Classical Mechanics

Lecture 1
Syllabus
• 1st Law (Law of Inertia): A body remains at rest or in uniform motion
unless acted upon by a force.
F = 0 ⇒ v = constant! First discussed by Galileo!

• 2nd Law (Law of Motion): A body acted on by a force moves in such a

manner that the time rate of change of its momentum equals the net
force acting on the body.
F = (dp/dt) (p=mv). Discussed by Galileo, but not written
mathematically.

• 3rd Law (Law of Action-Reaction): If two bodies exert forces on each

other, the forces are equal in magnitude & opposite in direction.
– To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
2 bodies, 1 & 2; F1 = -F2 (Acting on different bodies!)
 First Law

• All of Newton’s Laws deal with Inertial Systems (systems with no

acceleration). The frame of reference is always inertial.
– Discussed in more detail soon.
• First Law: Deals with an isolated object
⇒ No forces ⇒ No acceleration
F = 0 ⇒ v = constant!
First Law: Alternate statement: It is always possible to find an inertial
system for an isolated object.
 Second Law

• Deals with what happens when forces act.

– Forces come from OTHER objects!
– Inertia: What is it? Relation to mass. (Mass is the inertia of an
object).
– Momentum p = mv
∑F = (dp/dt) = m (dv/dt) = ma
– This gives a means of calculation!
– If mass is defined, the 2nd Law is really a definition of force, as we
will see.
– If a ≠ 0, the system cannot be isolated!
 Third Law

• Rigorously applies only when the force exerted by one (point) object on
another (point) object is directed along the line connecting them!

• Force on 1 due to 2 ≡ F1.

• Force on 2 due to 1 ≡ F2.
F1 = - F 2
• Alternate form of the 3rd Law (& using the 2nd Law!): If 2 bodies are
an ideal, isolated system, their accelerations are always in opposite
directions & the ratio of the magnitudes of the accelerations is constant
& equal to the inverse ratio of the masses of the 2 bodies!
• 2nd & 3rd Laws together (leaving arrows off vectors!):
F1 = - F 2
⇒ dp1/dt = -dp2/dt
m1(dv1/dt) = m2(-dv2/dt)
m1a1 = m2(-a2) ⇒ m2/m1= -a1/a2
• More on the 3rd Law: For example, if we take m1 = 1 kg (the standard
of mass!). By comparing the measured value of a1/a2 when m1 interacts
with any other mass m2, we can measure m2.
• To measure accelerations a1 & a2, we must have appropriate clocks &
measuring sticks.
– Physics is an experimental science!
– Recall, Physics lab!
• We also must have a suitable reference frame (discussed next).
 More on Mass

• A common method to experimentally determine a mass ≡ “weighing”

it.
– Balances, etc. use the fact that weight = gravitational force on the
body.
F = ma ⇒ W = mg (g = acceleration due to gravity)
– This rests on a fundamental assumption that Inertial Mass (the
mass determining acceleration in the 2nd Law) = Gravitational
Mass (the mass determining gravitational forces between bodies).
– The Principle of Equivalence: These masses are equivalent
experimentally! Whether they are fundamentally is a philosophical
question (beyond scope of the course). See text discussion on this!
This is discussed in detail in Einstein’s General Relativity Theory!
 Third Law & Momentum Conservation

• Assume bodies 1 & 2 form an isolated system.

• 3rd Law: F1 = - F2
⇒ dp1/dt = -dp2/dt
Or: d(p1 + p2)/dt = 0
⇒ p1 + p2 = constant
Momentum is conserved for an isolated system!
Conservation of linear momentum.
 Mechanics of a Particle

• Basic definitions & notation:

m ≡ mass of particle

≡ position vector of particle (arbitrary origin)

= velocity of particle …………. (1)

= linear momentum of particle …………. (2)

• Interactions with external objects & fields

⇒ Particle experiences forces.(e.g. gravitational or electrodynamic)

≡ vector sum of all forces on particle

(∑F or Fnet in some texts)
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..

• Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion:

(= ∑F or Fnet) …………. (3)

– Or,
…………. (4)
– In most of the cases, m = constant, this becomes:

…………. (5)

where ≡ acceleration

Eqn (5) ≡ Equation of Motion of particle

Eqn (5) : A 2nd order differential equation

❑ Given F & initial conditions: r(t=0) & v(t=0), solve (5) to get r(t) & v(t).
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..

• Suppose we have an example

2
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..

• Also, Given the motion we can find the total force .

• An example is : Going around a circle.
•
• Our motion is described by :

• We find the acceleration

• There must be a force acting on the particle:

 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
• Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion: (contd…)

– A reference frame in which Newtons’ 2nd Law of motion

is valid is called an inertial or Galilean system

– an Inertial Reference Frame

A frame which is not accelerating with respect to the “fixed stars”

Clearly an idealization!

Usually, a good approximation is to take “fixed Earth” frame = Lab

system.
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
• Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion: (contd…)

• Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion:

F ≡ (dp/dt) =

• Suppose F = 0: ⇒ (dp/dt) =
⇒ p = constant (conserved)

Conservation Theorem for Linear Momentum of a Particle:

If the total force, F, is zero, then (dp/dt) = & the linear momentum,
p, is conserved.
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
• Arbitrary coordinate system. Origin O. Mass m, position r, velocity v
(momentum p = mv).
• Define: Angular momentum L (about O):
= r × (mv)

• Define: Torque (moment of force) N (about O):

• But
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
• Now Torque about O:

• Consider:

=0+N
• Or: ≡ Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion,
Rotational Motion version.
Note - both N and L depend on the point O, about which the moments are
taken
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Angular Momentum Conservation

• Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion (Rotational motion version):

Suppose N = 0: ⇒ =0

⇒ L = constant (conserved)

Conservation Theorem for Angular Momentum of a Particle:

If the total torque, N, is zero, then = 0 & the angular momentum, L, is

conserved.
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Work & Energy
• Particle is acted on by a total external force F.
• Work done ON particle in moving it from position 1 to position 2 in space
is defined as line integral
(ds = differential path length, assume mass m = constant)

(limits: from 1 to 2)

• Newton’s 2nd Law (& chain rule of differentiation):

• F∙ds = (dp/dt)∙(dr/dt) dt
= m(dv/dt)∙v dt
= (½)m[d(v∙v)/dt] dt
= (½)m(dv2/dt) dt
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Work-Energy Principle

= (½)m∫d(v2) (limits: from 1 to 2)

Or:

Kinetic Energy of Particle: T ≡ (½)mv2

⇒ W12 = T2 - T1 = ΔT
⇒ Total Work done = Change in kinetic energy
(Work-Energy Principle or Work-Energy Theorem)
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Conservative Forces

• The first condition for a force F to be conservative is that F depends only

on the position r of the object on which it acts; it must not depend on the
velocity, the time, or any variables other than r.
• i.e. F = F(r)
• E.g. The gravitational force of the sun on a planet (position
r relative to the sun) depends only on the variable r. (The parameters G, m,
M are constant for a given planet and given sun.)
=> gravitational force is conservative
• Similarly, the electrostatic force F(r) = qE(r) on a charge q by a static
electric field E(r) is conservative
• Forces that do not satisfy this condition include the force of air resistance
(which depends on the velocity), friction (which depends on the direction of
motion), the magnetic force (which depends on the velocity), and the force
of a time—varying electric field E(r, t) (which depends on time)
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Conservative Forces

• The second condition that a force must satisfy to be called conservative :

the work done by the force as the object on which it acts moves between
two points r1 and r2 is same for all the paths (or just 1 and 2 for short),

• Or

Work done is same for all the Three

different paths, a, b, and c, joining the
same two points 1 and 2.
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Conservative Forces
• Special Case: if Force F is such that the work W12 does not depend on path
between points 1 & 2:
• i.e. W12 is the same for any physically possible path between points 1 and 2 ,
Force and the system are then ≡ Conservative.

• Alternative definition of conservative: Particle goes from point 1 to point 2

by one possible path and then return to point 1 by another path
( i.e. different paths, total path is closed).
• Work done is
W12 + W21 = ∮F∙ds = 0

• Work done in closed path is zero

• Because path independence means W = - W21
12
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Conservative Forces ⇒ Potential Energy
• Consider W = ∫F∙ds (limits: from 1 to 2)
12
• Conservative force F ⇒ W is path independent.
12
– Clearly, friction & similar forces are not conservative!
– if friction or other dissipation forces are present, F∙ds due to friction is
always positive and the integral cannot vanish.

• For conservative forces, we define a Potential Energy function V(r).

• By definition: W = ∫F∙ds = V - V = - ΔV
12 1 2
Depends only on end points 1 & 2
• For conservative forces, the total work done = - (the change in potential
energy)

Note- We can argue that, If W12 is independent of the path of integration between
the end points 1 and 2, it should be possible to express W12 as the change in a
quantity that depends only upon the positions of the end points. This quantity may
be designated by -V
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Potential Energy Function
• For conservative forces:
W12 = ∫F∙ds = V1 - V2 = - ΔV
• From Vector calculus Stoke’s theorem. a necessary and sufficient condition
that the work, W , be independent of the physical path taken by the
12
particle is that F be the gradient of some scalar function of position:
• i.e. (minus sign by convention)

[Since for conservative forces ∮F∙ds = 0 = ∫ ∫ (∇ x F) ∙d(area vector))] and curl(grad)=0

For conservative forces, the force is the negative gradient of the potential energy
(or potential).
⇒ We can write: - ∇V(r)∙ds

⇒
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..

• Physical (experimental) quantity is F = - ∇V(r)

⇒ The zero of V(r) is arbitrary

(since F is a derivative of V(r)!)

i.e. we can add to V any quantity constant in space, without affecting the results.
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..
Energy Conservation
• For conservative forces only we had:
W12 = ∫F∙ds = V1 - V2 (independent of path)
• In general, we had (Work-Energy Principle):
W12 = T2 - T1
• Combining the two expressions for W12 , For conservative forces:
V1 - V2 = T2 - T1 or ΔT + ΔV = 0
or T 1 + V1 = T 2 + V2
or E = T + V = constant (conserved)
E = T + V ≡ Total Mechanical Energy
(or just Total Energy)

Energy Conservation Theorem for a Particle:

If the forces acting on a particle are conservative, then the total energy of the
particle, T + V , is conserved
 Mechanics of a Particle contd…..

• Consider a special case where F is a function of both position r & time t: F

= F(r,t)
• Further, suppose we can define a function V(r,t) such that:
F = - (∂V/∂s)
⇒ Work done on particle in differential distance ds is still
F∙ds = - (∂V/∂s)ds

• However, in this case, cannot write F∙ds = -dV since V is a function of both
time & space.
• May still define a total mechanical energy E = T + V. However, E is no longer
conserved! E = E(t)!!
(Conserved ⇒ dE/dt = 0 )
 Inertial and Non Inertial Frames
• For Newton’s Laws to have meaning, the motion of bodies must be measured
relative to a reference frame.
• Newton’s Laws are valid only in an
Inertial Frame
• Inertial Frame: A reference frame where Newton’s Laws hold!
• Inertial Frame: Non-accelerating reference frame.
⇒ By the 2nd Law, a frame which has no
external force on it!

• If Newton’s Laws are valid in one (inertial) reference frame, they are also
valid in any other reference frame in uniform (not accelerated) motion with
respect to the first.
• This is a result of the fact that in Newton’s 2nd Law:
• F = ma = m (d2r/dt2) = mr involves a 2nd time derivative of r.
⇒ A change of coordinates involving constant velocity will not change the 2nd
Law.
• Newton’s Laws are the same in all inertial frames ≡ Newtonian /
Galilean Relativity.
• Special Relativity ⇒ “Absolute rest” & “Absolute inertial frame” are
meaningless.
• Usually, we take the Newtonian “absolute” inertial frame as the fixed
stars.
• Rotating frames are non-inertial ⇒ Newton’s Laws don’t hold in
rotating frames unless we introduce “fictitious” forces.