Course Notes on Calculus 2

Calculus 2, often considered a continuation of the introductory Calculus 1

course, dives deeper into more advanced techniques of differentiation and
integration, introducing topics such as integration techniques, sequences
and series, parametric equations, polar coordinates, and more. This course
plays a crucial role in understanding the behavior of functions, their areas,
and the physical principles they may represent. Below, we will explore some
of the key concepts and methods covered in a typical Calculus 2 course.
1. Integration Techniques
Integration is the fundamental tool used to find areas, volumes, and solve
problems in physics and engineering. Building on the basic techniques
learned in Calculus 1, Calculus 2 introduces several advanced methods for
evaluating integrals. These include:
a. Integration by Substitution
This method, often seen as the reverse of the chain rule in differentiation, is
used when an integral contains a composite function. The idea is to simplify
the integral by making a substitution, effectively transforming the integral
into a simpler form. For example, if we have an integral like:
∫f(g(x))g′(x) dx,\int f(g(x))g'(x) \, dx,∫f(g(x))g′(x)dx,
we can make the substitution u=g(x)u = g(x)u=g(x), and du=g′(x) dxdu =
g'(x) \, dxdu=g′(x)dx, converting the integral into:
∫f(u) du.\int f(u) \, du.∫f(u)du.
b. Integration by Parts
The integration by parts formula is derived from the product rule for
differentiation and is particularly useful for integrals involving the product of
two functions. The formula is:
∫u dv=uv−∫v du.\int u \, dv = uv - \int v \, du.∫udv=uv−∫vdu.
Choosing uuu and dvdvdv effectively can often simplify an otherwise difficult
integral. This method is commonly used for integrals involving logarithmic,
trigonometric, or exponential functions.
c. Trigonometric Integrals
Integrals involving trigonometric functions can often be simplified using
trigonometric identities. For example, integrals like:
∫sin⁡2(x) dx\int \sin^2(x) \, dx∫sin2(x)dx
can be simplified by using the identity sin⁡2(x)=1−cos⁡(2x)2\sin^2(x) = \
frac{1 - \cos(2x)}{2}sin2(x)=21−cos(2x). Other standard techniques involve
using substitution or parts when needed.
d. Partial Fraction Decomposition
This technique is used for rational functions, where the integrand is a ratio of
two polynomials. The idea is to express the rational function as a sum of
simpler fractions, which can then be integrated individually. The method
works by factoring the denominator and then finding constants that allow the
original fraction to be rewritten as a sum of simpler terms.
e. Trigonometric Substitution
When integrals involve square roots of expressions like a2−x2a^2 -
x^2a2−x2, a2+x2a^2 + x^2a2+x2, or x2−a2x^2 - a^2x2−a2,
trigonometric substitution is a helpful technique. It involves substituting a
trigonometric function for the variable, making the integral easier to handle.
For example, for a2−x2\sqrt{a^2 - x^2}a2−x2, we substitute x=asin⁡(θ)x =
a \sin(\theta)x=asin(θ).
2. Applications of Integration
In addition to finding areas and volumes, integrals are used in various
applied fields. Calculus 2 introduces several important applications of
integration:
a. Area Between Curves
To find the area between two curves, y=f(x)y = f(x)y=f(x) and y=g(x)y =
g(x)y=g(x), over the interval [a,b][a, b][a,b], we subtract the integral of the
lower curve from the integral of the upper curve:
Area=∫ab[f(x)−g(x)] dx.\text{Area} = \int_a^b [f(x) - g(x)] \, dx.Area=∫ab
[f(x)−g(x)]dx.
b. Volume of Solids of Revolution
The volume of a solid formed by rotating a region around an axis can be
computed using integration. There are two main methods for doing this: the
disk method and the shell method. The disk method uses the formula:
V=π∫ab[f(x)]2 dx,V = \pi \int_a^b [f(x)]^2 \, dx,V=π∫ab[f(x)]2dx,
while the shell method involves using cylindrical shells:
V=2π∫abxf(x) dx.V = 2\pi \int_a^b x f(x) \, dx.V=2π∫abxf(x)dx.
c. Arc Length
The length of a curve between two points x=ax = ax=a and x=bx = bx=b is
given by:
L=∫ab1+(f′(x))2 dx.L = \int_a^b \sqrt{1 + (f'(x))^2} \, dx.L=∫ab1+(f′(x))2dx.
This formula is derived from the Pythagorean theorem and is used to
compute the length of curves in applications such as physics, engineering,
and computer graphics.
d. Surface Area
The surface area of a solid generated by rotating a curve y=f(x)y =
f(x)y=f(x) around the x-axis is calculated using the formula:
SA=2π∫abf(x)1+(f′(x))2 dx.SA = 2\pi \int_a^b f(x) \sqrt{1 + (f'(x))^2} \,
dx.SA=2π∫abf(x)1+(f′(x))2dx.
This formula can also be applied to curves rotated around the y-axis or other
axes, depending on the problem.
3. Sequences and Series
In Calculus 2, sequences and series play a major role in understanding the
behavior of functions and approximating complicated expressions.
a. Sequences
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers, where each term is determined by
a rule or formula. Sequences are important for understanding limits, as many
sequences approach a particular value as the number of terms increases. A
key concept here is the limit of a sequence, where we analyze the behavior
of the sequence as the number of terms tends to infinity. For example, the
sequence an=1na_n = \frac{1}{n}an=n1 approaches 0 as n→∞n \to \
inftyn→∞.
b. Series
A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. A simple example is the
infinite geometric series:
S=a+ar+ar2+ar3+… .S = a + ar + ar^2 + ar^3 + \dots.S=a+ar+ar2+ar3+
….
The sum of an infinite series is only meaningful if it converges, meaning that
the sum approaches a finite value as more terms are added. A key result in
series is the geometric series test:
S=a1−rfor∣r∣<1.S = \frac{a}{1 - r} \quad \text{for} \quad |r| < 1.S=1−ra
for∣r∣<1.
c. Convergence Tests
Determining whether a series converges or diverges is a central topic in
Calculus 2. Several tests help determine this, including the ratio test, the
root test, the integral test, and the comparison test. Each of these provides a
method for analyzing series to see if their sums approach a finite number or
not. For instance, the ratio test involves computing the limit:
L=lim⁡n→∞∣an+1an∣.L = \lim_{n \to \infty} \left| \frac{a_{n+1}}{a_n} \
right|.L=n→∞limanan+1.
If L<1L < 1L<1, the series converges; if L>1L > 1L>1, it diverges; if L=1L =
1L=1, the test is inconclusive.
d. Power Series
Power series are infinite sums of the form:
∑n=0∞an(x−c)n.\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (x - c)^n.n=0∑∞an(x−c)n.
These series are useful for approximating functions, and if the series
converges for a certain range of xxx, it can be used to approximate the
function within that interval. A common example of a power series is the
Taylor series, which approximates a function near a point by using the
function's derivatives at that point.
4. Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
In addition to working with functions expressed in the form y=f(x)y =
f(x)y=f(x), Calculus 2 also explores parametric equations and polar
coordinates, which provide alternative ways to describe curves.
a. Parametric Equations
Parametric equations express the coordinates of points on a curve as
functions of a parameter, usually ttt. For example, the parametric equations
for a circle of radius rrr centered at the origin are:
x=rcos⁡(t),y=rsin⁡(t).x = r \cos(t), \quad y = r \sin(t).x=rcos(t),y=rsin(t).
Parametric equations allow for the representation of curves that cannot be
expressed as functions in the usual sense, such as loops or curves with
vertical tangents. The derivative of parametric curves is found using:
dydx=dydtdxdt.\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{\frac{dy}{dt}}{\frac{dx}{dt}}.dxdy
=dtdxdtdy.
b. Polar Coordinates
Polar coordinates describe points in the plane using a radius rrr and an angle
θ\thetaθ, rather than Cartesian coordinates (x,y)(x, y)(x,y). The relationship
between polar and Cartesian coordinates is given by:
x=rcos⁡(θ),y=rsin⁡(θ).x = r \cos(\theta), \quad y = r \sin(\
theta).x=rcos(θ),y=rsin(θ).
Polar coordinates are particularly useful in problems involving symmetry,
such as calculating the area enclosed by curves in circular or spiral shapes.
The area of a region in polar coordinates is given by the formula:
A=12∫θ1θ2r2 dθ.A = \frac{1}{2} \int_{\theta_1}^{\theta_2} r^2 \, d\
theta.A=21∫θ1θ2r2dθ.
5. Conclusion
Calculus 2 builds upon the foundational concepts learned in Calculus 1 and
provides powerful tools for solving a wide variety of mathematical, scientific,
and engineering problems. The techniques of integration by substitution,
integration by parts, trigonometric integrals, and partial fraction
decomposition allow for the evaluation of more complex integrals. In
addition, applications of integration, sequences and series, and parametric
equations help to extend the utility of calculus in various