6 Polynomials

Summary sheet: Polynomials
B6 Manipulate polynomials algebraically, including expanding brackets and collecting like terms, factorisation and simple
algebraic division; use of the factor theorem
Sketch polynomial graphs
Simplify rational expressions including by factorising and cancelling, and algebraic division (by linear expressions only)
Adding & subtracting polynomials

Remember that you can only collect “like terms” together so if terms have different powers then you
cannot add or subtract them.
e.g. If f(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟕 and g(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟓
Find f(𝒙) + g(𝒙)

(𝟓𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟕) + (𝟑𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟓) = 𝟖𝒙𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐
Add the 𝑥 3 terms (shown in red) then the 𝑥 2 terms (blue) then the 𝑥 terms (green) and finally the
numbers (black). For subtraction follow the same procedure but be careful with the signs. Remember
that you have to subtract everything in the second bracket.
Multiplying polynomials (expanding brackets)

Remember to multiply every term in the first bracket by every term in the second bracket.
e.g. Multiply (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟕) by (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟓)
(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)
= 3𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5) − 4𝑥(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5) + 7(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)
st nd
Each term in 1 bracket X 2 bracket
Multiply each bracket out = 3𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 7𝑥 2 + 21𝑥 − 35
Collect like terms together = 3𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 21𝑥 − 35
Tidy up = 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 20𝑥 2 + 41𝑥 − 35
If there are 3 brackets (or more) you multiply the first 2 brackets then multiply the answer by the third
bracket and continue until all the brackets have been multiplied out.
Algebraic division
There are different ways of doing algebraic division, so choose the one you prefer. The following
examples show the methods of: ‘equating the coefficients’ and ‘long division’.
You are dividing a cubic expression
e.g. Divide 𝟑𝒙𝟑 + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟑𝒙 + 𝟔 by 𝒙 + 𝟑
by a linear, so you know that the
By inspection: answer (quotient) will be a
If you know that there is no remainder, you can write 𝑥3
quadratic ( 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 )
he polynomial in factorised form ‘by inspection’
The term in x² in the second bracket
2
(𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 + ⋯ 𝑥 + 2) must be 3x² to give the 3x³ term, and the constant term in the
second bracket must be 2 to give the term 6.
(𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2) Think about the x² term. 33x² = 9x², so to get the 4x² term, you need the middle
term to be -5x, as x-5x=-5x². Check that this also gives the correct x term.
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By long division:

st
3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 Divide 1 term by 𝑥 and put the answer above the answer line.
3𝑥 3
( = 3𝑥 2 )
𝑥 + 3 )3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 𝑥
3𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2  Multiply (𝑥 + 3) by 3𝑥 2 (= 3𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 )
 Place under the original and subtract (= −5𝑥 2 )
−5𝑥 2 − 13𝑥
 Bring the −13𝑥 down.
−5𝑥 2 − 15𝑥  Repeat the process.
2𝑥 + 6
2𝑥 + 6
0
By equating coefficients:
Let the quotient = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and any remainder = 𝑑
3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑
= 𝑥(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 3(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑
= 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 3𝑏𝑥 + 3𝑐 + 𝑑
3𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 13𝑥 + 6 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + (𝑏 + 3𝑎)𝑥 2 + (𝑐 + 3𝑏)𝑥 + 3𝑐 + 𝑑
3 2
After you have tidied everything up (as above) equate the coefficients to find the value of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑.
Equate coefficients of 𝑥 3 : 𝟑=𝒂 𝒂=𝟑

Equate coefficients of 𝑥 2 : 4 = 𝑏 + 3𝑎 𝒃 = −𝟓
Equate coefficients of 𝑥: −13 = 𝑐 + 3𝑏 𝒄=𝟐
Equate constants: 6 = 3𝑐 + 𝑑 𝒅=𝟎
You have found that: 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 ÷ (𝑥 + 3) = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2

This means that if you substitute a value
The factor theorem of 𝑥 into the equation and the answer is 0
you have found a factor and a root.
If f(𝑎) = 0 ⟺ (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of f(𝑥)
Also 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a root of the equation f(𝑥) = 0
e.g. solve 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎
First of all find a root by trial and error (i.e. try different numbers until you get the answer 0). Use the
constant to decide what numbers to try. In this case the solution will have to be a factor of 10.
f(1) = 1 f(2) = 0 f(5) = 105 f(10) = 1000
You have found that 2 is a root and so (𝑥 − 2) must be a factor. Now you can divide as shown above.
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Sketch polynomial graphs

To be able to sketch a graph you need to know:
 The shape
 the 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercepts (where it crosses the axes)
 where there are any the turning point(s)
The turning point is sometimes called the stationary point or the maximum or minimum.
Also remember: a polynomial of order n meets the 𝑥-axis n times at most

a polynomial of order n has n – 1 turning points at most
If you’re not sure what a graph looks like you can always find a few points and plot them until you have
an idea of the shape.
Some general shapes to remember:
𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝑥3 + ⋯ 𝑦 = −𝑥 3 + ⋯
The intercepts
Remember: to find the 𝒚-intercept substitute 𝒙 = 𝟎 and solve
to find the 𝒙-intercept substitute 𝒚 = 𝟎 and solve
The turning point

To find the turning point of a quadratic graph you can complete the square.
Simplify rational expressions

Rational expressions are fractions where the numerator and denominator are polynomials. Remember
that you can only cancel factors and not terms.
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6 Polynomials

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Summary sheet: Polynomials

Adding & subtracting polynomials

e.g. If f(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟕 and g(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟓

Find f(𝒙) + g(𝒙)

Multiplying polynomials (expanding brackets)

e.g. Multiply (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟕) by (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟓)

Let the quotient = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and any remainder = 𝑑

Equate coefficients of 𝑥 3 : 𝟑=𝒂 𝒂=𝟑

You have found that: 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 ÷ (𝑥 + 3) = 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2

e.g. solve 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎

f(1) = 1 f(2) = 0 f(5) = 105 f(10) = 1000

Sketch polynomial graphs

Also remember: a polynomial of order n meets the 𝑥-axis n times at most

Some general shapes to remember:

The turning point

Simplify rational expressions

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