Applications of Integration in Calculus

Period 1, Calculus AB, February 3, 2024

Ryan Lee
June 4, 2024

Thank you Desmos for your wonderful graphing utility.

Thank you Wolfram Alpha for your too op calculations.
Thank you Evan Chen for your .sty file.

§1 Integration, a summary
Definition 1.1. Integration is a mathematical concept and operation to find the area
defined by various functions by summing up rectangles with widths that are infinitesimally
small. Integration is a case of the Riemann sum where the number of rectangles used
approaches infinity, with a Riemann sum being an approximation of an integral with
normally a finite amount of rectangles used.

As differentiation is applied to a function, integration is taking the antiderivative of

the function; i.e. taking the derivative of an integrated function will yield the original
function (Although the constant term disappears).

Integration can be applied in Physics, Chemistry and Biology. In physics, one can
integrate differential equations to calculate change over time. For Chemistry, we can
use integration to find the integrated rate laws for kinetics. For Biology, we can apply
integration to find the change over time for flow rates of blood or fluid and rate of muscle
contraction.

Remark 1.2. A famous example in coding is the PID controller, or the Proportional Integral
and Derivative controller in which the Integral function uses the past values to construct a
response, the Derivative function looks into the future, and the Proportional function looks
at the present. The function is below:
Z t
de(t)
u(t) = Kp e(t) + Ki e(τ ) dτ + Kd
0 dt
.

The image below denotes a sample function, the derivative line at a specific point, and
the integral of the sample function.

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Figure 1:

§2 Area between two or more curves

Areas are always defined as the space enclosed by two or more function curves. Integration
is the method to find that area by splitting the enclosed space into rectangles with widths
infinitesimally small.

Definition 2.1. For two curves, the integral of the area is defined to be the integral
operation of the difference between the larger function and smaller function in a specific
interval. If the larger function is not always larger than the smaller function in the entire
interval, split the integral into multiple intervals.

To further explain, Suppose the curves f (x) and g(x) exist on the interval a → c. The
interval is defined by the smallest and largest x or y values of the intersections between
the functions. However, for the interval aR→ b, f (x) > g(x), and on the interval b → c,
c
g(x) > f (x). If we try to take the integral a f (x) − g(x)dx we will get the wrong answer.
Rb Rc
We must split into two interval integrals, with Area = a f (x) − g(x)dx + b g(x) − f (x)dx

Example 2.2 (Two curves)

Example: Let us have the functions f (x) = 2x2 − 2 and g(x) = 3x. Find the area
between the two functions.

Remark 2.3. If we draw it out, we can see that there are only two intersections between
1 3 1
the functions, at (− , − ) and (2, 6). We only need one interval − → 2. in this case, we
2 2 2
see that g(x) > f (x) rather than f (x) − g(x)

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Figure 2: Two curves, f (x) = 2x2 − 2 and g(x) = 3x

R2 3 2 1
We find the integral 3x − (2x2 − 2)dx. We get x2 − x3 + 2x from
− 12 to 2.
2 3 2
5
Calculations yield 5.2083333 or 5 .
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Definition 2.4. Three curves are a similar story. Cut the interval into smaller intervals
such that each interval has only two curves.

Example 2.5 (Three curves)

Example: Let us have the functions f (x) = x, g(x) = 2x, and h(x) = −x + 3.

Figure 3:

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The points of intersection are (0, 0), (1, 2), and (1.5, 1.5). We draw the line x = 1 to
separate the area into two sections, one involving f (x) and g(x) with interval 0 → 1, and
the other g(x) and h(x) with interval 1 → 1.5.
R1 R 1.5 R1 R 1.5
The integral is 0 2x − x dx + 1 −x + 3 − x dx = 0 x dx + 1 −2x + 3 dx
3
We resolve this to be 0.75 = .
4

§3 Disk Method
Disk method is the method of forming a 3d structure by rotating a curve along a specific
interval about a specific axis. It is in its own a Riemann sum to find volume rather
than area. For the disk method, we define a function as f (x) as the basic function to be
rotated. Typically, we define a singular function in basic cases, followed by vertical or
horizontal lines to define a specific area. Think of the axis as a skewer, and we skewer
disks through it. These disks we define by area of a circle, or πr2 , with r in this case x
or y, depending on the orientation of the axis.

Example 3.1
Suppose we define a function f (x) = x, and lines y = 0 and x = 4. Rotate it about
the x-axis.

Figure 4: Graph.

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Ryan Lee (June 4, 2024) Applications of Integration in Calculus

Figure 5: Rotated graph.

We define y = 0 as the x-axis, and we rotate the function about that. It should end
up in a cone shape. We take the disks to be perpendicular to the x-axis. The function
and the lines intersect together at x values x = 0 and x = 4. Thus, we take the integral
R4 2 64
0 π · (x) dx. We receive solution 3 π.

Example 3.2
Similarly, we define a function similarly but with y = 1 instead of y = 0. We rotate
it about the y-axis.

We define x = 0 as the x-axis, and we rotate the function about that. It should end
up in a cone shape. We take the disks to be perpendicular to the y-axis. The function
and the lines intersect together at y values y = 0 and y = 4. Thus, we take the integral
R4 2 2 128
0 π · 4 − (y) dy. We receive solution 3 π.

What about lines other than x = 0 or y = 0?

Example 3.3
Suppose we define a function f (x) = x, and lines y = 0 and x = 4. Rotate it about
the y = −1

We define y = −1 as the axis, and we rotate the function about that. We take the
disks to be perpendicular to the x-axis. The function and
R 4 the lines intersect together at
2
x values x = 0 and x = 4. Thus, we take the integral 0 π · (−1 − x) dx. We receive
124
solution π.
3

Example 3.4
Similarly, we define a function similarly but with y = 1 instead of y = 0. We rotate
it about the x = −1.

We define x = −1 as the axis, and we rotate the function about that. We take the
disks to be perpendicular to the y-axis. The functionR and the lines intersect together at
4
y values y = 0 and y = 4. Thus, we take the integral 0 π · (−1 − 4)2 − (−1 − y)2 dy. We
176
receive solution π.
3

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§4 Washer Method
The washer method is fundamentally similar to the Disk method. The washer method
involves a rotation about
R b an 2axis,2howeverRit applies the area between two curves. We
d
define the integral as a π · (R − r ) dx or c π · (R2 − r2 ) dy, with R being the function
of the ”outer” function (the one further away from the axis) and the ”inner” function
(the one closer to the axis).

The washer method is essentially the disk method but forR beach disk created,
Rb there is
another disk excised from the larger disk. Thus, it is just a π · R2 dx − a π · r2 dx =
Rb 2 2
a π · (R − r ) dx.

Example 4.1
Suppose we define the functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x. Find the volume when the
shape is revolved about the x-axis.

Figure 6: Washer Method

Rb
How should we approach this? We take the integral value as a π · (R2 − r2 ) dx. Since
we do it by the X axis, we have R as g(x) = x and f (x) = x2 as our r. The Intersections
of the two functions are at y = 0, 1.
R1 R1 1 1
And so we have 0 π · ((x)2 − (x2 )2 ) dx = 0 π · (x2 − x4 ) dx = π · ( x3 − x5 ) + DC|10 .
3 5
1 1 2π
We allow it to become π · ( − ) = .
3 5 15

Example 4.2
Suppose we define the functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x. Find the volume when the
shape is revolved about the y-axis.

For the y axis, we can do something very similar.

We define R as f (x) = x2 in this case because it is the outer function and r as g(x) = x.
R1 √
Our intersecting values are at x = 0, 1. We write our integral 0 π · (( y)2 − (y)2 ) dy =
R1 2 1 2 1 3 1 π
0 π · (y − y ) dy = π · ( 2 y − 3 y ) + C|0 . This yields 6 as our solution.

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Example 4.3
Suppose we define the functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x. Find the volume when the
shape is revolved about the line y = 2.

This is going to be very similar to the Disk Method. With y = 2 our outer function R
will be f (x) = x2 , and our inner function r as g(x) = x. However, the reference line has
been shifted, and our functions become R = 2 − x2 and r = 2 − x. All we do is put these
new values in our previous
R1 integral. R1
And so we have 0 π · ((2 − x2 )2 − (2 − x)2 ) dx = 0 π · (x4 − 5x2 + 4x) dx =
1 5
π · ( x5 − x3 + 2x2 ) + C|10 .
5 3
8π
This simplifies into .
15

Example 4.4
Suppose we define the functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x. Find the volume when the
shape is revolved about the line x = −1.

We apply what we did in example 4.3 and example 4.2. Our r is going to be g(x) = x,
and R is going to be f (x) = 2 from the interval 0 R≤ x ≤ 1 g(x) is less than
R 1x because
√ 1 √
f (x). We write our integral 0 π · (( y + 1)2 − (y + 1)2 ) dy = 0 π · (2 y − y 2 − y) dy =
3
4 1 1 π
π · ( y 2 − y 3 − y 2 ) + C|10 . This yields as our solution.
3 3 2 2

§5 Cross Sections
Volumes defined by integrating cross sectional areas perpendicular to a x or y axis can be
found by fitting a definable length (such as a radius or a base) to the length formed by
the difference between the two defined functions. For cross sectional areas perpendicular
for the x and y axes, the volume can be found by taking integrals with respect to x and
y respectively.

We start with the areas of various common shapes.

Definition 5.1. A square with side length a has an area of a2 .

Definition 5.2. A rectangle with base a and height b will have an area of ab .

Definition 5.3. An equilateral triangle is defined as side length a. We draw an√altitude

a 3
down the middle and apply the 30, 60, 90 triangle to obtain the height to be . The
√ 2
a2 3
Area will be
4
Definition 5.4. An isosceles right triangle is quite half of a square, and thus the Cathetus
a2
defined as a will yield an area of .
2

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a
Definition 5.5. A semicircle with diameter a is ultimately half a circle with radius .
2
a
The area of a circle is π · r2 , but with the radius and the shape being a semicircle the
2
a2 π
area will be
8
Definition 5.6. For a sector with radius a and an angle of b radians, we can find the
b
area of such. A circle has area π · a2 . The ratio defines the fraction of the circle that
2π
a2 · b
makes up the sector. Thus, the area is
2

Example 5.7
Suppose we define a curve y = −x2 + 4 and y = x + 2.

Figure 7:

Out of the areas that we discussed, we will be finding the volume of cross sectional
defined functions (squares, equilateral triangles, and semi-circles)
We start with squares.

Overall, the formula used is going to differ for each of the different functions and
different shapes.

Definition 5.8. For cross sections that are perpendicular to the x axis:
For any shape with area defined as A(x) and the functions f (x) and g(x) (f (x) > g(x))
Rb
with limits from a to b, the volume of the cross sectional object will be a A(f (x)−g(x)) dx.
Definition 5.9. For cross sections that are perpendicular to the y axis:
For any shape with area defined as For any shape with area defined as A(y) and the
functions f (y) and g(y) (f (y) > g(y)) with limits from a to b, the volume of the cross
Rb
sectional object will be a A(f (y) − g(y)) dy.

Example 5.10
Find the volume formed by cross sections of squares that are perpendicular to the x
axis.

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The diagram gives a good idea on how the process works.

The side lengths w is the defined length of the larger function subtracted by the smaller
function, so it is w = −x2 + 4 − (x + 2) = −x2 − x + 2. Where does our integration
start and end? We have 4 − x2 = x + 2, which can be simplified into x2 + x − 2 = 0, so
(x + 2)(x − 1) = 0. This suggests that x = 1, −2, so that is our points of intersection and
thus the limits of our definite integral.

It is a square, so A(x) is just x2 .

Figure 8:

R1 R1 2 2 x5 x4
Thus, we have our integral −2 A(f (x) − g(x)) dx = −2 (−x − x + 2) dx = 5
+
2
−
81
x3 − 2x2 + 4x + C|1−2 . This is equal to .
10

Example 5.11
Find the volume formed by cross sections of equilateral triangles that are perpendic-
ular to the x axis.

The side lengths w is the defined length of the larger function subtracted by the smaller
function, so it is w = −x2 + 4 − (x + 2) = −x2 − x + 2. As before, x = 1, −2, so that is
our points of intersection and thus the limits of our definite integral.
√
x2 3
It is an equilateral triangle, thus A(x) =
4

Figure 9:
√
R1 R1 3
Thus, we have our integral −2 A(f (x) − g(x)) dx = −2 (−x2 − x + 2)2 dx =
4

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√ √
3 x5 x4 3 2 1 81 3
( + − x − 2x + 4x + C)|−2 . This is equal to .
4 5 2 40

Example 5.12
Find the volume formed by cross sections of semicircles that are perpendicular to
the x axis.

The side lengths w is the defined length of the larger function subtracted by the smaller
function, so it is w = −x2 + 4 − (x + 2) = −x2 − x + 2. As before, x = 1, −2, so that is
our points of intersection and thus the limits of our definite integral.

x2 · π
It is a semicircle, thus A(x) =
8

Figure 10:
√
R1 R1 π 2 − x + 2)2 dx = π x5
Thus, we have our integral −2 A(f (x) − g(x)) dx = −2 8 (−x ( +
8 5
x4 81π
− x3 − 2x2 + 4x + C)|1−2 . This is equal to .
2 80

Example 5.13
Find the volume formed by cross sections of squares that are perpendicular to the y
axis.

Oh No! How do we deal with this? Let’s look back on Definition 5.9.
Remark 5.14. If you have trouble comprehending, remember that for the x axis, we used
the general form y = h(x). What if for the y axis we solved for x instead for x = j(y)?

Let’s define each of the functions in terms of y. With y = −x2 + 4 and y = x + 2, we

√ √
have x2 = 4 − y, which is equivalent to x = 4 − y and x = y − 2. But x = 4 − y only
√
considers every positive value of x, so we must also consider x = − 4 − y.

Since we must do exactly the same thing as before, we must separate the function into
two components. But before that, where does the function begin and where does the
function end?
√ √
So, you can see the green graph is x = − 4 − y, the red graph is x = 4 − y, and the
blue graph is x = y − 2.

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Figure 11:

The highest point is y = 4 and the lowest is y = 0. To separate the functions, the
intersection of the red graph and the blue graph is at (1, 3), so we have two intervals of
4 ≥ x ≥ 3 and 3 ≥ x ≥ 0.

Figure 12:
R3 √ √
Since we have squares, A(y) = w2 . Our two integrals will be 2
4 ( 4 − y−(− 4 − y)) dy
R0 √
and 3 ((y − 2) − (− 4 − y))2 dy.
R3 R0 √
Simplification yields 4 4(4 − y) dy and 3 ((y − 2) − (− 4 − y))2 dy.

These values can be simplified into 3.2192 and 3.1923, which is 6.3666 .

Example 5.15
Find the volume formed by cross sections of equilateral triangles that are perpendic-
ular to the y axis.

We follow the same exact process as before√regarding the process of the y axis. We have
x2 3
the equilateral triangle area as A(x) =
4
Similarly, we are to proceed inR 4 the same manner.
R3 The volume is really the sum of
two different integrals, which is 3 A(x) dy and 0 A(x) dy. This can be simplified into
√ √ √ √ √
R 4 3 · ( 4 − y − (− 4 − y))2 R 3 3 · ((y − 2) − (− 4 − y))2
3 dy and 0 dy. Overall, we
4 4
can use a calculator to solve this, or if you want some extra practice with integration, we
leave it as an exercise to the reader. Remember that this is quite the previous problem

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Figure 13:

√
3
but instead it is multiplied by a specific constant, which in this case is the constant .
4
As always, we can take the answer form the previous part and multiply by the constant
but we will simply solve it.

We receive the solutions 1.8908 + 0.86603 = 2.75683

Example 5.16
Find the volume formed by cross sections of semicircles that are perpendicular to
the y axis.

We follow exactly the same steps as before except the area of a semicircle is rather
π · x2
A(x) = .
2

Figure 14:
√ √
R4 R3 R 4 π · ( 4 − y − (− 4 − y))2
We have 3 A(x) dy and 0 A(x) dy, which is 3 dy and
√ 2
R 3 π · ((y − 2) − (− 4 − y))2
0 dy. This can be simplified further into 6.8591 + 3.1416 =
2
10.0007

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§6 Summary
My level of understanding in LT-07 (Application of the Integration) is very high, due
to me completing the entire assignment extremely late at two to three weeks after the
AP exam itself had happened. Since I had recently reviewed the same topics in order
to prepare for the exam, I am very confident about my understanding the LT-07 topic,
especially for AP Calculus BC next year.

I had especially much difficulty writing out the entirety of the writing assignment, since
putting everything at high level at detail in the beginning necessitated such standards for
the later sections, which took a lot of time. Particularly, Volumes of various cross sections
was the most difficult to explain due to the inability for me to draw the graphs. Finding
the images or any software for me to use to draw these digitally was excruciatingly difficult.

I already finished the AP exam. However, I am planning on reviewing for LT-07 for
AP Calculus BC next year. I would simply solve some problems regarding the subject
before the AP exam and I would definitely enjoy it.

§7 References
From Washington Liberty College
Professor Zhang Dongqian’s expertise in the subject.
Larson and Edward’s Calculus Textbook

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