In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as

the Earth. This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate counter clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale
cyclonic circulations are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure.

It can occur at various scales, from the microscale to the synoptic scale. There are four main
scales, or sizes of systems, dealt with in meteorology:

1. the macroscale,

The macroscale deals with systems with global size, such as the Madden-Julian Oscillation.

2. the synoptic scale,

Synoptic scale systems cover a portion of a continent, such as extratropical cyclones, with
dimensions of 1,000-2,500 km (620-1,550 mi) across.

3. the mesoscale, and

The mesoscale is the next smaller scale, and often is divided into two ranges: meso-alpha
phenomena range from 200-2,000 km (125-1,243 mi) across (the realm of the tropical
cyclone), while meso-beta phenomena range from 20–200 km (12-125 mi) across (the scale
of the mesocyclone).

4. the microscale.

The microscale is the smallest of the meteorological scales, with a size under two kilometers
(1.2 mi) (the scale of tornadoes and waterspouts).

Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts before occluding later in their life cycle as
cold core cyclones.

Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity, and are warm
core.

Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation.

Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high
instability and low vertical wind shear

The largest low-pressure systems are cold-core polar cyclones and extratropical cyclones which lie
on the synoptic scale.

Warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones, mesocyclones, and polar lows lie within the smaller
mesoscale.

Subtropical cyclones are of intermediate size.

There are six main types of cyclones: Polar cyclones, Polar lows, Extratropical cyclones,
Subtropical cyclones, Tropical cyclones, and Mesocyclones

Polar cyclone

A polar, sub-polar, or Arctic cyclone (also known as a polar vortex) is a vast area of low
pressure which strengthens in the winter and weakens in the summer. A polar cyclone is a
low pressure weather system, usually spanning 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) to 2,000 kilometres
(1,200 mi), in which the air circulates in a counterclockwise direction in the northern
hemisphere, and a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere. In the Northern
Hemisphere, the polar cyclone has two centers on average. One center lies near Baffin Island
and the other over northeast Siberia. In the southern hemisphere, it tends to be located near
the edge of the Ross ice shelf near 160 west longitude. When the polar vortex is strong,
westerly flow descends to the Earth's surface. When the polar cyclone is weak, significant
cold outbreaks occur.

Polar low

A polar low is a small-scale, short-lived atmospheric low pressure system (depression) that is
found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. During winter, when cold-core lows with temperatures in the mid-
levels of the troposphere reach −45 °C (−49 °F) move over open waters, deep convection
forms which allows polar low development to become possible.[29] The systems usually have
a horizontal length scale of less than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and exist for no more than a
couple of days. They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems. Polar lows
can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high-latitude
operations, such as shipping and gas and oil platforms. Polar lows have been referred to by
many other terms, such as polar mesoscale vortex, Arctic hurricane, Arctic low, and cold air
depression. Today the term is usually reserved for the more vigorous systems that have near-
surface winds of at least 17 m/s.

Extratropical

An extratropical cyclone is a synoptic scale low pressure weather system that has neither
tropical nor polar characteristics, being connected with fronts and horizontal gradients in
temperature and dew point otherwise known as "baroclinic zones". [31]

The descriptor "extratropical" refers to the fact that this type of cyclone generally occurs
outside of the tropics, in the middle latitudes of the planet. These systems may also be
described as "mid-latitude cyclones" due to their area of formation, or "post-tropical
cyclones" where extratropical transition has occurred,[31][32] and are often described as
"depressions" or "lows" by weather forecasters and the general public. These are the
everyday phenomena which along with anti-cyclones, drive the weather over much of the
Earth.

Although extratropical cyclones are almost always classified as baroclinic since they form
along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient within the westerlies, they can sometimes
become barotropic late in their life cycle when the temperature distribution around the
cyclone becomes fairly uniform with radius. [33] An extratropical cyclone can transform into a
subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone, if it dwells over warm waters and
develops central convection, which warms its core.[10]

Subtropical

A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone
and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form between the equator and
the 50th parallel.[34] As early as the 1950s, meteorologists were unclear whether they should
be characterized as tropical cyclones or extratropical cyclones, and used terms such as quasi-
tropical and semi-tropical to describe the cyclone hybrids. [35] By 1972, the National
Hurricane Center officially recognized this cyclone category. [36] Subtropical cyclones began
to receive names off the official tropical cyclone list in the Atlantic Basin in 2002. [34] They
have broad wind patterns with maximum sustained winds located farther from the center than
typical tropical cyclones, and exist in areas of weak to moderate temperature gradient. [34]

Since they form from initially extratropical cyclones which have colder temperatures aloft
than normally found in the tropics, the sea surface temperatures required for their formation
are lower than the tropical cyclone threshold by three degrees Celsius, or five degrees
Fahrenheit, lying around 23 degrees Celsius.[37] This means that subtropical cyclones are
more likely to form outside the traditional bounds of the hurricane season. Although
subtropical storms rarely have hurricane-force winds, they may become tropical in nature as
their cores warm.[38]

Tropical

A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous
thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat
released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapour contained in the
moist air. They are fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such
as nor'easters, European windstorms, and polar lows, leading to their classification as "warm
core" storm systems.[10]

The term "tropical" refers to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form almost
exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in Maritime Tropical air
masses. The term "cyclone" refers to such storms' cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise
rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.
Depending on their location and strength, tropical cyclones are referred to by other names,
such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply as a
cyclone. A tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane (from the name of the
ancient Central American deity of wind, Huracan) in the Atlantic basin, and a cyclone in the
Indian Ocean and parts of the Pacific.

While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are
also able to produce high waves and damaging storm surge.[39] They develop over large
bodies of warm water,[40] and lose their strength if they move over land. [41] This is the reason
coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions
are relatively safe from receiving strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce
significant flooding inland, and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to
40 kilometres (25 mi) from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be
devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions.[42] They also carry heat and
energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which makes them
an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical
cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere.

Many tropical cyclones develop when the atmospheric conditions around a weak disturbance
in the atmosphere are favorable. Others form when other types of cyclones acquire tropical
characteristics. Tropical systems are then moved by steering winds in the troposphere; if the
conditions remain favorable, the tropical disturbance intensifies, and can even develop an
eye. On the other end of the spectrum, if the conditions around the system deteriorate or the
tropical cyclone makes landfall, the system weakens and eventually dissipates. A tropical
cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source
changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air
masses;[10] From an operational standpoint, a tropical cyclone is usually not considered to
become subtropical during its extratropical transition.[43]

Mesocyclone

A mesocyclone is a vortex of air, 2.0 kilometres (1.2 mi) to 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in
diameter (the mesoscale of meteorology), within a convective storm.[44] Air rises and rotates
around a vertical axis, usually in the same direction as low pressure systems in both northern
and southern hemisphere. They are most often cyclonic, that is, associated with a localized
low-pressure region within a severe thunderstorm.[45] Such storms can feature strong surface
winds and severe hail. Mesocyclones often occur together with updrafts in supercells, where
tornadoes may form. About 1700 mesocyclones form annually across the United States, but
only half produce tornadoes.[11]

A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a large low-pressure center and

numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and heavy rain. Tropical cyclones
strengthen when water evaporated from the ocean is released as the saturated air rises,
resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the moist air. They are fueled by a
different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easters, European
windstorms, and polar lows. The characteristic that separates tropical cyclones from other
cyclonic systems is that any height in the atmosphere, the center of a tropical cyclone will be
warmer than its surrounds; a phenomenon called "warm core" storm systems.

The term "tropical" refers to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form almost
exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in maritime tropical air
masses. The term "cyclone" refers to such storms' cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise
rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. The
opposite direction of spin is a result of the Coriolis force. Depending on its location and
strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical
storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone.
While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are
also able to produce high waves and damaging storm surge as well as spawning tornadoes.
They develop over large bodies of warm water, and lose their strength if they move over land
due to increased surface friction and loss of the warm ocean as an energy source. This is why
coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions
are relatively safe from receiving strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce
significant flooding inland, and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to
40 kilometres (25 mi) from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be
devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat and
energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which makes them
an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical
cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere, and to maintain a relatively
stable and warm temperature worldwide.

Physical structure

Structure of a tropical cyclone

All tropical cyclones are areas of low atmospheric pressure in the Earth's atmosphere. The
pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest that occur on
Earth's surface at sea level.[1] Tropical cyclones are characterized and driven by the release of
large amounts of latent heat of condensation, which occurs when moist air is carried upwards
and its water vapor condenses. This heat is distributed vertically around the center of the
storm. Thus, at any given altitude (except close to the surface, where water temperature
dictates air temperature) the environment inside the cyclone is warmer than its outer
surroundings.[2]

Eye and center

A strong tropical cyclone will harbor an area of sinking air at the center of circulation. If this
area is strong enough, it can develop into a large "eye". Weather in the eye is normally calm
and free of clouds, although the sea may be extremely violent. [3] The eye is normally circular
in shape, and may range in size from 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) to 370 kilometres (230 mi) in
diameter.[4][5] Intense, mature tropical cyclones can sometimes exhibit an outward curving of
the eyewall's top, making it resemble a football stadium; this phenomenon is thus sometimes
referred to as the stadium effect.[6]
There are other features that either surround the eye, or cover it. The central dense overcast is
the concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical cyclone; [7]
in weaker tropical cyclones, the CDO may cover the center completely. [8] The eyewall is a
circle of strong thunderstorms that surrounds the eye; here is where the greatest wind speeds
are found, where clouds reach the highest, and precipitation is the heaviest. The heaviest
wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone's eyewall passes over land.[3] Eyewall
replacement cycles occur naturally in intense tropical cyclones. When cyclones reach peak
intensity they usually have an eyewall and radius of maximum winds that contract to a very
small size, around 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) to 25 kilometres (16 mi). Outer rainbands can
organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward and robs the inner
eyewall of its needed moisture and angular momentum. When the inner eyewall weakens, the
tropical cyclone weakens (in other words, the maximum sustained winds weaken and the
central pressure rises.) The outer eyewall replaces the inner one completely at the end of the
cycle. The storm can be of the same intensity as it was previously or even stronger after the
eyewall replacement cycle finishes. The storm may strengthen again as it builds a new outer
ring for the next eyewall replacement. [9]

Size

One measure of the size of a tropical cyclone is determined by measuring the distance from
its center of circulation to its outermost closed isobar, also known as its ROCI. If the radius is
less than two degrees of latitude or 222 kilometres (138 mi), then the cyclone is "very small"
or a "midget". A radius between 3 and 6 latitude degrees or 333 kilometres (207 mi) to
670 kilometres (420 mi) are considered "average-sized". "Very large" tropical cyclones have
a radius of greater than 8 degrees or 888 kilometres (552 mi).[10] Use of this measure has
objectively determined that tropical cyclones in the northwest Pacific Ocean are the largest
on earth on average, with Atlantic tropical cyclones roughly half their size.[11] Other methods
of determining a tropical cyclone's size include measuring the radius of gale force winds and
measuring the radius at which its relative vorticity field decreases to 1×10−5 s−1 from its
center.[12][13]

Mechanics

Tropical cyclones form when the energy released by the condensation of moisture in rising air causes
a positive feedback loop over warm ocean waters.[14]

A tropical cyclone's primary energy source is the release of the heat of condensation from
water vapor condensing, with solar heating being the initial source for evaporation.
Therefore, a tropical cyclone can be visualized as a giant vertical heat engine supported by
mechanics driven by physical forces such as the rotation and gravity of the Earth.[15] In
another way, tropical cyclones could be viewed as a special type of mesoscale convective
complex, which continues to develop over a vast source of relative warmth and moisture.
While an initial warm core system, such as an organized thunderstorm complex, is necessary
for the formation of a tropical cyclone, a large flux of energy is needed to lower atmospheric
pressure more than a few millibars (0.10 inch of mercury). The inflow of warmth and
moisture from the underlying ocean surface is critical for tropical cyclone strengthening. [16] A
significant amount of the inflow in the cyclone is in the lowest 1 kilometre (3,300 ft) of the
atmosphere.[17]

Condensation leads to higher wind speeds, as a tiny fraction of the released energy is
converted into mechanical energy;[18] the faster winds and lower pressure associated with
them in turn cause increased surface evaporation and thus even more condensation. Much of
the released energy drives updrafts that increase the height of the storm clouds, speeding up
condensation.[19] This positive feedback loop, called the Wind-induced surface heat
exchange, continues for as long as conditions are favorable for tropical cyclone development.
Factors such as a continued lack of equilibrium in air mass distribution would also give
supporting energy to the cyclone. The rotation of the Earth causes the system to spin, an
effect known as the Coriolis effect, giving it a cyclonic characteristic and affecting the
trajectory of the storm.[20][21][22]

What primarily distinguishes tropical cyclones from other meteorological phenomena is deep
convection as a driving force.[23] Because convection is strongest in a tropical climate, it
defines the initial domain of the tropical cyclone

By contrast, mid-latitude cyclones draw their energy mostly from pre-existing horizontal
temperature gradients in the atmosphere.[23] To continue to drive its heat engine, a tropical
cyclone must remain over warm water, which provides the needed atmospheric moisture to
keep the positive feedback loop running. When a tropical cyclone passes over land, it is cut
off from its heat source and its strength diminishes rapidly. [24]

The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool
substantially, which can influence subsequent cyclone development. This cooling is primarily
caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean and the warm surface
waters. This effect results in a negative feedback process which can inhibit further
development or lead to weakening. Additional cooling may come in the form of cold water
from falling raindrops (this is because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes). Cloud
cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean, by shielding the ocean surface from direct
sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage. All these effects can combine to produce
a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days. [25]

Scientists estimate that a tropical cyclone releases heat energy at the rate of 50 to
200 exajoules (1018 J) per day,[19] equivalent to about 1 PW (1015 watt). This rate of energy
release is equivalent to 70 times the world energy consumption of humans and 200 times the
worldwide electrical generating capacity, or to exploding a 10-megaton nuclear bomb every
20 minutes.[19][26]

In the lower troposphere, the most obvious motion of clouds is toward the center. However
tropical cyclones also develop an upper-level (high-altitude) outward flow of clouds. These
originate from air that has released its moisture and is expelled at high altitude through the
"chimney" of the storm engine.[15] This outflow produces high, cirrus clouds that spiral away
from the center. The clouds thin as they move outwards from the center of the system and are
evaporated. They may be thin enough for the sun to be visible through them. These high
cirrus clouds may be the first signs of an approaching tropical cyclone. [27] As air parcels are
lifted within the eye of the storm the vorticity is reduced, causing the outflow from a tropical
cyclone to have anti-cyclonic motion.

Requirements for tropical cyclone formation

There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis:

1. sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures,

2. atmospheric instability,
3. high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere,
4. enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center,
5. a preexisting low level focus or disturbance, and
6. low vertical wind shear.

Warm waters, instability, and mid-level moisture

Main article: Lapse rate

Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean—areas of converging winds that move slowly along
the same track as the prevailing wind—create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the
formation of hurricanes.

Normally, an ocean temperature of 26.5°C (79.7°F) spanning through at least a 50-metre

depth is considered the minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical
cyclone.[3] These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical
systems. This value is well above 16.1 °C (60.9 °F), the global average surface temperature
of the oceans.[8] However, this requirement can be considered only a general baseline because
it assumes that the ambient atmospheric environment surrounding an area of disturbed
weather presents average conditions.[citation needed]

Tropical cyclones are known to form even when normal conditions are not met. For example,
cooler air temperatures at a higher altitude (e.g., at the 500 hPa level, or 5.9 km) can lead to
tropical cyclogenesis at lower water temperatures, as a certain lapse rate is required to force
the atmosphere to be unstable enough for convection. In a moist atmosphere, this lapse rate is
6.5 °C/km, while in an atmosphere with less than 100% relative humidity, the required lapse
rate is 9.8 °C/km.[9]

At the 500 hPa level, the air temperature averages -7 °C (18 °F) within the tropics, but air in
the tropics is normally dry at this level, giving the air room to wet-bulb, or cool as it
moistens, to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection. A wetbulb
temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of -13.2 °C is required to initiate convection
if the water temperature is 26.5 °C, and this temperature requirement increases or decreases
proportionally by 1 °C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 °C change at 500 hpa. Under
a cold cyclone, 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as -30 °C, which can initiate convection
even in the driest atmospheres. This also explains why moisture in the mid-levels of the
troposphere, roughly at the 500 hPa level, is normally a requirement for development.
However, when dry air is found at the same height, temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even
colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist
atmospheres.[10][11] At heights near the tropopause, the 30-year average temperature (as
measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990) was -77 °C (-132 °F).[12] A recent
example of a tropical cyclone that maintained itself over cooler waters was Epsilon of the
2005 Atlantic hurricane season.[13]

[edit] Role of Maximum Potential Intensity (MPI)

Kerry Emanuel created a mathematical model around 1988 to compute the upper limit of
tropical cyclone intensity based on sea surface temperature and atmospheric profiles from the
latest global model runs. Emanuel's model is called the maximum potential intensity, or MPI.
Maps created from this equation show regions where tropical storm and hurricane formation
is possible, based upon the thermodynamics of the atmosphere at the time of the last model
run (either 0000 or 1200 UTC). This does not take into account vertical wind shear.[14]

Schematic representation of flow around a low-pressure area (in this case, Hurricane Isabel) in the
Northern hemisphere. The pressure gradient force is represented by blue arrows, the Coriolis
acceleration (always perpendicular to the velocity) by red arrows
Coriolis force

Main article: Coriolis force

A minimum distance of 500 km (300 miles) from the equator is normally needed for tropical
cyclogenesis.[3] The Coriolis force imparts rotation on the flow and arises as winds begin to
flow in toward the lower pressure created by the pre-existing disturbance. In areas with a very
small or non-existent Coriolis Force (e.g. near the Equator), the only significant atmospheric
forces in play are the pressure gradient force (the pressure difference that causes winds to
blow from high to low pressure[15] ) and a smaller friction force; these two alone would not
cause the large-scale rotation required for tropical cyclogenesis. The existence of a significant
Coriolis Force allows the developing vortex to achieve gradient wind balance. [16] This is a
balance condition found in mature tropical cyclones that allows latent heat to concentrate
near the storm core; this results in the maintenance or intensification of the vortex if other
development factors are neutral.[17]

[edit] Low level disturbance

Whether it be a depression in the intertropical covergence zone (ITCZ), a tropical wave, a

broad surface front, or an outflow boundary, a low level feature with sufficient vorticity and
convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis. [3] Even with perfect upper level
conditions and the required atmospheric instability, the lack of a surface focus will prevent
the development of organized convection and a surface low. [3]

[edit] Weak vertical wind shear

Main article: Vertical wind shear

Vertical wind shear of less than 10 m/s (20 kt, 22 mph) between the surface and the
tropopause is required for tropical cyclone development. [3] Strong wind shear can "blow" the
tropical cyclone apart,[18] as it displaces the mid-level warm core from the surface circulation
and dries out the mid-levels of the troposphere, halting development. In smaller systems, the
development of a significant mesoscale convective complex in a sheared environment can
send out a large enough outflow boundary to destroy the surface cyclone. Moderate wind
shear can lead to the initial development of the convective complex and surface low similar
to the mid-latitudes, but it must relax to allow tropical cyclogenesis to continue.[19]

[edit] Favorable trough interactions

Limited vertical wind shear can be positive for tropical cyclone formation. When an upper-
level trough or upper-level low is roughly the same scale as the tropical disturbance, the
system can be steered by the upper level system into an area with better diffluence aloft,
which can cause further development. Weaker upper cyclones are better candidates for a
favorable interaction. There is evidence that weakly sheared tropical cyclones initially
develop more rapidly than non-sheared tropical cyclones, although this comes at the cost of a
peak in intensity with much weaker wind speeds and higher minimum pressure.[20] This
process is also known as baroclinic initiation of a tropical cyclone. Trailing upper cyclones
and upper troughs can cause additional outflow channels and aid in the intensification
process. It should be noted that developing tropical disturbances can help create or deepen
upper troughs or upper lows in their wake due to the outflow jet emanating from the
developing tropical disturbance/cyclone. [21][22]

There are cases where large, mid-latitude troughs can help with tropical cyclogenesis when
an upper-level jet stream passes to the northwest of the developing system, which will aid
divergence aloft and inflow at the surface, spinning up the cyclone. This type of interaction is
more often associated with disturbances already in the process of recurvature. [23]

To undergo these steps to form a hurricane, several environmental conditions must first be in place:

 Warm ocean waters (of at least 26.5°C [80°F]) throughout about the upper 50 m of the tropical
ocean must be present. The heat in these warm waters is necessary to fuel the tropical
cyclone.
 The atmosphere must cool fast enough with height, such that it is potentially unstable to moist
convection. It is the thunderstorm activity which allows the heat stored in the ocean waters to
be liberated for tropical cyclone development.
 The mid-troposphere (5 km [3 mi]), must contain enough moisture to sustain the
thunderstorms. Dry mid levels are not conducive to the continuing development of widespread
thunderstorm activity.
 The disturbance must occur at a minimum distance of at least 500 km [300 mi] from the
equator. For tropical cyclonic storms to occur, there is a requirement that the Coreolis force
must be present. Remember that the Coreolis effect is zero near the equator and increases to
the north and south of the equator. Without the Coreolis force, the low pressure of the
disturbance cannot be maintained.
 There must be a pre-existing near-surface disturbance that shows convergence of moist air and
is beginning to rotate. Tropical cyclones cannot be generated spontaneously. They require a
weakly organized system that begins to spin and has low level inflow of moist air.
 There must be low values (less than about 10 m/s [20 mph]) of vertical wind shear between the
surface and the upper troposphere. Vertical wind shear is the rate of change of wind velocity
with altitude. Large values of vertical wind shear disrupt the incipient tropical cyclone by
removing the rising moist air too quickly, preventing the development of the tropical cyclone.
Or, if a tropical cyclone has already formed, large vertical shear can weaken or destroy it by
interfering with the organization around the cyclone center.

Hurricanes thus commonly develop in areas near, but not at the equator, as shown in the diagram
below. As they move across the oceans their paths are steered by the presence of existing low and high
pressure systems, as well as the Coreolis force. The latter force causes the storms to eventually start
turning to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

Northern Hemisphere

Because the converging winds spiral inward toward the central low
pressure area, the winds rotate in a clockwise direction around the
central low in the southern hemisphere (counterclockwise in the
northern hemisphere). As these winds spiral inward they draw in the
thunderclouds around the storm, creating the spiral rain bands that
are clearly visible on satellite images.

As the winds converge toward the central core, they spiral upwards, sending warm moist air
upwards. As this air rises, it cools and releases its latent heat into the atmosphere to add
further energy to the storm. The winds spiraling around this central core create the eye of the
tropical cyclone and eventually spread out at high altitudes. Eventually, cool air above the
eye begins to sink into the central core. This dry descending air within the eye gives the core
a clear, cloud free sky, with little to no wind.
Since the main source of energy for the storm is the heat contained in the warm tropical and
subtropical oceans, if the storm moves over the land, it is cut off from its source of heat and
will rapidly dissipate.

Winds spiraling counterclockwise (in the northern hemisphere) into

the eye of the hurricane achieve high velocities as they approach the
low pressure of the eye. The velocity of these winds is called the
hurricane-wind velocity. The central low pressure center of the eye
also moves across the surface of the Earth as it is pushed by regional
winds. The velocity at which the eye moves across the surface is
called the storm center velocity. Thus, when we consider the
velocity of winds around the hurricane we must take into account
both the wind velocity and the storm center velocity. Depending on
the side of the hurricane, these velocities can either add or subtract.
In the example at the left, the hurricane is traveling north with a
storm center velocity of 30 km/hr, and a hurricane-wind velocity of 150 km/hr. On the right
hand side of the storm both velocities are to the north so the total wind velocity is 180 km/hr
(30 + 150). On the left hand side of the storm, however, the wind is blowing to the south.
Thus, since the storm is moving in the opposite direction to the winds, the velocities subtract
and the total wind velocity is 120 km/hr (150 - 30). This is an important point. Winds are
always stronger on the right side of a moving hurricane in the northern hemisphere. The
opposite is true in the southern hemisphere, since winds circulate in a clockwise direction, the
winds are stronger on the left-hand side of the storm in the southern hemisphere).

Factors

The formation of tropical cyclones is the topic of extensive ongoing research and is still not
fully understood.[38] While six factors appear to be generally necessary, tropical cyclones may
occasionally form without meeting all of the following conditions.

1. In most situations, water temperatures of at least 26.5 °C (79.7 °F) are needed down
to a depth of at least 50 m (160 ft);[39] waters of this temperature cause the overlying
atmosphere to be unstable enough to sustain convection and thunderstorms.[40]
2. Another factor is rapid cooling with height, which allows the release of the heat of
condensation that powers a tropical cyclone.[39]
3. High humidity is needed, especially in the lower-to-mid troposphere; when there is a
great deal of moisture in the atmosphere, conditions are more favorable for
disturbances to develop.[39]
4. Low amounts of wind shear are needed, as high shear is disruptive to the storm's
circulation.[39]
5. Tropical cyclones generally need to form more than 555 km (345 mi) or 5 degrees of
latitude away from the equator, allowing the Coriolis effect to deflect winds blowing
towards the low pressure center and creating a circulation. [39]
6. Lastly, a formative tropical cyclone needs a pre-existing system of disturbed weather,
although without a circulation no cyclonic development will take place. [39] Low-
latitude and low-level westerly wind bursts associated with the Madden-Julian
 oscillation can create favorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis by initiating
tropical disturbances.[41]
Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between
temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However, each particular
basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month,
while September is the most active while November is the only month with all the tropical
cyclone basins active.[34]

Note that about 12% of all tropical cyclones develop in the Atlantic Ocean. Those that begin to form
near the coast of Africa are often referred to as "Cape Verde" hurricanes, because the area in which
they develop is near the Cape Verde Islands. 15% of all tropical cyclones develop in the eastern
Pacific Ocean, 30% develop in the western Pacific Ocean, 24% in the Indian Ocean both north and
south of the equator, and 12% develop in the southern Pacific Ocean. It is notable that essentially no
tropical cyclones develop south of the Equator in the Atlantic Ocean.

Times

In the Northern Atlantic Ocean, a distinct cyclone season occurs from June 1 to November
30, sharply peaking from late August through September. [34] The statistical peak of the
Atlantic hurricane season is 10 September. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period
of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic.[35] The Northwest Pacific sees tropical
cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September.
In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in
May and November.[34] In the Southern Hemisphere, the tropical cyclone year begins on July
1 and runs all year round and encompasses the tropical cyclone seasons which run from
November 1 until the end of April with peaks in mid-February to early March.[34][36]

Season lengths and seasonal averages [34][37]

Tropical Tropical Category 3+
Season Season
Basin Storms Cyclones TCs
start end
(>34 knots) (>63 knots) (>95 knots)
Northwest Pacific April January 26.7 16.9 8.5
South Indian November April 20.6 10.3 4.3
Northeast Pacific May November 16.3 9.0 4.1
North Atlantic June November 10.6 5.9 2.0
Australia Southwest
November April 9 4.8 1.9
Pacific
North Indian April December 5.4 2.2 0.4
Hurricane intensity and frequency

Once a hurricane develops, the Saffir-Simpson Scale is used to classify a hurricane's intensity
and damage potential. There are five possible categories. Category 1 storms are more
common than category 5 storms. In a typical year, there may be many category 1 storms, but
category 5 storms occur very infrequently.

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Damage-Potential Scale

Central
Wind Storm
Scale Pressure
Speeds Surge Observed
Number mb
mi/hr feet Damage
Category (inches of
(km/hr) (meters)
mercury)

74-95
>980 4-5
1 (119- some damage to trees, shrubbery, and unanchored mobile homes
(>28.94) (1.2-1.5)
153)

965-979 96-110
6-8 major damage to mobile homes; damage buildings' roofs, and blow
2 (28.50- (154-
(1.8-2.4) trees down
28.91) 177)

945-964 111-130
9-12
3 (27.91- (178- destroy mobile homes; blow down large trees; damage small buildings
(2.5-3.6)
28.47) 209)

920-944 131-155
13-18 completely destroy mobile homes; lower floors of structures near shore
4 (27.17- (210-
(3.9-5.5) are susceptible to flooding
27.88) 249)

extensive damage to homes and industrial buildings; blow away small

<920 >155 >18
8 buildings; lower floors of structures within 500 meters of shore and less
(<27.17) (>250) (>5.5)
than 4.5 m (15 ft) above sea level are damaged
Stages of development

Stages of Development from tropical depression to cyclone

Cyclones evolve through a life cycle of stages from birth to death. A tropical disturbance in
time can grow to a more intense stage by attaining a specified sustained wind speed.

Cyclones can often live for a long period of time -- as much as two to three weeks. They may
initiate as a cluster of thunderstorms over the tropical ocean waters. Once a disturbance has
become a tropical depression, the amount of time it takes to achieve the next stage, tropical
storm, can take as little as half a day up to a couple of days. It may not happen at all. The
same may occur for the amount of time a tropical storm needs to intensify into a cyclone.
Atmospheric and oceanic conditions play the major role in determining these events.
Tropical Cyclone Genesis

Tropical Cyclone Genesis is the technical term for the process of storm formation that
leads ultimately to what are called hurricanes, typhoons, or tropical cyclones in various parts
of the world.

This occurs when, in the Northern Hemisphere, the Intertropical Convergence Zone, or
ITCZ, shifts northward out of the doldrums and atmospheric conditions become favorable
for tropical cyclone formation after about the middle of May.

A series of low-pressure ripples develops within the ITCZ. These are known as tropical waves
and progress from east to west. In the late season, they typically shift their movement toward
the west-nothwest, or even northwest, after crossing 45° or 50° W longitude.

These tropical waves, ideally imbedded in the deep layer easterly flow, contain a northeast
wind shift. This is typically referred to as a “convergence”, where lines of equal atmospheric
pressure are pressed together between the deep-layer high to the north and the developing
low-pressure system. The divergence that results ahead of the convergence zone gives us a
notheasterly wind as the axis of the tropical wave approaches. Gusts up to 25 mph may
occur. Sometimes there can be gusts to tropical storm force in stronger waves. There can be
next to no weather associated with these waves, and they may pass virtually unnoticed. More
typically, there are bands of disturbed weather riding the axis of the wave.

When the wave passes over warmer waters (SSTs), convection and resulting rainfall are
enhanced. This greater rainfall is concomitant with falling surface pressures. By the time
these pressures fall to 1008mb, it is likely that the northeast wind has closed off to a
southwest wind on the backside of the wave. The forward motion of the wave completes the
closure on the northern side of a broad low-level center, and a tropical depression has
formed.

We often hear that a tropical depression has formed, but conditions are unfavorable for
further development. There are two conditions that must be present for the tropical
depression to continue its development: warm SSTs (above 79° Fahrenheit/26° Celsius) and
low vertical shear. A tropical cyclone derives its power from the warm waters below. In
addition, a strong anticyclone directly above the low-level inflow is favorable. As a tropical
cyclone is pulling in warm, moist air at the surface, it must also evacuate this inbound flow
aloft. This occurs in the upper levels of the atmosphere, where high pressure facilitates the
development of the cyclone by evacuating the flow from the lower levels of the cyclone. Every
powerful hurricane has an equally powerful high pressure system over it. The key is inbound
air counterclockwise at the bottom, outbound air clockwise aloft. In the Southern
Hemisphere, it is reversed: clockwise inbound, counterclockwise outbound.

If the upper-level high pressure system does not develop over our cyclone, it means there is
shear instead. This is a strong jet of air that is blowing directly over the cyclone, and ripping
the tops off the deep convection. This has the effect of breaking down the whole mechanism.
This is known as vertical shear. Vertical shear usually comes from a westerly direction, and
can occur if the cyclone is located in an unfavorable position near a cold front or upper-level
low pressure system. Another factor that can interfere with the development of a tropical
cyclone is subsidence. Subsidence is the sinking of air. Usually this happens on the edge of an
upper-level high-pressure system. Subsiding air has the effect of suppressing thunderstorm
formation. This also is why a tropical storm that tries to form near an established hurricane
has a very difficult time—the cyclone is on the edge of the hurricane’s upper-level outflow,
and may have to contend with both subsidence and shear. The effect of shear on a cyclone
can range from impaired strengthening to catastrophic failure of the tropical cyclone’s
support structure.

Tropical cyclones have the low-level circulation and the upper-level circulation (outflow),
whose formation was discussed above. There is also a mid-level circulation. The mid-level
circulation is similar in structure to the low-level circulation, and is critical to the survival of
a tropical cyclone that is passing over land. The lowel-level circulation can be severely
disrupted, or even dissipated, by interaction with land, especially mountainous terrain. If the
mid-level circulation remains intact, the cyclone can regenerate rapidly when it reemerges
over water, providing other factors are favorable.

(Image courtesy NOAA)

Assuming all the ingredients are in place—warm SSTs, upper-level high pressure, and falling
surface pressures—the cyclone will develop and reach a point of rapid intensification. It is
one of nature’s perfect machines. As warm waters feed the convection swirling around the
center, heavy rainfall lowers surface pressures, high pressure aloft evacuates the inflow,
which intensifies the inflow of warm, moist air, which in turn increases the rainfall and
brings about a more rapid fall in central pressure.
Eye formation begins when a tropical storm reaches approximately 65mph, provided
conditions are favorable for strengthening to continue. The eyewall begins to make its
appearance, usually on the eastern (Northern Hemisphere) edge of the center. As the system
becomes better organized and stronger, the center contracts from about 200 miles across to
roughly 90 miles at this stage. An increase in rotational velocity accompanies the smaller,
more defined center. The inflow is spiralling in ever faster as it is evacuated up through the
developing eyewall and out by the high pressure outflow structure. The eye begins to appear
as a clear spot in the center, as the air here is sinking. The eyewall creates subsidence that
not only helps clear the eye, but can also produce a feature known as the “moat”, which is an
area of relatively weak convection outside the core of the tropical cyclone. The combination
of eye and moat can make the storm’s core look like a doughnut. The eye can have a diameter
anywhere from 10 to 40 miles across.

Tropical cyclones can exhibit a great deal of durabilty provided that the upper level support
remains and the southerly (Northern Hemisphere) inflow is present. The worst thing that
can happen is for this southerly (or equatorward) inflow to get cut off. Here are some
examples: In 1998, Hurricane Mitch developed into a supermassive Category 5 hurricane.
Nevertheless weakening began when the center moved to a position directly north of
Honduras, cutting off the southerly inflow, even though the eye was still over a hundred
miles off shore. Later, Mitch maintained its mid-level core against all odds over the
mountains of Central America because he was able to up in moisture from the East Pacific.
Reintensification to tropical storm strength was almost immediate after reaching the Bay of
Campeche. Mitch never dissipated. In 1988 Gilbert hit the Yucatan near Cancún as a
Category 5 hurricane. The Yucatan peninsula, though flat, extended far enough south
through the critical southerly inflow zone that Gilbert never recovered, even after moving
over the open waters of the western Gulf of Mexico. Contrast this with the northern Gulf
coast and numerous examples from Camille to Elena and beyond, where the proximity of the
eye to land is not a weakening factor, although the relatively extensive shelf water can
sometimes be an inhibiting factor, if there is enough upwelling. A recent Southern
Hemisphere example of this is Severe Tropical Cyclone Monica, which developed into a
“super cyclone” just north of Australia. The northerly (equatorward) inflow over the Arafura
Sea fueled this system.

What are the factors that contribute to the decay of a tropical cyclone? They are Upwelling,
Entraining dry air, Moving over cool waters, Exposure to upper-level westerlies,
and finally Landfall.

Upwelling. When a hurricane stalls, its movement is has fallen below 5mph, or its
movement is erratic over a small area, the wave action caused by the strong surface winds
churns the ocean surface and produces upwelling. This has the effect of cooling the
temperature of the sea surface over an area 200 to 300 miles across. The result is weakening.
It is possible for a hurricane to stall in one area long enough that it dissipates. In 2004,
Hurricane Frances stalled off the southeast Florida coast long enough that the core of the
hurricane collapsed. Frances eventually made landfall as a Category 1 hurricane, instead of
the earlier expected Category 3.

Entraining dry air. Sometimes, during the peak season, when tropical cyclones approach
contintental land masses, they may entrain dry air as part of their interaction with frontal
troughs that carry cool, dry air behind them. It is one of the ironies of the Atlantic Hurricane
Season that, just when things get going, it’s already September and the strength and
frequency of cold fronts is increasing. These fronts interfere by deflecting the hurricane or
injecting dry air into the circulation, or both. The dry air kills the convective masses that
drive the hurricane’s engine. If the dry air entrains deeply enough, it can cause significant
weakening.

Moving over cool water. Similar to upwelling, when a tropical cyclone moves over cool
water (below 77° Fahrenheit/25° Celsius), it begins to weaken. Eventually this causes
dissipation, particularly in the East Pacific. In the Atlantic, if the storm is caught in the mid-
latitude westerlies and begins to recurve to the northeast, it generally becomes an
extratropical storm by the time it has reached about 45° W. This is the so-called “graveyard”
of Atlantic hurricanes. The storm is called extratropical when it has begun the change to a
cold-core system, and eventually becomes a gale in the north Atlantic, or is absorbed by a
large gale. There have been times when a hurricane passes north of the Azores and hits the
British Isles as a Force 8 or stronger gale, having maintained a recognizable inner core.

Exposure to upper-level westerlies. It happens that the ridge of high pressure that
provides the most favorable environment for strengthening, and also keeps the hurricane
heading toward the west, frequently breaks down. In the Atlantic Ocean, this results in
strong upper-level westerlies diving down and impinging on the northern edge of the
hurricane’s upper-level support structures. The bottom line is outflow gets restricted.
Usually a hurricane can still thrive when outflow is restricted in one quadrant. Most often
this happens with the western quadrant. If the forces responsible for the constricted outflow
bear down too strongly, the hurricane undergoes acute shearing. As outlined above, this can
be devastating.

Life after landfall. Tropical cyclones cannot survive over land. Their access to warm SST is
removed. A powerful hurricane, such as Hugo, which hit Charleston, S.C. in 1989, can project
life-threatening hurricane force winds over two hundred miles inland. As the storm
progresses inland, it dumps a huge amount of rain—measured in feet, not inches. The storm
may evolve into a frontal cyclone that continues to cause widespread damage. The best
example of this is Hurricane Camille in 1969—the strongest hurricane ever to make landfall
on the continental United States with winds sustained at 190 mph and gusts well exceeding
200 mph—which roared up the Mississippi Valley and eventually exited off the East Coast.
Camille maintained tropical storm strength as far as Memphis, Tennessee. Most hurricanes
will diminish in strength rapidly after landfall, reaching tropical depression strength by 48 to
72 hours. The main threat from the dying storm is from tornadoes and inland flooding. The
right-hand quadrant of a hurricane or typhoon (in the Northern Hemisphere, left-hand in
the Southern Hemisphere) is usually the strong side of the storm. This is generally so
because of the forward motion added to the counter-clockwise punch of the storm. The right-
hand side of the hurricane contains the strong on-shore flow. This is where the maximum
storm surge flooding, and the greatest potential loss of life, will be experienced. After
landfall, the friction of the circulation moving over land causes a great deal of turbulence,
which results in tornadoes. These are especially likely in the forward right-hand side of the
storm’s path. The dying cyclone will dump feet of rain. The lack of access to a warm sea
surface result in the death of the tropical cyclone. It usually merges into a frontal trough, or
dissipates.