Superconductivity

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
Definition and Key Characteristics

Superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon characterized by two principal
properties: zero electrical resistance and perfect diamagnetism.
Zero Electrical Resistance: When a material transitions to the superconducting state, it
can conduct electric current without any energy loss. In contrast to normal conductors,
which exhibit some resistance and hence dissipate energy as heat, superconductors allow
for the perpetual flow of current once it is established.
Perfect Diamagnetism (Meissner Effect): Superconductors expel all internal magnetic
fields, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect. When placed in a magnetic field, a
superconductor will generate currents on its surface that create an opposing magnetic field,
effectively cancelling the internal field. This makes superconductors perfectly
diamagnetic, meaning they exhibit a magnetic susceptibility of -1.
Fig. 1: First superconductor ever made

The Historical Discovery of Superconductivity by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Its
Significance
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, physicists were intensely interested in exploring
the properties of materials at extremely low temperatures. This pursuit was driven by the
quest to understand the fundamental nature of matter and the behavior of materials under
conditions that were far removed from everyday experiences.
1. Cryogenics and Liquefaction of Gases: One of the key milestones in low-temperature
physics was the liquefaction of gases. Scientists like James Dewar and Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes made significant strides in this area. Dewar, a Scottish physicist and chemist, was
known for his work in liquefying hydrogen and developing the vacuum flask, which could
maintain low temperatures for extended periods.
2. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Helium Liquefaction: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch
physicist, made a monumental contribution by successfully liquefying helium in 1908.
This achievement provided researchers with a tool to reach temperatures as low as 4.2
Kelvin, enabling the exploration of material properties at these cryogenic temperatures.
The Discovery of Superconductivity
Onnes's Experiments
In 1911, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes turned his attention to the electrical properties of metals
at very low temperatures. He conducted a series of experiments to measure the electrical
resistance of various metals as they were cooled to cryogenic temperatures. Mercury was
chosen as one of the test materials.
1. Experimental Setup: Onnes and his team used a cryostat to cool mercury to temperatures
near absolute zero. The resistance of mercury was measured using sensitive electrical
instruments designed to operate at these low temperatures.
2. Observation of Zero Resistance: As the temperature of mercury was lowered to 4.2
Kelvin, as shown in Fig. 2.Onnes observed a dramatic drop in electrical resistance. At this
critical temperature, the resistance of mercury suddenly vanished, indicating that it had
entered a new state of matter. This state was characterized by zero electrical resistance,
meaning that an electric current could flow through the material without any energy loss.
Fig. 2
3. Confirmation and Reproducibility: Onnes's findings were meticulously verified through
repeated experiments. The reproducibility of the zero-resistance state in mercury
confirmed the discovery of superconductivity. Onnes's careful documentation and
scientific rigor lent credibility to his groundbreaking discovery.
The Significance of the Discovery
The discovery of superconductivity by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was significant for
several reasons:
1. Challenge to Classical Physics: The observation of zero electrical resistance challenged
classical physics, which could not explain the disappearance of resistance. This prompted
the development of new theoretical frameworks to understand the phenomenon.
2. Opening a New Field of Study: Superconductivity opened up a new field in condensed
matter physics, leading to extensive theoretical and experimental research. It spurred the
investigation of other materials to identify additional superconductors and understand their
properties.
3. Technological Implications: The potential applications of superconductivity in
technology were immediately recognized. The ability to conduct electricity without energy
loss held promise for revolutionizing electrical transmission, magnetic levitation, and
various other fields.
Theoretical Developments
Following Onnes's discovery, several theoretical advancements were made to explain
superconductivity:
1. London Equations: In the 1930s, Fritz and Heinz London developed the London
equations, which described the electromagnetic properties of superconductors and
explained the Meissner effect—the expulsion of magnetic fields from the interior of
superconductors.
2. BCS Theory: The most comprehensive theoretical explanation came in 1957 with the
BCS theory, named after John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer. The BCS
theory described superconductivity as a macroscopic quantum phenomenon resulting from
the formation of Cooper pairs—pairs of electrons that move through the lattice without
scattering, thus leading to zero resistance.
Impact on Science and Technology
The discovery of superconductivity and subsequent theoretical advancements have had
profound impacts on both science and technology:
1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Superconducting magnets are essential
components in MRI machines, enabling high-resolution medical imaging that is crucial for
diagnosing and treating various medical conditions.
2. Particle Accelerators: Superconducting magnets are used in particle accelerators, such as
the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), to steer and focus particle beams. This technology is
critical for advancing our understanding of fundamental particles and forces.
3. Quantum Computing: Superconducting qubits form the basis of many quantum
computing architectures. These qubits leverage the principles of superconductivity to
perform complex calculations at speeds unattainable by classical computers.
4. Energy Transmission: Superconducting cables offer the potential for lossless energy
transmission, improving the efficiency and capacity of power grids. This technology can
play a significant role in addressing global energy challenges.
5. Magnetic Levitation: Superconductors enable magnetic levitation, which is used in
maglev trains. These trains can achieve high speeds with minimal friction, offering a
promising solution for future transportation needs.

Superconductivity

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Superconductivity

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Superconductivity

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INTRODUCTION

Definition and Key Characteristics

Fig. 1: First superconductor ever made

You might also like