ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL TECHNICAL PAPER

Title no. 109-S58

Improved Algorithm for Efficient and Realistic Creep

Analysis of Large Creep-Sensitive Concrete Structures
by Qiang Yu, Zdeněk P. Bažant, and Roman Wendner

Recent compilation of data on numerous large-span prestressed creep effects were also documented for four large segmen-
segmentally erected box girder bridges revealed gross underesti- tally erected box girders in Japan.3,6,7 A subsequent search of
mation of their multi-decade deflections. The main cause has been data on segmentally erected prestressed box girder bridges,
identified as incorrect and obsolete creep prediction models in undertaken under the auspices of the recently established
various existing standard recommendations and is being addressed RILEM Committee TC-MDC (Multi-Decade Creep), led to
in a separate study. However, previous analyses of the excessive
a list of 69 large spans (in 10 countries) that suffered grossly
deflections of the Koror-Babeldaob (KB) Bridge in Palau and of
four Japanese bridges have shown that a more accurate method excessive long-time deflections.8-10 It is likely that many
of multi-decade creep analysis is required. The objective of this more cases of excessive deflections exist worldwide. Clearly,
paper is to provide a systematic and comprehensive presentation, the problem is widespread and its cause must be systematic.
appropriate not only for bridges but also for any large creep- Analyses of the data on the KB Bridge and the Japanese
sensitive structure. For each time step, the solution is reduced to bridges3,6,7 with Model B3 (calibrated by multi-decade labo-
an elastic structural analysis with generally orthotropic elastic ratory tests11-13) showed that the main causes of the gross
moduli and eigenstrains. This analysis should normally be three- underestimation are twofold:
dimensional (3-D). It can be accomplished with a commercial finite 1. Incorrect and obsolete material models for concrete
element code such as ABAQUS. Based on the Kelvin chain model, creep surviving in standard design recommendations of ACI,
the integral-type creep law is converted to a rate-type form with CEB-fib, and other engineering societies; and
internal variables, which account for the previous history. For time 2. An oversimplified method of creep structural analysis.
steps short enough to render aging during each step to be negli-
gible, a unique continuous retardation spectrum for each step is
The former is being addressed in a separate study.6-8 This
obtained by Laplace transform inversion using simple Widder’s article will focus attention on the latter. Assembling previ-
formula. Discretization of the spectrum then yields the current ously published results, it will give a comprehensive presen-
Kelvin chain moduli. The rate-type creep analysis is computation- tation of the method of multi-decade creep analysis, which
ally more efficient than the classical integral-type analysis. More can use a general-purpose finite element code such as
importantly, though, it makes it possible to take into account the ABAQUS and has led to excellent agreement with the obser-
evolution of various inelastic and nonlinear phenomena such as vations on the KB Bridge and four Japanese bridges.
tensile cracking, cyclic creep, and stress relaxation in prestressing For the purpose of creep analysis, the prestressed concrete
tendons at variable strain, as well as the effects of humidity and box girders have traditionally been analyzed as one-dimen-
temperature variations, and the effect of wall thickness variation sional (1-D) beams, sometimes using, for the top slab,
on drying creep and shrinkage. Finally, the advantages compared approximate correction formulas for the shear lag.14-16 Such
to the existing commercial programs, based on step-by-step inte-
analysis, however, still popular in commercial design soft-
gration of memory integrals, are pointed out and illustrated by a
simple example.
ware, can have large errors, mainly for two reasons:
1. It cannot realistically capture the shear lag effects,
Keywords: aging; bridge deflections; commercial programs; continuous which are not only elastic but also aging viscoelastic, occur
retardation spectrum; cracking; creep and shrinkage; cyclic creep; Kelvin not only in the top slab but also in the vertical walls and
chain model; rate-type algorithm; steel relaxation; three-dimensional the bottom slab, and are caused by both the vertical shear
analysis; variable environment. forces at the piers and by the concentrated loads from tendon
anchors; and
INTRODUCTION 2. It cannot account for the differences in drying creep
The severity of the effects of multi-decade creep of properties and in shrinkage caused by the differences in the
concrete has long been underestimated. In 2008, however, drying rates of slabs, resulting from different thicknesses
the release of detailed technical data on the Koror-Babeldaob and environmental exposure.
(KB) Bridge in Palau, which collapsed in 19961,2 as a result Properly, the box girders should be analyzed as thick
of a retrofit, provided a wakeup call. When built in 1977, this shells, for which a three-dimensional (3-D) finite element
prestressed segmentally erected box girder had the world- analysis is necessary. Such analysis is, of course, also
record span of 241 m (791 ft). Within 18 years, its midspan necessary for other creep-sensitive structures such as super-
deflection (compared to the design camber) reached 1.61 m tall buildings.
(5.3 ft), which was approximately three times larger than
the deflection calculated in design.3 The 18-year prestress
loss was measured to be approximately 50% (as an average ACI Structural Journal, V. 109, No. 5, September-October 2012.
of nine readings), which was more than the double of the MS No. S-2010-366.R2 received September 13, 2011, and reviewed under Institute
publication policies. Copyright © 2012, American Concrete Institute. All rights
normally predicted loss4,5 (refer to Fig. 1). reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the
Thanks to other data released in 2008 by Shimizu copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s closure, if any, will be
published in the July-August 2013 ACI Structural Journal if the discussion is received
Construction, Tokyo, similar underestimations of long-term by March 1, 2013.

ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012 665

Qiang Yu is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental multi-decade creep structural analysis is one essential part of
Engineering at the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA. He was formerly a sustainable design.
Research Assistant Professor at Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. He is a A realistic method is also needed for reanalyses of some
member of ACI Committee 209, Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete, and Joint ACI-ASCE
Committees 445, Shear and Torsion, and 446, Fracture Mechanics of Concrete.
recently completed structures. Excessive deflections produce
His research interests include mechanical properties and long-term performance of cracking and, even if a retrofit is successful, the cracking
concrete and other engineering materials. does not heal. Thus, should reanalysis show future excessive
deflections to be likely, a retrofit could be performed before
ACI Honorary Member Zdeněk P. Bažant is the McCormick Institute Professor and
W.P. Murphy Professor of civil and mechanical engineering and materials science
any damage develops.
at Northwestern University. A member of the National Academy of Sciences and
the National Academy of Engineering, he is the founding Past Chair and a member REASONS FOR COUPLING FINITE ELEMENT
of Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 446, Fracture Mechanics of Concrete. He is also a ANALYSIS WITH RATE-TYPE
member of ACI Committees 209, Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete; 348, Structural CREEP FORMULATION
Reliability and Safety; and Joint ACI-ASCE Committees 334, Concrete Shell Design
and Construction; 445, Shear and Torsion; and 447, Finite Element Analysis of
Concrete creep at constant stress and in constant envi-
Reinforced Concrete Structures. He is a licensed structural engineer in Illinois. ronment is characterized by the compliance function
J(t, t′), which represents the strain at time t caused by a unit
Roman Wendner is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of Natural sustained uniaxial stress applied at age t′. Generalization for
Resources and Life Science Vienna, Austria, where he also received his PhD in 2009.
Since April 2011, he has been officially on leave to conduct research at Northwestern
time-variable stress s (t) is obtained by applying the prin-
University supported by an Erwin Schrödinger Scholarship. His research interests ciple of superposition in time, which yields a linearly visco-
include the reliability and lifetime assessment/prognosis of engineering structures with elastic stress-strain relation in the form of a Volterra integral
special focus on system identification, nonlinear fracture mechanics, and the modeling equation with a kernel which, because of chemical aging, is
of long-term processes.
not of convolution type. According to this classical formu-
lation, the evolution of deflections, nodal displacements, or
statically indeterminate internal forces is characterized by a
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE system of linear Volterra integral equations.
Achieving sustainability of built environment requires that However, the integral-type approach to aging viscoelas-
the design of large bridges, as well as other large creep-sensi- ticity is too complicated and computationally inefficient for
tive structures such as super-tall concrete buildings or large- larger structures. More seriously, it is also unrealistic because
span shells, would ensure a lifetime of at least 100 years. many influencing phenomena can be taken into account
Excessive creep deflections and prestress losses shorten only with a rate-type, rather than integral-type, formulation.
the life span to approximately 20 to 40 years. The result is Although the history integrals of aging viscoelasticity are a
an enormous economic loss. Whereas in most cases exces- valuable pedagogical tool for the conceptual understanding
sive creep deflections will not cause collapse per se, they of various kinds of viscoelastic effects in structures, espe-
may provoke a retrofit with additional prestressing, which cially the long-time stress redistributions, in practice they
can be risky and may lead to collapse with a loss of life, are adequate only for crude preliminary estimates and illus-
as witnessed in Palau.2,17,18 Therefore, a realistic method of trative calculations of simple beam or frame structures.

Fig. 1—Excessive deflection recorded in KB Bridge in Palau. (Note: 1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 MPa
= 145 psi.)

666 ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012

 Fig. 2—Kelvin chain model and flowchart of algorithm of finite element creep
analysis based on rate-type creep model.

In real design of large creep-sensitive structures, the inte- the nonlinear phenomena, the rate-type stress-strain rela-
gral-type creep law arising from the principle of superposi- tion ceases to obey the principle of superposition. A further
tion must be converted to an equivalent rate-type creep law highly nonlinear phenomenon is the stress relaxation of steel
with internal variables whose current values account for the tendons, which is not viscoelastic. The evolution of steel
previous history of viscoelastic strain. There are basically relaxation may be significantly influenced by the strain vari-
two reasons for choosing the rate-type approach: ation in concrete and thus needs to be calculated as part of
1. One is computational: The strain history need not be structural creep analysis to take into account the time varia-
stored and no sums over all the previous time steps need to be tion of prestress loss due to the combined effects of concrete
computed to approximate the history integrals. Thus, the rate- creep, shrinkage, and steel relaxation (note that the usual
type approach makes creep computations far more efficient. assumption of either a time-constant prestress loss or time-
For the design of very large structures, the rate-type form of variable steel relaxation estimated in advance is generally
creep law is almost inevitable. It also makes it easier to simu- insufficient for creep-sensitive structures).
late the effects of numerous changes in the structural system, The key property enabling the rate-type analysis is the fact
as in segmental construction with sequential prestressing of that any realistic integral-type stress-strain relation of aging
many segments or in super-tall building erection. viscoelasticity can be approximated with any desired accu-
2. Another is the necessity to capture the phenomena racy by a rate-type creep law visualized by the Kelvin chain
causing deviations from the principle of superposition in model. This model consists of a series of Kelvin units m =
time.19-21 These phenomena include the cracking and other 1, 2, 3, ···, N (Fig. 2), each of which involves a spring of
damage of concrete, variations of humidity and tempera- stiffness Em(t) coupled in parallel with a dashpot of viscosity
ture with the corresponding changes in the rate of aging (or hm(t) = Em(t)tm, where tm are the suitably chosen retardation
hydration), bond slip, and cyclic creep. Upon inclusion of times. In step-by-step analysis, one takes advantage of the

ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012 667

fact that, for a sufficiently short time step, Em and hm can be of the compliance function J(t, t′), but this approach was
considered as approximately constant, although Em and hm found to give non-unique results for A(tm) and to be over-
generally change from one time step to the next. sensitive to small changes in compliance. The continuous
The plot of compliances A(tm) = Em–1 versus logtm is the spectrum route is not only much simpler but also avoids this
discrete retardation spectrum. Because of aging, the spectrum
non-uniqueness and over-sensitivity.27
is different for each subsequent time step. The discrete retar-
dation times are best chosen to be spaced by decades in the
NUMERICAL PROCEDURE USING EXPONENTIAL
logarithmic time scale—that is, tm + 1 = 10tm. For a sparser
ALGORITHM FOR INCREASING TIME STEPS
spacing of tm, the representation of the compliance function
by the discrete spectrum becomes bumpy and inaccurate, Every compliance function J(t, t′) can be represented with
while a denser spacing gives no significant gain in accuracy. any desired accuracy by the Kelvin chain rheologic model,
When the rate-type creep law is used, the structural creep which converts the constitutive law for creep from a matrix
problem can be reduced to a system of first-order ordinary of the Volterra integral equation to a system of ordinary first-
differential equations in time with age-dependent coeffi- order linear differential equations for the rates of Kelvin
cients. Similar to the system of integral equations, however, unit strains em. These are partial strains that represent what
this approach is a waste of effort. It is more efficient to is known in thermodynamics as the internal variables (the
convert the incremental stress-strain relation for each time
Maxwell chain model can also be used but is less conve-
step Dt to a quasi-elastic incremental stress-strain rela-
tion. Thus, the structural creep problem gets reduced to a nient because it requires converting J(t, t′) to the relaxation
sequence of elasticity problems with initial strains19,20,22,23 function R(t, t′)). The equations for the em (a 6 × 1 column
(refer also to Section 29.3.5 in Jirásek and Bažant24). matrix) read

CONTINUOUS RETARDATION SPECTRA FOR  g m (t ) 

SUBSEQUENT TIME STEPS DDm ( t )  g m ( t ) + = s ( t ) (3)
A continuous retardation spectrum, which corresponds to  t m 
the limit of an infinite Kelvin chain with infinitely many retar-
dation times tm of infinitely close spacing, can be identified
from the compliance data more conveniently than a discrete
spectrum. It represents a smoothed-out plot of Kelvin unit g m ( t ) = t m e m (t ) (4)
compliances Em–1(t) versus logtm. Its advantage is that it is
unique and can be identified from the given compliance
function analytically by Laplace transform inversion (which in which s is the 6 × 1 column matrix of stress; em is the
is justified by the fact that, within a sufficiently short time partial strains = strains of the individual Kelvin units (6 ×
step Dt, the aging of the material can be neglected). Widder’s 1 column matrixes); Dm is the elastic moduli of Kelvin units
approximate inversion formula25 is effective for this purpose (scalars); and D is the constant 6 × 6 elastic stiffness matrix
and gives25-28 for isotropic material with a unit value of Young’s modulus,
introduced under the simplifying assumption of a constant
creep Poisson ratio, n ≈ 0.18; and, with the notation n* =
( ) C ( ) ( kt )
k
lim − kt m k

( ) (1 – 2n)/(2(1 – n)).
m
L tm = − k →∞
(1)
( k − 1)!
 1 n / (1 − n) n / (1 − n) 0 0 0
where C(k) is the k-th order derivative on time t of the creep  1 n / (1 − n) 0 0 0
 
part C(t, tn – 1/2) of the compliance function J(t, tn – 1/2); C(t, t′) 1− n  1 0 0 0
D=  (5)
= J(t, t′) – 1/E0; and E0 is the instantaneous (or short-time)
elastic modulus. Note that, generally, L(tm) is different for
(1 + n)(1 − 2 n)  n* 0 0
 n* 0
each integration point of each finite element in each time  
step. The effects of thickness tb, current local humidity h,  n* 
current local temperature T, and so on are introduced into the
spectrum through the compliance curve J(t, t′), in which t′ is
constant and represents the age of concrete in the middle of The usual algorithms for numerical integration of first-
the current time step. order ordinary differential equations, such as the central or
In practice, the limit in Eq. (1) need not be calculated backward difference methods or the Runge-Kutta method,
and it suffices to use k = 3. A discrete approximation of the fail by numerical instability. The reason is that these methods
continuous spectrum gives the discrete spectrum are stable only if Dt << t1 while, to reach long times, the
time steps Dt need to be increased to values larger (in fact,
( )
A tm =
1
( ) ( )
= L t m ln10 D log t m = L t m ln10 (2)( ) many orders of magnitude larger) than the shortest retarda-
( )
E tm tion time tm = t1. An unconditionally stable algorithm, called
the exponential algorithm, was devised to overcome this
which corresponds to a finite (or discrete) Kelvin chain and problem.20,23,29,30 In this algorithm, one calculates (for each
is required for numerical computations. integration point of each finite element, in each time step)
Note that, in the original rate-type creep analysis,29 the
discrete spectrum A(tm) was calculated by least-square fitting bm = e
− Dt / t m
( )
, l m = t m 1 − b m / Dt (6)

668 ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012

 tm. It is important that the entire short-time tail of the spec-
1
Dm = (7) trum be covered by tm, especially when short time steps are
( )(
A t m 1 − lm ) used.7 Vice versa, the exponential algorithm also automati-
cally captures the fact that the Kelvin units whose retarda-
tion times are an order of magnitude longer than the current
1 1 N time step behave essentially as rigid links.
= + ∑ Dm−1 (8) A change of structural system, or an imposition of new
E ′′ ( t n −1/ 2 ) E0 m =1
constraints in a certain time step, is modeled by activating
some previously deactivated finite elements (which is a stan-
where E″ is the incremental modulus. The 6 × 1 column dard feature in ABAQUS). This is, for example, necessary to
matrix of the inelastic strain increments, also called the simulate the sequential erection of segmental box girders (or
eigenstrains, is obtained as of super-tall buildings). It also makes it possible to easily take
into account the differences in the ages of various segments;
the sequential prestressing at various times; the step-wise
( )
De ′′ = ∑ 1 − b m g m(n−1)
N
(9) load increase in the individual segments during construc-
m =1
tion; the application of temporary construction loads (for
example, the traveler truss weight); and the introduction of a
The matrix of eigenstrains must now be augmented by new constraint, such as the joining of two opposite cantile-
the shrinkage (and thermal) strain increments in the current vers after the segmental construction is completed.
In addition to construction sequence, ABAQUS can also
time interval, as well as the inelastic strain increments due
automatically take into account the joining of two structural
to smeared cracking or other damage, and eventually also parts, as well as the jacking of a prestress tendon at the right
the cyclic creep (unless its simplified analysis is undertaken time, in the form of a specified initial strain (or eigenstrain)
separately). Note that the last three terms in matrix De″ repre- in the tendons. The relaxation of steel tendons is introduced
sent the shear creep, which is normally neglected when the through the increments of inelastic strain in bar elements
integral-type approach is used, although it is important for representing the tendons.
the shear lag in box girders. The 1-D stiffness in Eq. (8) is Compared to the integral-type approach, the rate-type
then used to construct the 3-D isotropic quasi-elastic matrix approach has another big advantage. The incremental elastic
stress-strain relation with eigenstrains20,24 stress-strain relation in each time step can further be modi-
fied according to cracking or other damage, cyclic creep,
current humidity, current temperature, and current degree of
Ds = E ′′(t n −1 2 ) D(De − De ′′ ) (10) hydration in the same way as it is done for inelastic time-
independent analysis. Note that this is not possible for the
where D denotes the increments per time step, and matrixes integral-type creep law because the cracking, humidity, and
D and De are generally non-isotropic. This stress-strain rela- temperature, unlike concrete creep, do not have a memory
and thus cannot be introduced into the history integrals.
tion, which is different for each integration point of each
Furthermore, in contrast to the system of Volterra integral
finite element in each time step, is then used in an elastic equations for statically indeterminate quantities, one can
structural analysis program. Thus, the structural creep easily introduce the viscoplastic strain increments equiva-
problem gets reduced to a sequence of incremental elasticity lent to the stress relaxation in steel tendons and thus solve
problems,19,20,22-24 each of which can easily be solved by the stress relaxation in prestressing steel as part of structural
various commercial elastic finite element programs, such as creep analysis (the result can be quite different from the
ABAQUS. After solving the stress increment matrixes at all standard estimates of prestress loss due to stress relaxation,
the integration points, the column matrix of the increments as revealed by the analysis of the KB Bridge in Palau).
of internal variables of Kelvin chain units is then updated at The derivation of the exponential algorithm for the rate-
each integration point as follows type form of aging viscoelasticity was originally given in
Bažant30 and was presented in full detail in Bažant,19 RILEM
Committee TC-69,20 and Bažant23 and in Section 29.3.5 of
g m( n) = l m Ds Dm−1 + b m g m( n −1) (11) Jirásek and Bažant24 for a general compliance function. In
Bažant and Prasannan,31,32 the derivation of a simpler special
form was given for the special compliance function of the
Note that the history—that is, the values of gm(n), em, and s solidification theory and for Model B3.33,34 Calculation of
for the previous steps 1, 2, ···, n – 1—need not be stored. The the continuous retardation spectrum and its discretization
history is fully characterized by the current values of gm(n). were presented in Bažant and Xi.27
The exponential algorithm automatically captures the fact
that every Kelvin unit whose retardation time tm is much GENERALIZATION FOR CYCLIC CREEP
shorter than Dt behaves essentially as an elastic spring, as The cyclic creep (or fatigue deformations) caused by
if the parallel dashpot did not exist. This property means repeated traffic loads is not a major effect, but sometimes it
that the compliances of the Kelvin units for which tm << Dt1 can increase the deflections by approximately 2 to 5%.7 In
(the shortest time step) could be summed and all these units the case of Palau,7 it was calculated separately because it
replaced by a single spring. This would reduce the amount was negligible compared to the total deflection. However,
of computations. For programming, though, it is simpler to for smaller-than-record spans or heavily loaded bridges with
keep all the Kelvin units, even those with remotely small many lanes, especially those carrying cars and rail, the cyclic

ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012 669

creep can be stronger and is better calculated as part of the time) are ignored because the corresponding Kelvin units
general algorithm. According to Bažant and Kim,35 the behave as perfectly rigid.
additional inelastic strain due to the cyclic creep increment
during time step Dt may in general be roughly estimated as EXPONENTIAL ALGORITHM SIMPLIFICATIONS
AND REFINEMENTS FOR MODEL B3
The foregoing algorithm can also be used for Model B3,
( )
De cyc = g fcyc , Ds , s max Dt (12) provided that the total compliance J(t, t′) is computed for
each integration point.33,34 For basic creep, however, a
simpler exponential algorithm exists,31,32 which needs only
where g is an empirical function; fcyc is the frequency of ⋅
the compliance rate J(t, t′). The compliance rate is directly
normal stress cycles; smax is the maximum magnitude of specified by Model B3 and is applied only to the non-aging
normal stress; and Ds = smax – smin is the stress amplitude. viscoelasticity of the non-aging constituent of growing
For accurate analysis, the strains Decyc should be calculated volume v(t). The modified steps of the algorithm, which are
for each integration point of each finite element at each time also shown in Fig. 2, involve the following equations
step and added to the creep strain increments. But often the
cyclic creep is very small and then a separate, simpler calcu-
lation is possible, as shown in Bažant et al.8 Calibration of
( ) (
Ab t mb = ) ( )
1 / t n −1/ 2 + q3 / q2 A t mb (13)
Eq. (12) by test data of Gaede36 and others is the subject
of a separate paper in preparation. Note that an alternative
formula of Bažant and Kim35 and Bažant and Panula,37 which
De ′′ = De 1′′+ De 2′′ (14)
gives the cyclic creep as an acceleration of the static creep,
appears to greatly underestimate the cyclic creep for multi-
decade loading.

( ) ( )
Nb
NUMERICAL IMPLEMENTATION AND ALGORITHM De 1′′ = ∑ 1 / t n −1/ 2 + q3 / q2 × 1 − b m g m( n −1)
All the creep and shrinkage models predict the average (or m =1
(15)
effective) properties of creep and shrinkage over the thick-
( )
Nd
( n −1)
ness of a slab of the cross section directly from the envi- + ∑ 1 − bm g m
m =1
ronmental humidity, taking into account the slab thickness.
This simplification is quite poor for cross sections subject
to pure bending, partly because the creep prediction model
has been calibrated by the tests under axial load. However, De 2′′ = q4s ( n −1) Dt / t n −1/ 2 (16)
in flanged cross sections such as those of box girders, the
distribution of longitudinal normal stress across the wall is
nearly uniform—that is, the bending component within the where Ab(tmb) is the discretized spectrum for the non-aging
wall alone is relatively small and the force resultant is nearly constituent in Model B3; e″1 is the 6 × 1 column matrix
centric within the wall thickness. In that case, the aforemen- (vector) of the inelastic strain increments in the current
tioned simplification works much better. It suffices to use volume fraction of solids; and e″2 is the 6 × 1 column matrix
only one finite element through the slab thickness, except of inelastic strain increment of viscous flow.
in the top slab because that slab is subjected to transverse More realistic is an analysis in which the relative humidity
bending from roadway loads. hp in the capillary pores of concrete at various points and
A computer program based on the algorithm described in times is computed from the nonlinear diffusion equation for
the following was written and applied to the KB Bridge in concrete drying,38,39 for which a 1-D version for transverse
Palau.3,6,7 This program (which can be freely downloaded from moisture transport is generally sufficient. This approach
www.civil.northwestern.edu/people/Bažant/PDFs/Papers) further has the advantage that the creep and shrinkage law
can be adapted to other segmental bridges, as well as other for a material point is simpler and more accurate than it is for
types of concrete structures. On a state-of-the-art personal the cross-section average.
computer (PC) (for example, a quad-core, 4 GB memory), Model B3 includes an alternative that allows such point-
the entire 3-D finite element creep analysis of the KB Bridge wise calculation of creep and shrinkage. In this case, the
ran for approximately 50 minutes. The flowchart of the algo- thickness of the slab needs to be subdivided into at least
rithm used in this program is shown in Fig. 2. six finite elements, which increases the number of all finite
Note that the number N of internal variables could actu- elements in the structure approximately six times. The inte-
ally be reduced to approximately five, but then the first L(tm) gration of the diffusion equation for drying (and wetting) of
(m = 1) would have to be computed as the integrated area concrete38 is done numerically, simultaneously with creep
under the spectrum up to –∞ in the log-time scale (the reason structural analysis. This more refined approach is a straight-
forward generalization of the present approach and will not
is that Kelvin units with tm << Dt behave as springs, and the
be discussed further.
compliances of springs coupled in series can be combined
into one compliance). Using N = 22 for Model B3 and N = PRESTRESSING STEEL RELAXATION AT
13 for other models increases the demand on computer time VARIABLE STRAIN
and storage but is simpler to program, which is important So far, the practice has been to calculate the stress relax-
for the user. The spectral values L(tm) for tm >> t (the current ation in prestressing tendons from simple formulas that give

670 ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012

relaxation at constant strain e. As exemplified by the KB
d 3f / d 3x 3 = Y (x ) = 2.35g c
Bridge in Palau, however, the strain variation in steel bonded
( )
× 0.336x −2.4 10 + x 0.6 ( )
−1 −2
to concrete need not be negligible when dealing with creep- + 0.528x −1.8 10 + x 0.6 (19)

sensitive structures. Also, the exposure of pavement to sun
(10 + x )
0.6 −3
( ) 
−4
can cause significant heating of tendons embedded in the top + 0.432x −1.2 − 1.296x −0.6 10 + x 0.6 
slab.7 Therefore, one needs a general uniaxial viscoplastic
constitutive law for prestressing steel (Chapter 27 of Refer-
ence 24). Plenty of test data on prestressing steel relaxation where x = t – t′, L(tm) = 2.35gc(3tm)3Y(3tm)/2; gc is calculated
using tn – 1/2;
exist for constant strain and constant room temperature.40 The
3. Discretized spectrum; also refer to Eq. (2): A(tm) = L(tm)
most extensive are given in Magura et al.41 The data for vari-
ln10/E(tn – 1/2);
able strain and variable temperature are much more limited 4. Calculate bm, lm, and Dm; refer to Eq. (6) and (7);
but those that exist42,43 suffice for calibration. It is clear that 5. Calculate the effective modulus E″–1(tn – 1/2); refer to
the equation governing the relaxation of prestressing steel Eq. (8);
must have the form of a viscoplastic constitutive law, which 6. Obtain the creep strain increment matrix De″; refer to
gives the inelastic strain increment in steel as follows Eq. (9);
7. The stress-strain relation for this integration point is
( )
De v = f e , s p AT Dt + aDT (17)
Ds = E ′′ ( t n −1/ 2 ) D ( De − De ′′ ) ; refer to Eq. (10).
where sp is the current stress in steel tendons; e is the current
strain in tendons, which must be the same as in the adja- The loop repeats these calculations for all the integration
cent concrete; DT is the increment of temperature; a is the points of all finite elements and supplies the stiffness and
thermal expansion coefficient of steel; and AT is the tempera- load matrixes of the incremental stress-strain relations for
ture factor, which equals 1 at room temperature. A real- the assembly of the structural stiffness and load matrixes.
istic expression for function f(e, sp) which, for constant e, Then, ABAQUS runs the incremental elastic finite element
analysis; and
constant T, and high sp, reduces to the CEB-fib formula and
8. After retrieving the stress increments computed by
also incorporates a threshold co-opted from American prac- ABAQUS, update for each finite element the internal vari-
tice, has been derived and calibrated by test data in Bažant ables g m(n); refer to Eq. (11). Then begin the next time step,
and Yu40; refer to the Appendix. unless the lifetime has been reached.
Using gc = 1.25(t′)–0.118
CHECK OF PROGRAMMING WITH SIMPLE
Et = E28 t / ( 4 + 0.85t )
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
The user can check the correctness of programming of the
exponential algorithm by the following example, which uses
the compliance function J(t, t′) = [1 + f(t, t′)]/E(t′) in which, (where E28 = E at 28 days of age = 30 GPa [4350 ksi]), and
uniaxial loading by s = 1 MPa (145 psi) applied at t0 =
according to ACI Committee 20944,45
7 days, one should get: e = 4.92 × 10–5 = for t = 8 days, e =
9.68 × 10–5 for t = 100 days, e = 0.00012 for t = 1000 days,

f ( t , t ′ ) = 2.35g c
(t − t ′)0.6 and e = 0.000129 for t = 10,000 days. The ACI formula gives
(18) almost the same results; refer to Fig. 3.
10 + ( t − t ′ )
0.6

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING COMMERCIAL

gc is the empirical factor accounting for age t′ at loading, DESIGN SOFTWARE PROGRAMS
Commercial programs, whose basic form was devel-
humidity, slab thickness, concrete slump, and contents of
oped around 1980, are generally used for the creep design
fine aggregates and air. The cyclic creep cannot be combined of prestressed box girder bridges. They include SOFiSTiK,
with Eq. (18). SCIA-Engineer, InfoCAD, and RSTAB/RFEM software
The ACI 209 function (Eq. (18)) is used not because it (distributed by the Ingenieur-Software Dlubal GmbH,
would be realistic (it is not) but because it is the simplest to Germany).46-49 The material creep and shrinkage model,
check the correctness of programming. For practical use in typically the CEB Model, is embedded in these programs.
design, this function should be replaced by a realistic one. In these programs, all the nonlinear, cracking, diffusion,
In ABAQUS, the exponential algorithm is used in the user cyclic creep, and drying effects are neglected. So are the
material subroutine (UMAT): environmental variations, heating of tendons, and relaxation
affected by concrete strain. An example of such a commercial
1. At t = t0, initialize the internal variables: gm(0) = 0, J(t0, t0)
code is SOFiSTiK, which is the only program used herein.
= 1/E(t0), where t0 is the time when the first load is applied. Therefore, the conclusions that follow are verified only for
Select tm = 10–7 + m (m = 1, 2, ···, 13); SOFiSTiK, although they probably apply to the aforemen-
2. Use Widder’s formula25-27 to calculate the continuous tioned other similar software programs. For 1-D analysis,
spectrum; also refer to Eq. (1) in which the box girder is represented by beam elements,

ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012 671

 Fig. 3—Left: simulation results by ABAQUS compared with ACI formula; and right: results
for elementary example of freestanding column, in which curves show comparison of creep
analysis results obtained with present rate-type algorithm and integral-type algorithm run in
commercial program SOFiSTiK. (Note: 1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 GPa = 145 ksi; 1 mm = 0.0394 in.)

the creep is modeled by linear aging viscoelasticity, which ACI Committee 209 and since 1990 by the CEB Model
is implemented in the primitive form of an integral-type Code, yet no update has been made in SOFiSTiK (nor
creep law (as introduced for nuclear reactor structures RSTAB/RFEM or InfoCAD).
before 1970). The memory integrals are numerically inte- By virtue of taking the aging into account, the errors of
grated step by step from the complete stress history of each the AAEM for loads applied at a young age (which is a
beam element, which increases the demands on computer typical situation for box girder segments) are significantly
time and storage. This fact, and the need to investigate many smaller, compared to the exact linear viscoelastic solutions,
load cases and combinations, are probably the reasons why, than the errors of the Trost method.24,52 The AAEM often
despite the availability of two-dimensional (2-D) and 3-D gives surprisingly good estimates of the linear aging visco-
finite elements, SOFiSTiK does not use the memory inte- elastic solutions in simple beam structures. However, even
grals in combination with these elements. Rather, in the case if SOFiSTiK switched to AAEM, much larger errors due to
of 2-D or 3-D elements, SOFiSTiK uses a simple quasi- the use of quasi-elastic analysis for multi-dimensional finite
elastic algebraic analysis based on a one-step incremental elements and of pure linear viscoelasticity for 1-D beam
elastic relation of the following uniaxial form elements would still remain.
Although the major source of error in a program such as
SOFiSTiK is the embedded CEB creep model, one must
s ( t ) − s (t1 ) = E ′′ (t , t1 ) e ( t ) − f (t , t1 ) e (t1 ) − e sh (t , t1 ) (20) accept this model to isolate other errors through numerical
examples. The first example is a freestanding plain concrete
column under uniaxial compression. The relevant concrete
where s, e is axial stress and strain; t1 is the age of concrete properties are fc28 = 30 MPa (4350 psi) (which gives E28 =
at load application; t is current age; e(t1) is initial elastic 31,008 MPa [4496.2 ksi] according to the CEB formula) and
strain at t1; f(t, t1) and esh are creep coefficient and shrinkage an environmental humidity h = 70%. The first compressive
strain, respectively, as specified by the 1990 CEB Model stress s (1) = 1 MPa (145 psi) is applied at t0 = 7 days and
subsequently additional compressive stresses s (i) = 1 MPa
Code; and E″(t, t1) is the incremental Young’s modulus for
(145 psi) (i = 2, 3, ···, 12) are applied every 7 days. It is
the entire period from t1 to t. According to the 1967 Trost
found that, in this example, the integral-type algorithm of
method,50 E″ = E28/(1 + rf), where r is Trost’s so-called
SOFiSTiK predicts the creep deformations accurately
relaxation coefficient, typically taken as 0.8.
enough. The deviations from the exact analytical solution
But r and E28 do not take into account the creep aging.
and the present algorithm are barely distinguishable (Fig. 3).
This effect can be captured by the age-adjusted effective The second example is the ill-fated KB Bridge in Palau.
modulus (AAEM) method,20,23,24,51 in which E28 is replaced The information about this bridge can be found in investiga-
with E(t) and r with aging coefficient c, as shown in 1972 by tion reports and recent studies.1-3,6,7,18,53 To explain the unex-
Bažant.51 The AAEM has been endorsed since 1982 by pected huge deflection, a comprehensive investigation of this

672 ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012

 Fig. 4—Comparison of simulation results of KB Bridge by rate-type 3-D analysis and
SOFiSTik. (Note: 1 m = 3.28 ft.)

bridge was carried out at Northwestern University3,6,7; refer and shrinkage analysis, the age at start of drying is taken as
also to Fig. 4. By applying the present rate-type algorithm to t0 = 7 days, which is also the assumed segmental erection
3-D analysis, the long-term deflections have been computed cycle. The average environmental humidity is h = 0.70. In
for different creep and shrinkage models, as plotted in each erection cycle, one segment, including its dead load, is
Fig. 4 with respect to the end of construction. As seen in added and prestressed at the end of the 7-day period.
the figure, such analysis based on Model B3 can match the The linear viscoelastic analysis of the KB Bridge in
measured deflection very well, provided the creep parame- SOFiSTiK (modeled as beam) predicts substantially less
ters are calibrated by the long-term creep tests of Brooks11,12; deflection than the recorded measurements, which are
refer to B3 (Set 2) in Fig. 4. represented by the diamonds in Fig. 4. Furthermore, when
Unlike the rate-type analysis with ABAQUS, SOFiSTiK compared with the rate-type 3-D analysis, which uses the
uses a simplified approach with 45 nodes and 44 beam same CEB model, SOFiSTiK also substantially underpre-
elements corresponding to the segmental construction2,3,6,7; dicts the creep deflection. The integral-type algorithm used
refer to Fig. 4. The prestressing system is modeled in this calculation gives a deflection of only approximately
by 44 tendon groups consisting of six to 40 individual 32 mm 79% of the value predicted by the CEB Model Code when
(1.25 in.) diameter threaded alloy bars with 1030 MPa applied in the ABAQUS 3-D analysis, which itself underes-
(150 ksi) nominal tensile strength, which are assumed to timates the observed creep deflections by a factor of approxi-
be located in the center of the top slab. The jacking force mately 1/3; refer to Fig. 4.
Even if the viscoelastic analysis and finite element simu-
for each tendon is 600 kN (135 kips) with 5% of initial
lation were perfect, SOFiSTiK and similar design software
prestress loss. According to the design specifications, the
programs cannot correctly simulate the nonlinear evolution
28-day concrete properties are fc′ = 35.9 MPa (5207 psi) of viscoplastic steel relaxation at variable strain, the varia-
and Ec = 28.3 GPa (4105 ksi). The pier and foundation are tions of temperature and humidity, and the nonlinear effects
substituted by an idealized vertical spring of kz = 1.42 × of cracking and cyclic loading (although a correction for
108 kN/m (9.73 × 106 kip/ft) and a rotational spring of km,y cracking can, of course, be made in a time step; this would
= 1.42 × 109 kN-m/rad (1.05 × 109 kip-ft/rad). The CEB be incorrect in combination with memory integrals for creep
Model 199054 is used not only for concrete creep but also for because the cracking has no delayed memory). The effects
steel relaxation. The steel relaxation evolution is handled in of wall thickness differences among the top slab, walls, and
SOFiSTiK either by a fixed 1000-hour relaxation factor or, bottom slab on the drying creep and shrinkage can only be
as chosen in this example, by the stress-dependent quadratic captured by more refined models using a rate-type creep law
function according to the CEB Model Code 1990,54 inter- and 2-D or 3-D finite elements.
polated from three points: 2% at 0.60fpk, 4% at 0.70fpk,
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
and 6.67% at 0.80fpk, where fpk is the characteristic tensile 1. Although many ingredients of the present algorithm
strength of the prestressing tendons. Although the actual have been developed separately—some of them long
calculations in SOFiSTiK are a black box, the specified ago19,22,24,27,29-31,33,34,55—this paper combines them into one
quadratic CEB relaxation function in itself is not a good comprehensive algorithm, gives the previously missing
approximation for multi-decade relaxation.40 For the creep details needed for programming, and incorporates into the

ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012 673

algorithm two innovations: 1) the method of continuous 11. Brooks, J. J., “30-Year Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete,” Magazine
retardation spectrum, adapted for creep prediction models of Concrete Research, V. 57, No. 9, 2005, pp. 545-556.
12. Brooks, J. J., “Accuracy of Estimating Long-Term Strains in Concrete,”
other than those based on the solidification theory (that is, Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 36, No. 128, 1984, pp. 131-145.
other than Model B3)3; and 2) the dependence of prestressing 13. Troxell, G. E.; Raphael, J. E.; and Davis, R. W., “Long-Time Creep
steel relaxation on temperature and the variation of strain, and Shrinkage Tests of Plain and Reinforced Concrete,” Proceedings,
based on the theory of viscoplasticity of metals. ASTM, V. 58, 1958, pp. 1101-1120.
14. Benscoter, S. U., “A Theory of Torsion Bending for Multi-Cell
2. While the previously developed ingredients of the Beams,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, V. 21, No. 1, 1954, pp. 25-34.
formulation have been used mainly in research studies of 15. Malcolm, D. J., and Redwood, R. G., “Shear Lag in Stiffened Box
nuclear containments, reactor vessels, and segmental box Girders,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 96, No. ST7, July
girders, herein they are amalgamated into one comprehen- 1970, pp. 1403-1419.
sive algorithm intended for creep-sensitive design. 16. Reissner, E., “Analysis of Shear Lag in Box Beams by the Principle of
Minimum Potential Energy,” Quarterly of Applied Mechanics, V. 4, No. 3,
3. The recent compilation of data on excessive deflections 1946, pp. 268-278.
of numerous bridges8-10 and the detailed analysis of some of 17. Parker, D., “Tropical Overload,” New Civil Engineering, Dec. 1996,
them3,6,7 reveal that the creep analysis based on a rate-type pp. 18-21.
creep law, which can capture various nonlinear and drying 18. Pilz, M., “The Collapse of the KB Bridge in 1996,” dissertation,
Imperial College London, London, UK, 1997.
effects, as well as a complex evolution of the loading and 19. Bažant, Z. P., “Mathematical Models for Creep and Shrinkage
structural system, is a necessity for all large structures of of Concrete,” Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete Structures, Z. P. Bažant
high creep sensitivity if serviceability and lifetimes in excess and F. H. Wittmann, eds., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., London, UK, 1982,
of 20 to 40 years are to be ensured. pp. 163-256.
20. RILEM Committee TC-69, “State of the Art in Mathematical
4. Evaluation of the existing commercial software Modeling of Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete,” Mathematical Modeling
programs reveals that they strongly underestimate the effects of Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete, Z. P. Bažant, ed., John Wiley & Sons,
of multi-decade creep in large-span prestressed bridges (and Inc., Chichester, UK, and New York, 1988, pp. 57-215.
probably in columns of tall buildings as well). Except for 21. Bažant, Z. P.; Li, G.-H.; and Yu, Q., “Prediction of Creep and Shrinkage
possible cases of deliberate overdesign and special deflection and Their Effects in Concrete Structures: Critical Appraisal,” Creep,
Shrinkage and Durability Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures
mitigating measures, a continued use of such outdated soft- (Proceedings of the 8th International Conference—CONCREEP-8, Ise-
ware would likely compromise the durability of structures. A Shima, Japan), T. Tanabe, K. Sakata, H. Mihashi, R. Sato, K. Maekawa, and
major update of this software is requisite. For smaller-span H. Nakamura, eds., CRC Press/Balkema, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca
structures dominated by live load, the use of this software Raton, FL, and London, UK, 2008, pp. 1275-1289.
22. Bažant, Z. P., “Linear Creep Problems Solved by a Succession of
is likely harmless but also superfluous—a much simpler Generalized Thermoelasticity Problems,” Acta Technica CSAV, V. 12, No. 5,
analysis based on the effective (or sustained) modulus for 1967, pp. 581-594.
creep would suffice. 23. Bažant, Z. P., “Theory of Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete Struc-
tures: A Précis of Recent Developments,” Mechanics Today, S. Nemat-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Nasser, ed., V. 2, 1975, pp. 1-93.
Financial support was provided by the U.S. Department of Transporta- 24. Jirásek, M., and Bažant, Z. P., Inelastic Analysis of Structures, John
tion through Grant 20778 from the Infrastructure Technology Institute of Wiley & Sons, Inc., London, UK, and New York, 2002, 722 pp.
Northwestern University and National Science Foundation Grants CMMI- 25. Widder, D. V., The Laplace Transform, Princeton University Press,
1129449 and CMMI-1153494. M. Jirásek of the Czech Technical Univer- Princeton, NJ, 1941, 416 pp.
sity in Prague is thanked for stimulating critical comments. 26. Widder, D. V., An Introduction to Transform Theory, Academic Press,
New York, 1971, 253 pp.
27. Bažant, Z. P., and Xi, Y., “Continuous Retardation Spectrum for Solid-
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1/ T0 −1/ T )Q / k B
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−1
1−1/ k )

of Colddrawn Prestressing Wire under Constant and Variable Elevated

Temperature,” Nuclear Engineering and Design, V. 130, 1991, pp. 221-227.
( )
f e,s p = k r c 1/ k (1−1/ k )
Et
y

lς (1+1/ c)
(A2)
44. ACI Committee 209, “Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature
Effects in Concrete Structures,” Designing for Effects of Creep, Shrinkage
and Temperature in Concrete Structures, SP-27, American Concrete Insti- where
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45. ACI Committee 209, “Guide for Modeling and Calculating Shrinkage
and Creep in Hardened Concrete (ACI 209.2R-08),” American Concrete F ( e ) − g f y′
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2008, 45 pp. ς= , r = r0 ehx (A3)
46. SOFiSTiK AG, “AQB Design of Cross Sections and of Prestressed s p − g f y′
Concrete and Composite Cross Sections v13.64,” Software Manual, 2010.
47. SCIA, “SCIA Engineer. Reference Guide v2010.1,” Software
Manual, 2010, www.scia-online.com. (last accessed Apr. 26, 2011) Herein, k, c, r0, and h are positive empirical constants for
48. Infograph GmbH, “InfoCAD 10.4 Manual,” Software Manual, 2010,
www.infograph.eu. (last accessed Apr. 26, 2011) the given steel; and r0 is an empirical function of e(t). For oil-
49. Dlubal Engineering Software, “RSTAB 7. Structural Analysis for tempered wire (OT Series in Magura et al.41), r0 = 0.34 and
General Frameworks. Program Description,” Software Manual, 1999,
www.dlubal.com. (last accessed Apr. 26, 2011) h = 0.01. At constant strain, F(e) = s0 = initial prestress; T(t)
50. Trost, H., “Auswirkungen des Superpositionsprinzip auf Kriech- und is absolute temperature; T0 = 298 K; and Q/kB ≈ 14,600 K43
Relaxations-Probleme bei Beton und Spannbeton,” Beton- und Stahlbet-
onbau, V. 62, 1967, pp. 230-238, 261-269.
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51. Bažant, Z. P., “Prediction of Concrete Creep Effects Using Age- modulus = initial E-modulus if the prestress is within linear
Adjusted Effective Modulus Method,” ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 69, range; sp = F(e) = short-time stress-strain curve and, for
No. 4, Apr. 1972, pp. 212-217.
52. Bažant, Z. P., and Najjar, L. J., “Comparison of Approximate Linear linear range, F(e) = Ee; f y′ is the yield strength (1% offset);
Methods for Concrete Creep,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, g f y′ is the threshold below which there is no relaxation
V. 99, No. ST9, 1973, pp. 1851-1874.
53. Burgoyne, C., and Scantlebury, R., “Why Did Palau Bridge Collapse?” (safely g = 0.45, although often g = 0.55); x = F(e)/fy′ – g ;
The Structural Engineer, 2006, pp. 30-37. k, c are the empirical exponents40; and the initial relaxation
54. CEB-FIP Model Code, Model Code for Concrete Structures, Comité
euro-international du béton (CEB), Bulletin d’Information No. 213 and curve s0 – s ∝ tk (k = 0.08, but the CEB Model Code gives
214, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1990, 437 pp. different values for different steels; c ≈ 2).

ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012 675

 NOTES:

676 ACI Structural Journal/September-October 2012