denotes a positive (upward or in the positive y
direction) deflection of the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real beam and vice
versa.
Example 1: Determine the slopes and deflections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown
by the conjugate beam method.
Solution:
M/EI Diagram
The M/EI diagram for a reference moment of inertia I = 3,000 in. 4 is shown in Fig. (b).




Conjugate Beam
Fig. (c) shows the conjugate beam, loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam. Note that point A,
which is fixed on the real beam, becomes free on the conjugate beam, whereas point C, which is free
on the real beam, becomes fixed on the conjugate beam. Because the M/EI diagram is negative, it is
applied as a downward load on the conjugate beam.
Slope at B
The slope at B on the real beam is equal to the shear at B in the conjugate beam. Using the free body
of the conjugate beam to the left of B and considering the external forces acting upward on the free
body as positive, in accordance with the beam sign convention, we compute the shear at B in the
conjugate beam as
Therefore, the slope at B on the real beam is
Deflection at B
The deflection at B on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at B in the conjugate beam.
Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B and considering the clockwise moments of
the external forces about B as positive, in accordance with the beam sign convention, we compute
the bending moment at B on the conjugate beam as


Therefore, the deflection at B on the real beam is
Slope at C
Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of C, we determine the shear at C as
Therefore, the slope at C on the real beam is
Deflection at C
Considering the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of C, we obtain


Therefore, the deflection at C on the real beam is
Example 2: Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the slopes at ends A and D and
deflections at points B and C of the beam shown.
Solution:


M/EI Diagram
The M/EI diagram for this beam is shown in Fig. (b).
Conjugate Beam
Fig. (c) shows the conjugate beam loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam. Points A and D,
which are simple end supports on the real beam, remain the same on the conjugate beam.
Because the M/EI diagram is positive, it is applied as an upward load on the conjugate beam.
Reactions for Conjugate Beam
By applying the equations of equilibrium to the free body of the entire conjugate beam, we obtain
the following:
Slope at A
The slope at A on the real beam is equal to the shear just to the right of A in the conjugate beam,
which is


Therefore, the slope at A on the real beam is
Slope at D
The slope at D on the real beam is equal to the shear just to the left of D in the conjugate beam, which
is
Therefore, the slope at D on the real beam is


Deflection at B
The deflection at B on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at B in the conjugate beam.
Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B, we compute
Therefore, the deflection at B on the real beam is
Deflection at C
The deflection at C on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at C in the conjugate beam.
Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the right of C, we determine
Therefore, the deflection at C on the real beam is


Example 3: Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown in fig. (a) by the conjugate-
beam method.
Solution:
M/EI Diagram
The M/EI diagram for the beam is shown in Fig. (b).


Conjugate Beam
The simply supported conjugate beam, loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam, is shown in
Fig. (c).
Reaction at Support A of the Conjugate Beam
By applying the moment equilibrium equation ΣMC = 0 to the free body of the entire conjugate
beam, we determine
Location of the Maximum Bending Moment in Conjugate Beam
If the maximum bending moment in the conjugate beam (or the maximum deflection on the real beam)
occurs at point D, located at a distance xm from the left support A (see Fig. (c)), then the shear in the
conjugate beam at D must be zero. Considering the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of D,
we write
From which
Maximum Deflection of the Real Beam


The maximum deflection of the real beam is equal to the maximum bending moment in the conjugate
beam, which can be determined by considering the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of D,
with xm = 8.16 m. Thus,
Therefore, the maximum deflection of the real beam is
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities


Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the slopes and deflections at points B and D
of the beams shown



Determine the slope at point A and the deflection at point C of the beam shown by the
conjugate-beam method.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. Is the length of conjugate beam the same with the real beam?
Yes. Length remains same while converting a beam into its conjugate.
2. Fixed joint is replaced by what type of support in conjugate beam?
Since fixed support has non-zero slope and non-zero displacement, conjugate beam has got to be free.


Lesson title: Virtual Work Method (Beams and Frames) Materials:

1. Define Virtual Work Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
2. Differentiate between external and internal virtual work. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
3. Calculate deflections of beam and frames using virtual work Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
method. Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
3. Kharagpur, Energy Methods in
Structural Analysis, Version 2.
Productivity Tip: “If you fall asleep now, you will dream. If you study now, you will live your dream.”
Virtual work methods are the most direct methods for calculating deflections in statically
determinate structures. This principle can be applied to both linear and nonlinear structures. The
principle of virtual work as applied to deformable structure is an extension of the virtual work for
rigid bodies. This may be stated as: if a rigid body is in equilibrium under the action of a system
of forces and if it continues to remain in equilibrium if the body is given a small (virtual)
displacement, then the virtual work done by the F− system of forces as ‘it rides’ along these
virtual displacements is zero. (Kharagpur, Structural Analysis Module, Version 2)

1. What is virtual work method?
2. What is the formula for beam

deflection using virtual work
method?
3. What is the formula for beam
slope using virtual work method?


B. MAIN LESSON
Principle of Virtual Displacements for Rigid Bodies
The principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies can be stated as follows:
If a rigid body is in equilibrium under a system of forces and if it is subjected to any small virtual rigid-
body displacement, the virtual work done by the external forces is zero.
The term virtual simply means imaginary, not real.


As shown in this figure, the total virtual rigid-body displacement of the beam can be decomposed into
translations Δvx and Δvy in the x and y directions, respectively, and a rotation θv about point A. Note
that the subscript v is used here to identify the displacements as virtual quantities. As the beam
undergoes the virtual displacement from position ABC to position A’B’C’, the forces acting on it
perform work, which is called virtual work.
Note that the subscript v is used here to identify the displacements as virtual quantities. As the beam
undergoes the virtual displacement from position ABC to position A’B’C’, the forces acting on it
perform work, which is called virtual work. The total virtual work, Wve, performed by the external
forces acting on the beam can be expressed as the sum of the virtual work Wvx and Wvy done during
translations in the x and y directions, respectively, and the virtual work Wvr, done during the rotation;
that is,
Wve = Wvx + Wvy + Wvr (1)

During the virtual translations Δvx and Δvy of the beam, the virtual work done by the forces is given
by
(2)
and
(3)
The virtual work done by the forces during the small virtual rotation θv can be expressed as


(4)
By substituting Eqs. (2) through (3) into Eq. (1), we write the total virtual work done as
(5)
Because the beam is in equilibrium, ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, and ΣMA = 0; therefore,
Wve = 0 (6)
which is the mathematical statement of the principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies.
Principle of Virtual Forces for Deformable Bodies

The principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies can be stated as follows:
If a deformable structure is in equilibrium under a virtual system of forces (and couples) and if it is
subjected to any small real deformation consistent with the support and continuity conditions of the
structure, then the virtual external work done by the virtual external forces (and couples) acting
through the real external displacements (and rotations) is equal to the virtual internal work done by
the virtual internal forces (and couples) acting through the real internal displacements (and rotations).
In this statement, the term virtual is associated with the forces to indicate that the force system I
s arbitrary and does not depend on the action causing the real deformation.


To demonstrate the validity of this principle, consider the two member truss shown in Fig. (a). The
truss is in equilibrium under the action of a virtual external force Pv as shown. The free-body diagram
of joint C of the truss is shown in Fig. (b). Since joint C is in equilibrium, the virtual external and
internal forces acting on it must satisfy the following two equilibrium equations:
(7)
in which FvAC and FvBC represent the virtual internal forces in members AC and BC, respectively, and
θ1 and θ2 denote, respectively, the angles of inclination of these members with respect to the
horizontal (Fig. (a)).
Now, let us assume that joint C of the truss is given a small real displacement, D, to the right from its
equilibrium position, as shown in Fig. (a). Note that the deformation is consistent with the support
conditions of the truss; that is, joints A and B, which are attached to supports, are not displaced.
Because the virtual forces acting at joints A and B do not perform any work, the total virtual work for
the truss (Wv) is equal to the algebraic sum of the work of the virtual forces acting at joint C; that is,
or
(8)
As indicated by Eq. (7), the term in the parentheses on the right-hand side of Eq. (8) is zero;
therefore, the total virtual work is Wv = 0. Thus, Eq. (9) can be expressed as
(9)
in which the quantity on the left-hand side represents the virtual external work (Wve) done by the
virtual external force, Pv, acting through the real external displacement, Δ.
Also, realizing that the terms Δcos θ1 and Δcos θ2 are equal to the real internal displacements
(elongations) of members AC and BC, respectively, we can conclude that the right-hand side of Eq.
(9) represents the virtual internal work (Wvi) done by the virtual internal forces acting through the
real internal displacements, that is
Wve = Wvi (10)
which is the mathematical statement of the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies.
The method of virtual work is based on the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies as
expressed by Eq. (10), which can be rewritten as


virtual external work = virtual internal work (11)
or, more specifically, as
(12)
in which the terms forces and displacements are used in a general sense and include moments and
rotations, respectively.
Deflections of Beams and Frames by the Virtual Work Method
Deflection
Slope
Example 1: Determine the slope and deflection at point A of the beam shown in figure (a) by the
virtual work method.


Solution:
Slope at A, 𝜃𝐴 . The virtual system consists of a unit couple applied at A, as shown in fig. (c).
From Fig. (a) through (c), we can see that there are no discontinuities of the real and virtual loadings
or of EI along the length of the beam. Therefore, there is no need to subdivide the beam into
segments. To determine the equation for the bending moment M due to real loading, we select an x
coordinate with its origin at end A of the beam, as shown in Fig. (b). By applying the method of
sections, we determine the equation for M as


0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿 𝑀 = − (𝑥) ( )( ) = −
Similarly, the equation for the bending moment Mv1 due to virtual unit moment in terms of the same
x coordinate is
0<x<L Mv1 – 1
To determine the desired slope , 𝜃𝐴 , we apply the virtual work
The negative answer for 𝜃𝐴 indicates that point A rotates counterclockwise, in the direction opposite
to that of the unit moment.
Deflection at A, ∆A The virtual system consists of a unit load applied at A, as shown in Fig. (d). If we
use the same x coordinate as we used for computing 𝜃𝐴, then the equation for M remains the same
as before, and the equation for bending moment Mv2 due to virtual unit load (Fig. (d)) is given by
By applying the virtual work expression for deflection,
The positive answer for ∆A indicates that point A deflects downward, in the direction of the unit load.


Example 2: Determine the slope at point B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. (a) by the virtual
work method.
Solution:
The real and virtual systems are shown in Figs. (b) and (c), respectively. As shown in these figures,
an x coordinate with its origin at end B of the beam is selected to obtain the bending moment
equations. From Fig. (b), we can see that the equation for M in terms of the x coordinate is


𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟐𝟓 𝒇𝒕 M = -18x
Similarly, from fig. (c) , we obtain the equation for Mv to be
𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟐𝟓 𝒇𝒕 Mv= -1

The slope at B can now be computed by applying the virtual work expression given by as follows
Therefore,
The positive answer for 𝜃B indicates that point B rotates clockwise, in the direction of the unit
moment.
Example 3: Determine the deflection at point D of the beam shown in Fig. (a) by the virtual work
method.


Solution:
The real and virtual systems are shown in Fig.(b) and (c), respectively. It can be seen from Fig. (a)
that the flexural rigidity EI of the beam changes abruptly at points B and D. Also, Fig.(b) and (c)
indicates that the real and virtual loadings are discontinuous at points C and D, respectively.
Consequently, the variation of the (MvM/EI) will be discontinuous at points B, C, and D. Thus, the
beam must be divided into four segments, AB;BC;CD, and DE; in each segment the quantity (MvM/EI)
will be continuous and, therefore, can be integrated.
The x coordinates selected for determining the bending moment equations are shown in Fig.(b) and
(c). Note that in any particular segment of the beam, the same x coordinate must be used to write
both equations—that is, the equation for the real bending moment (M) and the equation for the virtual
bending moment (Mv). The equations for M and Mv for the four segments of the beam, determined by
using the method of sections, are tabulated in table. The deflection at D can now be computed by
applying the virtual work expression given by


Therefore,
Example 4: Determine the rotation of joint C of the frame shown in Fig. (a) by the virtual work
method.
Solution:
The real and virtual systems are shown in (b) and (c), respectively. The x coordinates used for
determining the bending moment equations for the three segments of the frame, AB; BC, and CD,
are also shown in these figures. The equations for M and Mv obtained for the three segments are
tabulated in the table. The rotation of joint C of the frame can now be determined by applying the
virtual work expression given by


Therefore,




Example 5: Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical deflection at joint C of the frame
shown in Fig. (a).
Solution:
The real and virtual systems are shown in Figs. (b) and (c), respectively. The x coordinates used for
determining the bending moment equations for the two members of the frame, AB and BC, are also
shown in the figures. The equations for M and Mv obtained for the two members are tabulated in the
table. The vertical deflection at joint C of the frame can now be calculated by applying the virtual work
expression given by


Therefore,


Example 6: Determine the horizontal deflection at joint C of the frame shown in figure (a)
including the effect of axial deformations, by the virtual work method.
Solution:
The real and virtual systems are shown in (b) and (c), respectively. The x coordinates used for
determining the bending moment equations for the three members of the frame, AB;BC, and CD, are
also shown in the figures. The equations for M and Mv obtained for the three members are tabulated
in the table along with the axial forces F and Fv of the members. The horizontal deflection at joint C
of the frame can be determined by applying the virtual work expression given by






Therefore,
Note that the magnitude of the axial deformation term is negligibly small as compared to that of the
bending deformation term.
1. Use the virtual work method to determine the slope and deflection at point B of the beam
shown.


2. Use the virtual work method to determine the horizontal deflections at joint C of the frame
shown.



Use the virtual work method to determine the slope and deflection at point D of the beam
shown.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. What is the relation between work done by external loads and work done by internal loads?
They are equal. External and internal displacements must be related by compatibility of displacement.
2. Can I separate a frame into series of beams and sum it up?
Yes. Applying the virtual work equations to a frame structure is as simple as separating the frame into a
series of “beams” and summing the virtual work for each section.


Lesson title: Virtual Work Method (Truss) Materials:

Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
1. Calculate deflections in trusses using virtual work method. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
2. Calculate deflections in trusses subjected to temperature loads. Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
3. Calculate deflections in trusses using virtual work method due to Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
fabrication errors. 3. Kharagpur, Energy Methods in
Structural Analysis, Version 2.
Productivity Tip: “ LACK OF DIRECTION, not lack of time, is the problem. We all have twenty-four hour days.”
In our previous lesson, we discussed the principle of virtual work in beams and frames. In
this lesson, the virtual work method is employed to calculate displacements of trusses due
to external loading.

1. What is the formula for deflection
in truss using virtual work method?
1. What is the formula for deflection

in truss subjected to temperature
loads?
3. What is the difference between

real system and virtual system?


B. MAIN LESSON
Let us assume that we want to determine the vertical deflection, Δ, at joint B of the truss due to the given
external loads P1 and P2. The truss is statically determinate, so the axial forces in its members can be
determined from the method of joints
If F represents the axial force in an arbitrary member j (e.g., member CD in Fig. (a)) of the truss, then
(from mechanics of materials) the axial deformation, δ, of this member is given by
(1)
in which L, A, and E denote, respectively, the length, cross-sectional area, and modulus of elasticity
of member j.


Let Fv denote the virtual force in member j. Next, we subject the truss with the virtual unit load acting
on it (Fig. (b)) to the deformations of the real loads (Fig. (a)). The virtual external work performed by
the virtual unit load as it goes through the real deflection Δ is equal to
(2)
To determine the virtual internal work, let us focus our attention on member j (member CD). The
virtual internal work done on member j by the virtual axial force Fv, acting through the real axial
deformation δ, is equal to Fvδ. Therefore, the total virtual internal work done on all the members of
the truss can be written as
(3)
By equating the virtual external work (Eq. (2)) to the virtual internal work (Eq. (3)) in accordance with
the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies, we obtain the following expression for the method
of virtual work for truss deflections:
(4)


When the deformations are caused by external loads, Eq. (1) can be substituted into Eq. (4) to obtain
(5)
Because the desired deflection, Δ, is the only unknown in Eq. (5), its value can be determined by
solving this equation.
Procedure for Analysis
The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the deflections of trusses by the
virtual work method.
1. Real System If the deflection of the truss to be determined is caused by external loads, then
apply the method of joints and/or the method of sections to compute the (real) axial forces (F)
in all the members of the truss. In the examples given at the end of this section, tensile
member forces are considered to be positive and vice versa. Similarly, increases in
temperature and increases in member lengths due to fabrication errors are considered to be
positive and vice versa.
2. Virtual System Remove all the given (real) loads from the truss; then apply a unit load at the
joint where the deflection is desired and in the direction of the desired deflection to form the
virtual force system. By using the method of joints and/or the method of sections, compute
the virtual axial forces (Fv) in all the members of the truss. The sign convention used for the
virtual forces must be the same as that adopted for the real forces in step 1; that is, if real
tensile forces, temperature increases, or member elongations due to fabrication errors were
considered as positive in step 1, then the virtual tensile forces must also be considered to be
positive and vice versa.
3. The desired deflection of the truss can now be determined by applying Eq. (5) if the deflection
is due to external loads, Eq. (7) if the deflection is caused by temperature changes, or Eq. (4)
in the case of the deflection due to fabrication errors. The application of these virtual work
expressions can be facilitated by arranging the real and virtual quantities, computed in steps
1 and 2, in a tabular form, as illustrated in the following examples. A positive answer for the
desired deflection means that the deflection occurs in the same direction as the unit load,
whereas a negative answer indicates that the deflection occurs in the direction opposite to
that of the unit load.


Example 1: Determine the horizontal deflection at joint C of the truss shown in Fig. (a) by the virtual
work method.
Solution:
Real System The real system consists of the loading given in the problem, as shown in Fig. (b).
The member axial forces due to the real loads (F) obtained by using the method of joints are also
depicted in Fig. (b).


Virtual System The virtual system consists of a unit (1-k) load applied in the horizontal direction at
joint C, as shown in Fig. (c). The member axial forces due to the 1-k virtual load (Fv) are
determined by applying the method of joints. These member forces are also shown in Fig. (c).
Horizontal Deflection at C, ΔC To facilitate the computation of the desired deflection, the real and
virtual member forces are tabulated along with the member lengths (L), as shown in Table 1. As the
values of the cross-sectional area, A, and modulus of elasticity, E, are the same for all the members,
these are not included in the table. Note that the same sign convention is used for both real and virtual
systems; that is, in both the third and the fourth columns of the table, tensile forces are entered as
positive numbers and compressive forces as negative numbers. Then, for each member, the quantity
Fv(FL) is computed, and its value is entered in the fifth column of the table.


The algebraic sum of all of the entries in the fifth column,ΣFv(FL), is then determined, and its value
is recorded at the bottom of the fifth column, as shown. The total virtual internal work done on all of
the members of the truss is given by
The virtual external work done by the 1-k load acting through the desired horizontal deflection at C,
ΔC, is
Finally, we determine the desired deflection ΔC by equating the virtual external work to the virtual
internal work and solving the resulting equation for ΔC as shown in table. Note that the positive answer
for ΔC indicates that joint C deflects to the right, in the direction of the unit load.


Example 2: Determine the horizontal deflection at joint G of the truss shown in Fig. (a) by the virtual
work method.
Solution:
Real System The real system consists of the loading given in the problem, as shown in Fig. (b). The
member axial forces due to the real loads (F) obtained by using the method of joints are also shown
in Fig. (b).


Virtual System The virtual system consists of a unit (1-k) load applied in the horizontal direction at
joint G, as shown in Fig. (c). The member axial forces due to the 1-k virtual load (Fv) are also depicted
in Fig. (c).
Horizontal Deflection at G, ΔG To facilitate the computation of the desired deflection, the real and
virtual member forces are tabulated along with the lengths (L) and the cross-sectional areas (A) of
the members, as shown in Table 2. The modulus of elasticity, E, is the same for all the members, so
its value is not included in the table. Note that the same sign convention is used for both real and
virtual systems; that is, in both the fourth and the fifth columns of the table, tensile forces are entered
as positive numbers, and compressive forces as negative numbers.


Horizontal Deflection. Then, for each member the quantity Fv(FL/A) is computed, and its value is
entered in the sixth column of the table. The algebraic sum of all the entries in the sixth column,
ΣFv(FL/A), is then determined, and its value is recorded at the bottom of the sixth column, as shown.
Finally, the desired deflection ΔG is determined by applying the virtual work expression (Eq. (5)) as
shown in table. Note that the positive answer for ΔG indicates that joint G deflects to the right, in the
direction of the unit load.
Example 3: Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the deflection at joint B of the
truss shown in Fig. (a) by the virtual work method.


Solution:
Real System The real system and the corresponding member axial forces (F) are shown in Fig. (b).
Horizontal Deflection at B, ΔBH The virtual system used for determining the horizontal deflection at
B consists of a 1-kN load applied in the horizontal direction at joint B, as shown in Fig. (c). The
member axial forces (Fv1) due to this virtual load are also shown in this figure. The member axial
forces due to the real system (F) and this virtual system ðFv1Þ are then tabulated, and the virtual
work expression given by Eq. (5) is applied to determine ΔBH, as shown in table.


Vertical Deflection at B, ΔBV The virtual system used for determining the vertical deflection at B
consists of a 1-kN load applied in the vertical direction at joint B, as shown in Fig. (d). The member
axial forces (Fv2) due to this virtual load are also shown in this figure. These member forces are
tabulated in the sixth column of table, and ΔBV is computed by applying the virtual work expression
(Eq. 5)), as shown in the table below.


Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors
The expression of the virtual work method as given by Eq. (4) is quite general in the sense that it can be
used to determine truss deflections due to temperature changes, fabrication errors, and any other effect for
which the member axial deformations, δ, are either known or can be evaluated beforehand.
The axial deformation of a truss member j of length L due to a change in temperature (ΔT) is given by
(6)
in which α denotes the coefficient of thermal expansion of member j.
Substituting Eq. (6) into Eq. (4), we obtain the following expression:
(7)
which can be used to compute truss deflections due to the changes in temperature.


Truss deflections due to fabrication errors can be determined by simply substituting changes in member
lengths due to fabrication errors for δ in Eq. (4).
Example 4: Determine the vertical deflection at joint C of the truss shown in Fig. (a) due to a
temperature drop of 15ᵒF in members AB and BC and a temperature increase of 60ᵒF in members
AF, FG, GH, and EH. Use the virtual work method.
Solution:
Real System The real system consists of the temperature changes (ΔT) given in the problem, as
shown in Fig. (b).


Virtual System The virtual system consists of a 1-k load applied in the vertical direction at joint C, as
shown in Fig. (c). Note that the virtual axial forces (Fv) are computed for only those members that
are subjected to temperature changes. Because the temperature changes in the remaining members
of the truss are zero, their axial deformations are zero; therefore, no internal virtual work is done on
those members.
Vertical Deflection at C, ΔC The temperature changes (ΔT) and the virtual member forces (Fv) are
tabulated along with the lengths (L) of the members, in table. The coefficient of thermal expansion,
α, is the same for all the members, so its value is not included in the table. The desired deflection Δ C
is determined by applying the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7), as shown in the table. Note
that the negative answer for ΔC indicates that joint C deflects upward, in the direction opposite to that
of the unit load.


Example 5: Determine the vertical deflection at joint D of the truss shown in Fig. (a) if member CF is
0.6 in. too long and member EF is 0.4 in. too short. Use the method of virtual work.
Solution:
Real System The real system consists of the changes in the lengths (δ) of members CF and EF of
the truss, as shown in Fig. (b).


Virtual System The virtual system consists of a 1-k load applied in the vertical direction at joint D, as
shown in Fig. (c). The necessary virtual forces (Fv) in members CF and EF can be easily computed
by using the method of sections.


2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (18 mins + 2 mins checking)
1. Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical deflection at joint C of the truss
shown.


2. Use the virtual work method to determine the horizontal and vertical components of the
deflection at joint B of the truss shown



Determine the smallest cross-sectional area A required for the members of the truss shown,
so that the horizontal deflection at joint D does not exceed 10 mm. Use the virtual work
method.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. What is the impact of temperature in computing for deflection in trusses?
Due to change in the environmental temperature, the truss members either expand or shrink. This in turn
produces joint deflections in the truss.
2. Why do we need to apply a force at a certain point in the truss?
Virtual work is a method for computing a single component of deflection at any point in the truss. Basically,
a designer applies a dummy load or the virtual load at a point to compute for the desired displacement.


Lesson title: Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures- Materials:

Three-Moment Equation Notebook, Pen & Calculator
Lesson Objectives: References:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Hibbeler, R.C., Structural
Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
1. Know the advantage and disadvantage of indeterminate 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
structures. Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
2. Compute reactions in statically indeterminate structures. Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
3. Draw shear diagram for indeterminate structures. 3. Mathalino.com
4. Compute for the deflection using three-moment equation.
Productivity Tip: “If you’re not tired, you’re not doing it right.”
As discussed previously, the support reactions and internal forces of statically determinate structures
can be determined from the equations of equilibrium (including equations of condition, if any).
However, since indeterminate structures have more support reactions and/or members than required
for static stability, the equilibrium equations alone are not sufficient for determining the reactions and
internal forces of such structures, and must be supplemented by additional relationships based on
the geometry of deformation of structures.
These additional relationships, which are termed the compatibility conditions, ensure that the
continuity of the displacements is maintained throughout the structure and that the structure’s various
parts fit together.

1. What are the advantages of
indeterminate structures?
2. What are the disadvantages of
indeterminate structures?
3. What is the formula for three
moment equation when EI is
constant?


B. MAIN LESSON
Advantages and Disadvantages of Indeterminate Structures

The advantages of statically indeterminate structures over determinate structures include the following.
1. Smaller Stresses. The maximum stresses in statically indeterminate structures are generally lower
than those in comparable determinate structures. Consider, for example, the statically determinate and
indeterminate beams shown in Fig. (a) and (b), respectively. The bending moment diagrams for the
beams due to a uniformly distributed load, w, are also shown in the figure. (The procedures for analyzing
indeterminate beams are considered in subsequent chapters.) It can be seen from the figure that the
maximum bending moment—and consequently the maximum bending stress—in the indeterminate
beam is significantly lower than in the determinate beam.
2. Greater Stiffnesses. Statically indeterminate structures generally have higher stiffness (i.e., smaller
deformations), than those of comparable determinate structures. From the figures below, we observe
that the maximum deflection of the indeterminate beam is only one-fifth that of the determinate beam.
3. Redundancies. Statically indeterminate structures, if properly designed, have the capacity for
redistributing loads when certain structural portions become overstressed or collapse in cases of
overloads due to earthquakes, tornadoes, impact (e.g., gas explosions or vehicle impacts), and other


such events. Indeterminate structures have more members and/or support reactions than required for
static stability, so if a part (or member or support) of such a structure fails, the entire structure will rams
into it.
The main disadvantages of statically indeterminate structures, over determinate structures, are the
following.
1. Stresses Due to Support Settlements. Support settlements do not cause any stresses in
determinate structures; they may, however, induce significant stresses in indeterminate structures,
which should be taken into account when designing indeterminate structures.
2. Stresses Due to Temperature. Changes and Fabrication Errors. Like support settlements, these
effects do not cause stresses in determinate structures but may include significant stresses in
indeterminate ones.
Three-Moment Equation
The three-moment equation, which was initially presented by Clapeyron in 1857, provides a


convenient tool for analyzing continuous beams. The three-moment equation represents, in a general
form, the compatibility condition that the slope of the elastic curve be continuous at an interior support
of the continuous beam. Since the equation involves three moments—the bending moments at the
support under consideration and at the two adjacent supports—it commonly is referred to as the
three-moment equation. When using this method, the bending moments at the interior (and any fixed)
supports of the continuous beam are treated as the redundants. The three-moment equation is then
applied at the location of each redundant to obtain a set of compatibility equations which can be
solved for the unknown redundant moments.
General Formula
If E is constant
If E and I are constant
If E and I are constant and points 1, 2, 3 are unsettling supports:
Factors for the three-moment equation
The table below list the value of 6𝐴𝑎 /L and 6𝐴𝑏/L for Common Loadings






Example 1:




Example 2: Compute the moments and reactions over the supports for the beam shown in the
figure and then draw the shear diagram.




Example 3: For the continuous beam shown in the figure, determine the moment over the supports.
Also draw the shear diagram and compute the maximum positive bending moment.
By symmetry, M4 = M1 and M3 = M2
Note: Assume the fixed end to be equivalent to an imaginary span with imaginary loading. In three-
moment equation, all the terms that refer to the imaginary span have zero values.






1. Find all the reactions in the beam shown using three moment equation.


2. Determine the reactions in the supports and draw the shear diagram.



Determine the reactions in the supports using three-moment equation.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. What if the loading is not given in the formula for 𝟔𝑨𝒂/L and 𝟔𝑨𝒃/L?
You have to integrate it since there is no formula for that certain loading.
2. How many spans do we consider in three-moment equation?
Two consecutive spans of the continuous beam are considered at one time. Since the
compatibility equation is written in terms of three moments.


Lesson title: Slope-Deflection Method Materials:

1. Write joint equilibrium equations in terms of moments. Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
2. Relate moments to joint rotations and support settlements. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
3. Analyse frames restrained against sidesway by slope-deflection Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
equation. Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
4. Analyse frames undergoing sidesway 3. Kharagpur, Energy Methods in
4. Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams. Structural Analysis, Version 2.
Productivity Tip: “POSITIVE MINDSET separates the best from the rest.”
In this lesson, we consider a classical formulation of the displacement method, called the slope-
deflection method. It was introduced by George A. Maney in 1915. The method takes into account
only the bending deformations of structures.

1. What is slope-deflection
method?
1. What is the formula for chord

rotation?
3. What is the formula for slope

deflection?


B. MAIN LESSON
Slope-Deflection Equations
When a continuous beam or a frame is subjected to external loads, internal moments generally
develop at the ends of its individual members.
The slope-deflection equations relate the moments at the ends of a member to the rotations and
displacements of its ends and the external loads applied to the member.
Since the deformations are assumed to be small, the chord rotation can be expressed as
∆ denotes the relative translation between the two ends of the member in the direction perpendicular
to the undeformed axis of the member
𝜓 denotes the rotation of the member’s chord (i.e., the straight line connecting the deformed positions
of the member ends) due to the relative translation D
The sign convention used in this method is as follows:
The member end moments, end rotations and chord rotation are
positive when counterclockwise.
Formulas for Slope Deflection Equations:
* If this is from FIXED to HINGED or otherwise
* If this is from FIXED to FIXED


Note: If there is no settlement, there is no value of chord (𝜓). Also, hinge and roller don’t have
moments.
Procedure for Slope-Deflection Method:
1. Identify the degrees of freedom of the structure.

2. Compute Fixed-end moments (FEM)
3. In case of support settlements, determine the chord rotations. (𝜓)
4. Write slope-deflections equation.
5. Write equilibrium equations for each joint.
*Equilibrium equations for each joints, you start with the first internal hinged which has a
degree of freedom
6. Determine the unknown joint rotations.
7. Calculate member end moments by substituting the numerical values of joint rotations
determined in step 6 into the deflection equations.
8. Satisfy the equilibrium equation for joints in step 5.
9. Compute member end shears.
10. Determine the support reactions by considering the equilibrium of joints.
11. Satisfy the equilibrium equations for end shears and support reactions.
12. Draw shear and bending moment diagrams using the beam sign convention.
(You may refer to Module 11 for the Fixed End Moments)
Example 1: Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagram for the
three-span continuous beam shown in fig. (a) using slope-deflection method.




Solution:
Degrees of Freedom. 𝜃B and 𝜃C
Fixed-End Moments
Equilibrium Equations. See Fig. (b)


Joint Reactions. By substituting the slope-deflection equations 1 thru 6 into the equilibrium
equations, eq.7 & eq. 8 , we obtain
By solving eq. 9 & eq.10 simultaneously, we determine the value of EI𝜃B and EI𝜃C to be
Member End Moments To compute the member end moments, we substitute the numerical values of EI𝜃B
and EI𝜃C back into the slope-deflection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)) to obtain
Note that the numerical values of MBA, MBC , MCB, and MCD do satisfy the equilibrium equations (Eqs. (7)
and (8)).
Member End Shears and Support Reactions. See Fig. (c) and (d).
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams. See Fig. (e) and (f).
ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITHOUT SIDESWAY
The slope-deflection method can also be used for the analysis of frames. Since the axial deformations of the
members of frames composed of common engineering materials are generally much smaller than the
bending deformations, the axial deformations of members are neglected in the analysis, and the members
are assumed to be inextensible (i.e., they cannot undergo any axial elongation or shortening).


Example 2: Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown due to a
settlement of ¾ in at support B.






Solution:
Degrees of Freedom are 𝜃C and 𝜃D.
Chord Rotations. Since the axial deformation of member BD is neglected, the 34-in. settlement of
support B causes the joint D to displace downward by the same amount, as shown in Fig.(b). The
inclined dashed lines in this figure represent the chords (not the elastic curves) of members CD and
DE in the deformed positions. The rotation of the chord of member CD is
In which the negative sign has been assigned to the value of 𝜓CD to indicate that its sense is clockwise.
Similarly, for member DE,
𝝍DE = 0.00208


Equilibrium Equations. See Fig. (c)
Joint Rotations. By substituting the slope-deflection equations into the equilibrium equations, we
obtain
By solving Eq. 10 & 11 simultaneously, we determine values of EI𝜃C and EI𝜃D to be
Member End Moments. The member end moments can now be computed by substituting the
numerical values of EI𝜃C and EI𝜃D into the slope-deflection equations (Eqs. (1) through (7)).
To check that the solution of the simultaneous equations (Eqs. (10) and (11)) has been carried out
correctly, we substitute the numerical values of member end moments back into the equilibrium
equations (Eqs. (8) and (9)) to obtain


Member End Shears. The member end shears, obtained by considering the equilibrium of each
member, are shown in (c).
Member Axial Forces. With end shears known, member axial forces can now be evaluated by
considering the equilibrium of joints C and D in order. The axial forces thus obtained are shown in
Fig. (c).
Support Reactions. See Fig (d).
ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITH SIDESWAY
Example 3: Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown using slope-
deflection method.
Solution:
Degrees of Freedom are 𝜃C, 𝜃D, and ∆
Fixed-End Moments. Since no external loads are applied to the members, the fixed-end moments
are zero.






Chord Rotation. From fig. (b) we can see that
Slope-Deflection Equation
Equilibrium Equations. By considering the moment equilibrium of joint C and D we obtain the
equilibrium equations
The third equilibrium equation is established by summing the moments of all the forces and couples
acting on the free body of the entire frame about point O, which is located at the intersection of the
longitudinal axes of the two columns, as shown in Fig (c). Thus


in which the shears at the lower ends of the columns can be expressed in terms of column end
moments as (see Fig.(d))
By substituting these expression into the third equilibrium equation, we obtain
Joint Displacement. Substitution of the slope-deflection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)) into the
equilibrium equations (Eqs. (7) through (9)) yields
By solving Eqs. (10) through (12) simultaneously, we determine
Member End Moments By substituting the numerical values of EI𝜃C, EI𝜃D and EI∆ into the slope-
deflection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)), we obtain


1. Determine the reactions and moments for the beam shown using slope-deflection
method.


2. Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown in the figure by
using slope-deflection method.



Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown in the figure by
using slope-deflection method.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. What causes the frames to undergo sidesway?
Frames will undergo sidesway if its joints are not restrained against translation, unless it is a symmetric
frame subjected to symmetric loading.
2. How to evaluate frames with inclined legs?
Analysis of frames with inclined legs is similar to that of the rectangular frames, except that when frames
with inclined legs are subjected to sidesway their horizontal members undergo chord rotations.


Lesson title: Moment-Distribution Method Materials:

1. Calculate stiffness factors and distribution factors for various Analysis, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall
members in a continuous beam. 2. Utku, Senol, Norris C.H. and
2. Define unbalance moment at a rigid joint. Wilbur, J.B., Elementary Structural
3. Compute distribution moment and carry-over moments. Analysis, Fourth Edition, 1991
4. Solve plane frame restrained against sidesway by the moment- 3. Kharagpur, Energy Methods in
distribution method. Structural Analysis, Version 2.
5. Analyse plane frames undergoing sidesway by the moment-
distribution method.
Productivity Tip: “ Don’t let what you cannot do interfere with what you can do.”
In this lesson, we consider another classical formulation of the displacement method, the moment-
distribution method. This method, which was initially develop by Hard Cross in 1924,was the most
widely used method for analysis of structure when it was first published. The main reason for the
popularity was due to the fact that it does not involve the solution of as many simultaneous equations
as required by other methods.

1. What is moment distribution
method?
1. What is the formula for relative

bending stiffness?
3. What is the formula for

distribution factor?


B. MAIN LESSON
Sign Convention
In applying the moment-distribution method, we will adopt the same sign convention as used
previously for the slope-deflection method:
Counterclockwise member end moments are considered positive.
Since a counterclockwise moment at an end of a member must act in a clockwise direction on the
adjacent joint, the foregoing sign convention implies that clockwise moments on joints are considered
positive.
Member Stiffness
The bending stiffness, 𝐾 , of a member is defined as the moment that must be applied at an end of
the member to cause a unit rotation of that end.
𝐾=
The relative bending stiffness, K of a member is obtained by dividing its bending stiffness, 𝐾 by 4E.
K= =
Modified K,
K = ¾ x (Relative K or Absolute K)
About Modified K
For continuous beams with hinge or roller ends, the final moment at the end is zero. The distribution
of moment will become easier if we multiply the beam stiffness K of the span containing that support
¾, which would eliminate any further distribution of moment on that support. Do not do this for fixed-
end support.


Carryover Moment
Carryover moment is defined as the moment induced at the fixed end of a beam by the action of a
moment applied at the other end.
Mfixed end = -1/2 Mapplied
Distribution Factor (DF)
In frames and continuous beams, the moment between any two adjacent members are generally not
equal. The unbalanced moment must be distributed to the other end of each member. The ratio of
distribution to any beam is called the distribution factor, DF and is defined by
DF = K / ΣK
Where K = stiffness factor

ΣK = sum of the stiffness factors for adjacent members
 If the members are of the same material, only relative K can be used.
 DF = 0 for fixed end
 DF = 1 for hinged or roller end.
Fixed-End Moments (FEM)
In the moment distribution method, we first assume the individual spans to be fully restrained at both
ends, the we compute the fixed-end moments.
The fixed-end moment expressions for some common types of loading conditions are given below
for convenient reference. In the moment-distribution method, the effects of joint translations due to
support settlements and sidesway are also taken into account by means of fixed-end moments.




(If the figures are not visible, you may search it in the internet. Fixed-End Moment Common Loadings)
Analysis of Continuous Beams
1. Calculate distribution factors. At each joint that is free to rotate, calculate the distribution factor for
each of the members rigidly connected to the joint. The distribution factor for a member end is
computed by dividing the relative bending stiffness (I/L) of the member by the sum of the relative
bending stiffnesses of all the members rigidly connected to the joint. The sum of all the distribution
factors at a joint must equal 1.


2. Compute fixed-end moments. Assuming that all the free joints are clamped against rotation,
evaluate, for each member, the fixed-end moments due to the external loads and support
settlements (if any) by using the fixed-end moment expressions given above. The
counterclockwise fixed-end moments are considered to be positive.
3. Balance the moments at all the joints that are free to rotate by applying the moment-distribution
process as follows:
a) At each joint, evaluate the unbalanced moment and distribute the unbalanced moment to
the members connected to the joint. The distributed moment at each member end rigidly
connected to the joint is obtained by multiplying the negative of the unbalanced moment
by the distribution factor for the member end.
b) Carry over one-half of each distributed moment to the opposite (far) end of the member.
c) Repeat steps 3(a) and 3(b) until either all the free joints are balanced or the unbalanced
moments at these joints are negligibly small.
4. Determine the final member end moments by algebraically summing the fixed-end moment and
all the distributed and carryover moments at each member end. If the moment distribution has
been carried out correctly, then the final moments must satisfy the equations of moment
equilibrium at all the joints of the structure that are free to rotate.
5. Compute member end shears by considering the equilibrium of the members of the structure.
6. Determine support reactions by considering the equilibrium of the joints of the structure.
7. Draw shear and bending moment diagrams by using the beam sign convention.
Example 1: Determine the member end moments for the two-span continuous beam shown using
moment distribution method.


Distribution Factors – Only joint B is free to rotate. The distribution factors at the joint are
Note that the sum of the distribution factors at joint B is equal to 1.
The distribution factors are recorded in boxes beneath the corresponding member ends on top of
the moment- distribution table, as shown in Fig. (a).


Fixed-End Moments. Assuming that joint B is clamped against rotation, we calculate the fixed-end
moments due to the external loads by using the fixed-end moment expressions given above.
These fixed-end moments are recorded on the first line of the moment-distribution table, as shown in
Fig.(a).
Moment Distribution. Since joint B is actually not clamped, we release the joint and determine the
unbalanced moment acting on it by summing the moments at ends B of members AB and BC:
This unbalanced moment at joint B induces distributed moments at the ends B of members AB and
BC, which can be determined by multiplying the negative of the unbalanced moment by the
distribution factors:
These distributed moments are recorded on line 2 of the moment-distribution table, and a line is
drawn beneath them to indicate that joint B is now balanced. The carryover moments at the far
ends A and C of members AB and BC, respectively, are then computed as
The carryover moments are recorded on the next line (line 3) of the moment-distribution table, with
an inclined arrow pointing from each distributed moment to its carryover moment, as shown in Fig.(a).
Joint B is the only joint of the structure that is free to rotate, and because it has been balanced, we
end the moment- distribution process.


Final Moments. The final member end moments are obtained by algebraically summing all the
moments in each column of the moment-distribution table. The final moments thus obtained are
recorded on the last line of the table in Fig. (a). Note that these final moments satisfy the equation of
moment equilibrium at joint B. A positive answer for an end moment indicates that its sense is
counterclockwise, whereas a negative answer for an end moment implies a clockwise sense. The
final member end moments are depicted in Fig.(b).
Example 2: Determine the member end moments for the continuous beam shown in fig. (a) by
using the moment-distribution method.
Distribution Factors. Since the cantilever portion CD does not contribute to the rotational stiffness of
joint C, we can treat joint C as a simple end support and use the reduced relative bending stiffness
of member BC in the analysis:
At joint B.
At joint C
DFCB = 1


Fixed-End Moments. Using the fixed-end moment expressions and Fig.(b), we obtain
Moment Distribution. The moment distribution is carried out as shown on the moment-distribution
table in Fig (c).
Final Moments See the moment-distribution table and Fig.(d).


ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITHOUT SIDESWAY
The procedure for the analysis of frames without sidesway is similar to that for the analysis of
continuous beam. However, unlike the continuous beams, more than two members may be
connected to a joint of a frame. In such cases, care must be taken to record the computations in such
a manner that mistakes are avoided. Whereas some engineers like to record the moment-distribution
computations directly on a sketch of the frame, others prefer to use a tabular format for such
purposes. We will use a tabular form for calculations, as illustrated by the following example.
Example 3: Determine the member end moments for the frame shown in Fig. (a) by using the
moment-distribution method.
Distribution Factors at Joint C,


At Joint D,


At Joint E,
DFED = 1
Fixed-End Moments By using the fixed-end moment expressions, we obtain
Moment Distribution. The moment-distribution process is carried out in tabular form, as shown in
Fig. (b). The table, which is similar in form to those used previously for the analysis of continuous
beams, contains one column for each member end of the structure. Note that the columns for all
member ends, which are connected to the same joint, are grouped together, so that any unbalanced
moment at the joint can be conveniently distributed among the members connected to it. Also, when
the columns for two ends of a member cannot be located adjacent to each other, then an overhead
arrow connecting the columns for the member ends may serve as a reminder to carry over moments
from one end of the member to the other. In Fig.(b), such an arrow is used between the columns for
the ends of member BD. This arrow indicates that a distributed moment at end D of member BD
induces a carryover moment at the far end B. Note, however, that no moment can be carried over
from end B to end D of member BD, because joint B, which is at a fixed support, will not be released
during the moment- distribution process.
Final Moments. The final member end moments are obtained by summing all the moments in each
column of the moment-distribution table. Note that the final moments, which are recorded on the last
line of the moment- distribution table and are depicted in Fig.(c), satisfy the equations of moment
equilibrium at joints C and D of the frame.
ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITH SIDESWAY
In this section, we apply the moment-distribution method to analyze frames whose joints may undergo
both rotations and translations that have not been prescribed.
Consider, for example, the rectangular frame shown in Fig.(a). A qualitative deflected shape of the
frame for an arbitrary loading is also shown in the figure using an exaggerated scale. While the fixed
joints A and B of the frame are completely restrained against rotation as well as translation, the joints
C and D are free to rotate and translate. However, since the members of the frame are assumed to
be inextensible and the deformations are assumed to be small, the joints C and D displace by the
same amount, D, in the horizontal direction only, as shown in the figure.


In the second part of the analysis, the frame is subjected to the force R, which is applied in the
opposite direction, as shown in Fig.(c). The moments that develop at the member ends are
determined and superimposed on the moments computed in the first part (Fig. 17.14(b)) to obtain the
member end moments in the actual frame (Fig.(a)). If M, MO, and MR denote, respectively, the
member end moments in the actual frame, the frame with sidesway prevented, and the frame
subjected to R, then we can write (see (a), (b), and (c))
M = MO + M R (1)
With the load Q and the corresponding moments MQ known, the desired moments MR due to the
lateral load R can now be determined easily by multiplying MQ by the ratio R/Q; that is,
𝑹
MR = ( ) (MQ (2)
𝑸
Substituting Eq. (1) and Eq. (2), we can express the member end moments in the actual frame.
𝑹
M = MO + ( ) (MQ
𝑸


Example 4: Determine the member end moments for the frame shown in Fig. (a) by using the
moment-distribution method.
Distribution Factors at Joint C,
At Joint D,




(f) (g)


(j) Evaluation of Q


Part I: Sidesway Prevented In the first part of the analysis, the sidesway of the frame is prevented by
adding an imaginary roller at joint C, as shown in Fig. (b). Assuming that joints C and D of this frame
are clamped against rotation, we calculate the fixed-end moments due to the external load to be
The moment-distribution of these fixed-end moments is then performed, as shown on the moment-
distribution table in Fig.(c), to determine the member end moments MO in the frame with sidesway
prevented.
To evaluate the restraining force R that develops at the imaginary roller support, we first calculate the
shears at the lower ends of the columns AC and BD by considering the moment equilibrium of the
free bodies of the columns shown in Fig. (d). Next, by considering the equilibrium of the horizontal
forces acting on the entire frame (Fig. (e)).
Note that the restraining force acts to the right, indicating that if the roller would not have been in
place, the frame would have swayed to the left.


Part II: Sidesway Permitted. Since the actual frame is not supported by a roller at joint C, we neutralize
the effect of the restraining force by applying a lateral load R=2.06 kN in the opposite direction (i.e.,
to the left) to the frame, as shown in Fig.(f). As discussed previously, since the moment-distribution
method cannot be used directly to compute member end moments MR due to the lateral load R=2.06
kN, we use an indirect approach in which the frame is subjected to an arbitrary known joint translation
∆′ caused by an unknown load Q acting at the location and in the direction of R, as shown in Fig.(g).
Assuming that the joints C and D of the frame are clamped against rotation, as shown in Fig.(h), the
fixed-end moments due to the translation ∆′ are given by
in which negative signs have been assigned to the fixed-end moments for the columns, because
these moments must act in the clockwise direction, as shown in Fig.(h).
Instead of arbitrarily assuming a numerical value for ∆′ to compute the fixed-end moments, it is usually
more convenient to assume a numerical value for one of the fixed-end moments, evaluate ∆′ from
the expression of that fixed-end moment, and use the value of ∆′ thus obtained to compute the
remaining fixed-end moments. Thus, we arbitrarily assume the fixed-end moment FEMAC to be -50
kN-m; that is
By solving for ∆′, we obtain
By substituting this value of ∆′ into the expressions for FEMBD and FEMDB, we determine the
consistent values of these moments to be
The foregoing fixed-end moments are then distributed by the usual moment-distribution process, as
shown in Fig. (i), to determine the member end moments MQ caused by the yet-unknown load Q.
To evaluate the magnitude of Q that corresponds to these member end moments, we first calculate
shears at the lower ends of the columns by considering their moment equilibrium (Fig.(j)) and then
apply the equation of equilibrium in the horizontal direction to the entire frame:


which indicates that the moments MQ computed in Fig.(i) are caused by a lateral load Q =34.41 kN.
Since the moments are linearly proportional to the magnitude of the load, the desired moments MR
due to the lateral load R=2.06 kN must be equal to the moments MQ (Fig.(i)) multiplied by the ratio
R/Q=2.06/34.41.
Actual Member End Moments. The actual member end moments, M, can now be determined by
algebraically summing the member end moments MO computed in Fig.(c) and 2.06/34.41 times the
member end moments MQ computed in Fig. (i). Thus
1. Determine the reactions and moments for the beam shown using moment-distribution
method.




2. Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown in the figure by
using moment-distribution method.


Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown in the figure by
using moment-distribution method.


C. LESSON WRAP-UP
FAQs
1. What factors are considered in a frames without sidesway?
Frames without sidesway essentially involves computing fixed-end moments due to the external loads by
assuming that all the free joints of the structures are temporarily restrained against rotation.
2. How to evaluate unbalance moment?
In the moment-distribution process, at each free joint of the structure, the unbalanced moment is evaluated
and distributed to the member ends connected to it.

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CIE 136

PEN Code: CIE 136 Credit: 4 units

C. Subject Outline and Time Allotment:

Lesson No. Topics Week No.

4 Double Integration Method 3

5 Moment Area Method 4

6 Conjugate Beam Method 6

7 Virtual Work Method (Beams and Frames) 7

SECOND PERIODIC EXAM 9

11 Moment Distribution Method 12

THIRD PERIODIC EXAM 13

Passing Grade is 60.

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Lesson title: Introduction to Structural Analysis and Loads Materials:

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION 1

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1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES

Tie Rods - Structural members subjected to a

Beams - usually straight horizontal members

Beams are primarily designed to resist bending

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When the material used for a beam is a metal

This cross section is commonly referred to as a

Columns - Members that are generally

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When the span of a structure is required to

Cables and Arches

Two other forms of structures used to span

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Frames are often used in buildings and are

1.3 LOADS ON STRUCTURES

National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015

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Snow and Rain Loads

Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES

2.1 EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURE

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ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣFz = 0

ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣFz = 0

2.2 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES

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2.3 TYPES OF SUPPORTS FOR PLANE STRUCTURES

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2.4 STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND STABILITY

Degree of Indeterminacy(General Equations)

DI = number of unknowns – number of equations

Degree of Indeterminacy ( Specific Equations)

Structure Planar Case 3D Case

Equations of Conditions (Number of Releases)

Type of Connection Equations Known Conditions/s

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