Knowledge Represent

Knowledge Based Agent, Knowledge Representation, Knowledge Representation Techniques,

Propositional Logic, Rules of Inference, The Wumpus world, knowledge-base for Wumpus
World, First-order logic, Knowledge Engineering in FOL, Inference in First-Order Logic,
Unification in FOL, Resolution in FOL, Forward Chaining and backward chaining, Backward
Chaining vs Forward Chaining, Reasoning in AI, Inductive vs. Deductive reasoning

Knowledge-Based Agent in Artificial intelligence

o An intelligent agent needs knowledge about the real world for taking decisions
and reasoning to act efficiently.
o Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability of maintaining
an internal state of knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their
knowledge after observations and take actions. These agents can represent the
world with some formal representation and act intelligently.
o Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:
o Knowledge-base and
o Inference system.

A knowledge-based agent must able to do the following:

o An agent should be able to represent states, actions, etc.

o An agent Should be able to incorporate new percepts
o An agent can update the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce appropriate actions.

The architecture of knowledge-based agent:

The above diagram is representing a generalized architecture for a knowledge-based
agent. The knowledge-based agent (KBA) take input from the environment by
perceiving the environment. The input is taken by the inference engine of the agent
and which also communicate with KB to decide as per the knowledge store in KB.
The learning element of KBA regularly updates the KB by learning new knowledge.

Knowledge base: Knowledge-base is a central component of a knowledge-based

agent, it is also known as KB. It is a collection of sentences (here 'sentence' is a
technical term and it is not identical to sentence in English). These sentences are
expressed in a language which is called a knowledge representation language. The
Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about the world.

Why use a knowledge base?

Knowledge-base is required for updating knowledge for an agent to learn with
experiences and take action as per the knowledge.

Inference system
Inference means deriving new sentences from old. Inference system allows us to add
a new sentence to the knowledge base. A sentence is a proposition about the world.
Inference system applies logical rules to the KB to deduce new information.

Inference system generates new facts so that an agent can update the KB. An
inference system works mainly in two rules which are given as:

o Forward chaining
o Backward chaining

Operations Performed by KBA

Following are three operations which are performed by KBA in order to show
the intelligent behavior:

1. TELL: This operation tells the knowledge base what it perceives from the
environment.
2. ASK: This operation asks the knowledge base what action it should perform.
3. Perform: It performs the selected action.

A generic knowledge-based agent:

Following is the structure outline of a generic knowledge-based agents program:
 function KB-AGENT(percept):
persistent: KB, a knowledge base
t, a counter, initially 0, indicating time
TELL(KB, MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE(percept, t))
Action = ASK(KB, MAKE-ACTION-QUERY(t))
TELL(KB, MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE(action, t))
t=t+1
return action

The knowledge-based agent takes percept as input and returns an action as output.
The agent maintains the knowledge base, KB, and it initially has some background
knowledge of the real world. It also has a counter to indicate the time for the whole
process, and this counter is initialized with zero.

Each time when the function is called, it performs its three operations:

o Firstly it TELLs the KB what it perceives.

o Secondly, it asks KB what action it should take
o Third agent program TELLS the KB that which action was chosen.

The MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE generates a sentence as setting that the agent

perceived the given percept at the given time.

The MAKE-ACTION-QUERY generates a sentence to ask which action should be

done at the current time.

MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE generates a sentence which asserts that the chosen

action was executed.

Various levels of knowledge-based agent:

A knowledge-based agent can be viewed at different levels which are given below:

1. Knowledge level:

Knowledge level is the first level of knowledge-based agent, and in this level, we
need to specify what the agent knows, and what the agent goals are. With these
specifications, we can fix its behavior. For example, suppose an automated taxi agent
needs to go from a station A to station B, and he knows the way from A to B, so this
comes at the knowledge level.
2. Logical level:

At this level, we understand that how the knowledge representation of knowledge is

stored. At this level, sentences are encoded into different logics. At the logical level,
an encoding of knowledge into logical sentences occurs. At the logical level we can
expect to the automated taxi agent to reach to the destination B.

3. Implementation level:
This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge. At the implementation
level agent perform actions as per logical and knowledge level. At this level, an
automated taxi agent actually implement his knowledge and logic so that he can
reach to the destination.

Approaches to designing a knowledge-based agent:

There are mainly two approaches to build a knowledge-based agent:

1. 1. Declarative approach: We can create a knowledge-based agent by initializing

with an empty knowledge base and telling the agent all the sentences with which we
want to start with. This approach is called Declarative approach.
2. 2. Procedural approach: In the procedural approach, we directly encode desired
behavior as a program code. Which means we just need to write a program that
already encodes the desired behavior or agent.

What is knowledge representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human
knows things, which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various
actions in the real world. But how machines do all these things comes under
knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge
representation as following:

Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial

intelligence which concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes
to intelligent behavior of agents.

o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer
can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world
problems such as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in
natural language.
 o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial
intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database,
but it also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and
experiences so that it can behave intelligently like a human.

What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:

o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings,
trumpets are brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do
things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the
knowledge base. It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the
Sentences (Here, sentences are used as a technical term and not identical with the
English language).

Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts,

data, and situations. Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge
Following are the various types of knowledge:
1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how
to do something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.

o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of
approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:

o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and
grouping of something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating
artificial intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent
behavior in AI agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he
has some knowledge or experience about that input.
Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't
know, then how you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent
behavior of the agents.

As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing
the environment and using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present
then, it cannot display intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying
intelligent behavior:

o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution
The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and
what components help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component
by which it retrieves information from its environment. It can be visual, audio or
another form of sensory input. The learning component is responsible for learning
from data captured by Perception comportment. In the complete cycle, the main
components are knowledge representation and Reasoning. These two components
are involved in showing the intelligence in machine-like humans. These two
components are independent with each other but also coupled together. The
planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and
reasoning.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are
givenbelow:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact
about a set of the object is set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the
relationship between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of
classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
 o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between
instance and class, and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:

3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal

Then it can represent as;

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s
4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how
to do specific things, and how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP
language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Requirements for knowledge Representation system:

A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.

1.Representational Accuracy: KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of
required knowledge.

2.Inferential Adequacy: KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational

structures to produce new knowledge corresponding to existing structure.

3.Inferential Efficiency: The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the
most productive directions by storing appropriate guides.

4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily using automatic
methods.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:

1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules
1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with
propositions and has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means
drawing a conclusion based on various conditions. This representation lays down
some important communication rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax and
semantics which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into
logics using syntax and semantics.

Syntax:
o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the
logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.

Semantics:
o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a. Propositional Logics

b. Predicate logics

Advantages of logical representation:

1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.
2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.
Disadvantages of logical Representation:
1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be
so efficient.

2. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In
Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical
networks. This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which
describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic networks can categorize
the object in different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are
easy to understand and can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

b. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of
nodes and arcs.

Statements:
a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.
e. All Mammals are animal.
In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the
form of nodes and arcs. Each object is connected with another object by some
relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse
the complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the
worst case scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does
not exist in this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and
links) to store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast
semantic network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent
quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its
values to describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which
divides knowledge into substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It
consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and
sizes. Slots have names and values which are called facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames
which enable us to put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are
called when data of any particular slot is needed. A frame may consist of any number
of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and facets may have any
number of values. A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge representation in
artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day
classes and objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a
collection of frames which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object
or event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is a type of
technology which is widely used in various applications including Natural language
processing and machine visions.

Example: 1

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:
Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and
his age is 25, he lives in city London, and the country is England. So following is the
frame representation for this:

Slots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25
 Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the
related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.
2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If
condition then action". It has mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then
production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of
the rule determines which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action part
carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This complete process is called a
recognize-act cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-
solving and rule can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match
and may fire other rules.
 If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be
fired together, this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a
rule from these sets, and it is called a conflict resolution.

Example:
o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).

Advantages of Production rule:

1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.
2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an
individual rule.

Disadvantages of Production rule:

1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store
the result of the problem for the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based
production systems are inefficient.

Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are
made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or
false. It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.

Example:
1. a) It is Sunday.
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. d) 5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can
use any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
 o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical
connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a
valid sentence.
o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as
"Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.

Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:

A. Atomic Propositions

B. Compound propositions

 Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of

a single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or
false. Example:

a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
 Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining
simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.

Example: a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a
sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical
connectives. There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either

Positive literal or negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a
conjunction.

Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,

P=Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.

3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction,

where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor,

so we can write it as P ∨ Q.

4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are also

known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
Example- If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet,

so it is represented as P → Q

5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence,

Example- If I am breathing, then I am alive

P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.
Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic
Connectives:

Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all
possible scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with logical
connectives, and the representation of these combinations in a tabular format is
called Truth table.
Truth table with three propositions:
We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth
table is made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.

Precedence of connectives:
Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional
connectors or logical operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a
propositional problem. Following is the list of the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure of the correct
interpretations. Such as ¬R∨ Q, It can be interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q.

Logical equivalence:
Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions
are said to be logically equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are
identical to each other.

Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as
A⇔B. In below truth table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical
hence A is Equivalent to B

Properties of Operators:
1. Commutativity:
o P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
o P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
2. Associativity:
o (P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
o (P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
3. Identity element:
o P ∧ True = P,
o P ∨ True= True.
4. Distributive:
o P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
o P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
5. DE Morgan's Law:
o ¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
o ¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
6. Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.
Limitations of Propositional logic:
o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic.
Example:
a. All the girls are intelligent.
b. Some apples are sweet.
Propositional logic has limited expressive power.

Rules of Inference in Artificial intelligence

Inference:
In artificial intelligence, we need intelligent computers which can create new logic
from old logic or by evidence, so generating the conclusions from evidence and
facts is termed as Inference.

Inference rules:
Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are
applied to derive proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence of the
conclusion that leads to the desired goal.

In inference rules, the implication among all the connectives plays an important role.
Following are some terminologies related to inference rules:

o Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P → Q. It

is a Boolean expression.
o Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side proposition
goes to the left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
o Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can be
represented as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
o Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as ¬ P →
¬ Q.

From the above term some of the compound statements are equivalent to each
other, which we can prove using truth table:
Hence from the above truth table, we can prove that P → Q is equivalent to ¬ Q → ¬
P, and Q→ P is equivalent to ¬ P → ¬ Q.

Types of Inference rules:

1. Modus Ponens:
The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of inference, and it states
that if P and P → Q is true, then we can infer that Q will be true. It can be represented
as:

Example:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will be true.

Proof by Truth table:

2. Modus Tollens:

The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true, then ¬ P will also
true. It can be represented as:
Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q
Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P

Proof by Truth table:

3. Hypothetical Syllogism: The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R

is true whenever P→Q is true, and Q→R is true. It can be represented as the following
notation:

Example:

Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my money. P→R

Proof by truth table:

4. Disjunctive Syllogism:
The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true, then Q will b
true. It can be represented as:
 Example:

Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q

Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q

Proof by truth-table:

5. Addition:

The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that If P is true,
then P∨Q will be true.

Example:

Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P

Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)

Proof by Truth-Table:

6. Simplification:
The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also be true. It can
be represented as:
Proof by Truth-Table:

7. Resolution:
The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q∨R will also be true. It
can be represented as

Proof by Truth-Table:

The Wumpus World in Artificial intelligence

Wumpus world:
The Wumpus world is a simple world example to illustrate the worth of a knowledge-
based agent and to represent knowledge representation. It was inspired by a video
game Hunt the Wumpus by Gregory Yob in 1973.

The Wumpus world is a cave which has 4/4 rooms connected with passageways. So
there are total 16 rooms which are connected with each other. We have a
knowledge-based agent who will go forward in this world. The cave has a room with
a beast which is called Wumpus, who eats anyone who enters the room. The
Wumpus can be shot by the agent, but the agent has a single arrow. In the Wumpus
world, there are some Pits rooms which are bottomless, and if agent falls in Pits, then
he will be stuck there forever. The exciting thing with this cave is that in one room
there is a possibility of finding a heap of gold. So the agent goal is to find the gold
and climb out the cave without fallen into Pits or eaten by Wumpus. The agent will
get a reward if he comes out with gold, and he will get a penalty if eaten by Wumpus
or falls in the pit.

Note: Here Wumpus is static and cannot move.

Following is a sample diagram for representing the Wumpus world. It is showing

some rooms with Pits, one room with Wumpus and one agent at (1, 1) square
location of the world.

There are also some components which can help the agent to navigate the cave.
These components are given as follows:

a) The rooms adjacent to the Wumpus room are smelly, so that it would have
some stench.
b) The room adjacent to PITs has a breeze, so if the agent reaches near to PIT,
then he will perceive the breeze.
c) There will be glitter in the room if and only if the room has gold.
d) The Wumpus can be killed by the agent if the agent is facing to it, and
Wumpus will emit a horrible scream which can be heard anywhere in the
cave.

PEAS description of Wumpus world:

To explain the Wumpus world we have given PEAS description as below:
Performance measure:
o +1000 reward points if the agent comes out of the cave with the gold.
o -1000 points penalty for being eaten by the Wumpus or falling into the pit.
o -1 for each action, and -10 for using an arrow.
o The game ends if either agent dies or came out of the cave.

Environment:
o A 4*4 grid of rooms.
o The agent initially in room square [1, 1], facing toward the right.
o Location of Wumpus and gold are chosen randomly except the first square [1,1].
o Each square of the cave can be a pit with probability 0.2 except the first square.

Actuators:
o Left turn,
o Right turn
o Move forward
o Grab
o Release
o Shoot.

Sensors:
o The agent will perceive the stench if he is in the room adjacent to the Wumpus. (Not
diagonally).
o The agent will perceive breeze if he is in the room directly adjacent to the Pit.
o The agent will perceive the glitter in the room where the gold is present.
o The agent will perceive the bump if he walks into a wall.
o When the Wumpus is shot, it emits a horrible scream which can be perceived
anywhere in the cave.
o These percepts can be represented as five element list, in which we will have different
indicators for each sensor.

Example- if agent perceives stench, breeze, but no glitter, no bump, and no

scream then it can be represented as:
[Stench, Breeze, None, None, None].
The Wumpus world Properties:
o Partially observable: The Wumpus world is partially observable because the agent
can only perceive the close environment such as an adjacent room.
o Deterministic: It is deterministic, as the result and outcome of the world are already
known.
o Sequential: The order is important, so it is sequential.
o Static: It is static as Wumpus and Pits are not moving.
o Discrete: The environment is discrete.
o One agent: The environment is a single agent as we have one agent only and
Wumpus is not considered as an agent.

Exploring the Wumpus world:

Now we will explore the Wumpus world and will determine how the agent will find its
goal by applying logical reasoning.

Agent's First step:

Initially, the agent is in the first room or on the square [1,1], and we already know
that this room is safe for the agent, so to represent on the below diagram (a) that
room is safe we will add symbol OK. Symbol A is used to represent agent, symbol B
for the breeze, G for Glitter or gold, V for the visited room, P for pits, W for Wumpus.

At Room [1,1] agent does not feel any breeze or any Stench which means the
adjacent squares are also OK.
Agent's second Step:

Now agent needs to move forward, so it will either move to [1, 2], or [2,1]. Let's suppose
agent moves to the room [2, 1], at this room agent perceives some breeze which means Pit is
around this room. The pit can be in [3, 1], or [2,2], so we will add symbol P? to say that, is this
Pit room?

Now agent will stop and think and will not make any harmful move. The agent will
go back to the [1, 1] room. The room [1,1], and [2,1] are visited by the agent, so we
will use symbol V to represent the visited squares.

Agent's third step:

At the third step, now agent will move to the room [1,2] which is OK. In the room
[1,2] agent perceives a stench which means there must be a Wumpus nearby. But
Wumpus cannot be in the room [1,1] as by rules of the game, and also not in [2,2]
(Agent had not detected any stench when he was at [2,1]). Therefore agent infers
that Wumpus is in the room [1,3], and in current state, there is no breeze which
means in [2,2] there is no Pit and no Wumpus. So it is safe, and we will mark it OK,
and the agent moves further in [2,2].

Agent's fourth step:

At room [2,2], here no stench and no breezes present so let's suppose agent decides
to move to [2,3]. At room [2,3] agent perceives glitter, so it should grab the gold and
climb out of the cave.
Knowledge-base for Wumpus world
As in the previous topic we have learned about the wumpus world and how a
knowledge-based agent evolves the world. Now in this topic, we will create a
knowledge base for the wumpus world, and will derive some proves for the
Wumpus-world using propositional logic.

The agent starts visiting from first square [1, 1], and we already know that this room
is safe for the agent. To build a knowledge base for wumpus world, we will use some
rules and atomic propositions. We need symbol [i, j] for each location in the wumpus
world, where i is for the location of rows, and j for column location.

Atomic proposition variable for Wumpus world:

o Let Pi,j be true if there is a Pit in the room [i, j].
o Let Bi,j be true if agent perceives breeze in [i, j], (dead or alive).
o Let Wi,j be true if there is wumpus in the square[i, j].
o Let Si,j be true if agent perceives stench in the square [i, j].
o Let Vi,j be true if that square[i, j] is visited.
o Let Gi,j be true if there is gold (and glitter) in the square [i, j].
o Let OKi,j be true if the room is safe.

Note: For a 4 * 4 square board, there will be 7*4*4= 122 propositional variables.
Some Propositional Rules for the wumpus world:

Note: lack of variables gives us similar rules for each cell.

Representation of Knowledgebase for Wumpus world:

Following is the Simple KB for wumpus world when an agent moves from room [1, 1],
to room [2,1]:

Here in the first row, we have mentioned propositional variables for room[1,1],
which is showing that room does not have wumpus(¬ W11), no stench (¬S11), no
Pit(¬P11), no breeze(¬B11), no gold (¬G11), visited (V11), and the room is Safe(OK11).

In the second row, we have mentioned propositional variables for room [1,2], which
is showing that there is no wumpus, stench and breeze are unknown as an agent has
not visited room [1,2], no Pit, not visited yet, and the room is safe.

In the third row we have mentioned propositional variable for room[2,1], which is
showing that there is no wumpus(¬ W21), no stench (¬S21), no Pit (¬P21), Perceives
breeze(B21), no glitter(¬G21), visited (V21), and room is safe (OK21).

Prove that Wumpus is in the room (1, 3)

We can prove that wumpus is in the room (1, 3) using propositional rules which we
have derived for the wumpus world and using inference rule.

1. Apply Modus Ponens with ¬S11 and R1:

We will firstly apply MP rule with R1 which is ¬S11 → ¬ W11 ^ ¬ W12 ^ ¬ W21,
and ¬S11 which will give the output ¬ W11 ^ W12 ^ W12.
 2. Apply And-Elimination Rule:

After applying And-elimination rule to ¬ W11 ∧ ¬ W12 ∧ ¬ W21, we will get three
statements:
¬ W11, ¬ W12, and ¬W21.

3. Apply Modus Ponens to ¬S21, and R2:

Now we will apply Modus Ponens to ¬S21 and R2 which is ¬S21 → ¬ W21 ∧¬ W22 ∧ ¬
W31, which will give the Output as ¬ W21 ∧ ¬ W22 ∧¬ W31

4. Apply And -Elimination rule:

Now again apply And-elimination rule to ¬ W21 ∧ ¬ W22 ∧¬ W31, We will get three
statements:
¬ W21, ¬ W22, and ¬ W31.

o Apply MP to S12 and R4:

Apply Modus Ponens to S12 and R4 which is S12 → W13 ∨. W12 ∨. W22 ∨.W11, we will
get the output as W13∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨.W11.
 o Apply Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨W11 and ¬ W11 :

After applying Unit resolution formula on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨W11 and ¬ W11 we will
get W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22.

o Apply Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 and ¬ W22 :

After applying Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22, and ¬W22, we will get W13 ∨
W12 as output.

o Apply Unit Resolution on W13 ∨ W12 and ¬ W12 :

After Applying Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 and ¬ W12, we will get W13 as an
output, hence it is proved that the Wumpus is in the room [1, 3].

First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence

In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements
using propositional logic. But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only
represent the facts, which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient to represent the
complex sentences or natural language statements. The propositional logic has very
limited expressive power. Consider the following sentence, which we cannot
represent using PL logic.

o "Some humans are intelligent", or

o "Sachin likes cricket."

To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some

more powerful logic, such as first-order logic.

First-Order logic:
o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.
It is an extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a
concise way.
o First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic.
First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects
in a more easy way and can also express the relationship between those objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains
facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus, ..
o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any
relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
a. Syntax
b. Semantics

Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in
first-order logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We
write statements in short-hand notation in FOL.

Basic Elements of First-order logic:

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:
Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....

Predicates Brother, Father, >,....

Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, ....

Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

Equality ==

Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:
o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences
are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of
terms.
o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

Complex Sentences:
o Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

o Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

o Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms together
in a statement.

Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is
the subject of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.
Quantifiers in First-order logic:
o A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and quantification
specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
o These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and scope of
the variable in the logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:

c. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)

d. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

Universal Quantifier:
Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the
statement within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular
thing.

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.

Note: In universal quantifier we use implication "→".

If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

 For all x
 For each x
 For every x.

Example:

All man drink coffee. Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be
represented in UOD as below:
∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.

Existential Quantifier:
Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement
within its scope is true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used

with a predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

Note: In Existential quantifier we always use AND or Conjunction symbol ( ∧).

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

o There exists a 'x.'

o For some 'x.'
o For at least one 'x.'

Example:
Some boys are intelligent.
∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Points to remember:
o The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.
o The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.

Properties of Quantifiers:
o In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
o In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
o ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

1. All birds fly.

In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.
∀x bird(x) →fly(x).

2.Every man respects his parent. In this question, the predicate is "respect(x,
y),"where x=man, and y= parent.
Since there is every man so will use ∀ , and it will be represented as follows:
∀ x man(x) → respects (x, parent).
3. Some boys play cricket. In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where
x= boys, and y= game. Since there are some boys so we will use ∃ , and it will be
represented as:
∃ x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science. In this question, the
predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following
representation for this:
¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].

5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.

In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use following
representation for this:
∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧ student(y)
→ ¬failed (x, Mathematics)].

Free and Bound Variables:

The quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There are two
types of variables in First-order logic which are given below:

Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside

the scope of the quantifier.

Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs

within the scope of the quantifier.

Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.

Knowledge Engineering in First-order logic

What is knowledge-engineering?
The process of constructing a knowledge-base in first-order logic is called as
knowledge- engineering. In knowledge-engineering, someone who investigates a
particular domain, learns important concept of that domain, and generates a formal
representation of the objects, is known as knowledge engineer.

In this topic, we will understand the Knowledge engineering process in an electronic

circuit domain, which is already familiar. This approach is mainly suitable for
creating special-purpose knowledge base.

The knowledge-engineering process:

Following are some main steps of the knowledge-engineering process. Using these
steps, we will develop a knowledge base which will allow us to reason about digital
circuit (One-bit full adder) which is given below

1. Identify the task:

The first step of the process is to identify the task, and for the digital circuit, there are
various reasoning tasks.

At the first level or highest level, we will examine the functionality of the circuit:

o Does the circuit add properly?

o What will be the output of gate A2, if all the inputs are high?

At the second level, we will examine the circuit structure details such as:

o Which gate is connected to the first input terminal?

o Does the circuit have feedback loops?
2. Assemble the relevant knowledge:
In the second step, we will assemble the relevant knowledge which is required for
digital circuits. So for digital circuits, we have the following required knowledge:

o Logic circuits are made up of wires and gates.

o Signal flows through wires to the input terminal of the gate, and each gate produces
the corresponding output which flows further.
o In this logic circuit, there are four types of gates used: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT.
o All these gates have one output terminal and two input terminals (except NOT gate, it
has one input terminal).

3. Decide on vocabulary:
The next step of the process is to select functions, predicate, and constants to
represent the circuits, terminals, signals, and gates. Firstly we will distinguish the
gates from each other and from other objects. Each gate is represented as an object
which is named by a constant, such as, Gate(X1). The functionality of each gate is
determined by its type, which is taken as constants such as AND, OR, XOR, or NOT.
Circuits will be identified by a predicate: Circuit (C1).

For the terminal, we will use predicate: Terminal(x).

For gate input, we will use the function In(1, X1) for denoting the first input terminal
of the gate, and for output terminal we will use Out (1, X1).

The function Arity(c, i, j) is used to denote that circuit c has i input, j output.

The connectivity between gates can be represented by predicate Connect(Out(1,

X1), In(1, X1)).

We use a unary predicate On (t), which is true if the signal at a terminal is on.

4. Encode general knowledge about the domain:

To encode the general knowledge about the logic circuit, we need some following
rules:

o If two terminals are connected then they have the same input
signal, it can be represented as:

Ex- ∀ t1, t2 Terminal (t1) ∧ Terminal (t2) ∧ Connect (t1, t2) → Signal (t1) = Signal (2).
 o Signal at every terminal will have either value 0 or 1, it will be
represented as:

Ex- ∀ t Terminal (t) →Signal (t) = 1 ∨ Signal (t) = 0.

o Connect predicates are commutative:

Ex- ∀ t1, t2 Connect(t1, t2) → Connect (t2, t1).

o Representation of types of gates:

Ex- ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ r = Type(g) → r = OR ∨ r = AND ∨ r = XOR ∨ r = NOT.

o Output of AND gate will be zero if and only if any of its input is
zero.

Ex- ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = AND →Signal (Out(1, g))= 0 ⇔ ∃ n Signal (In(n, g))= 0.
o Output of OR gate is 1 if and only if any of its input is 1:

Ex- ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = OR → Signal (Out(1, g))= 1 ⇔ ∃ n Signal (In(n, g))= 1

o Output of XOR gate is 1 if and only if its inputs are different:

Ex-
∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = XOR → Signal (Out(1, g)) = 1 ⇔ Signal (In(1, g)) ≠ Signal (I
n(2, g)).

o Output of NOT gate is invert of its input:

Ex- ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = NOT → Signal (In(1, g)) ≠ Signal (Out(1, g)).
o All the gates in the above circuit have two inputs and one output
(except NOT gate).

Ex- ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = NOT → Arity(g, 1, 1)

Ex- ∀ g Gate(g) ∧ r =Type(g) ∧ (r= AND ∨ r= OR ∨ r= XOR) → Arity (g, 2, 1).
o All gates are logic circuits:

Ex- ∀ g Gate(g) → Circuit (g).

5. Encode a description of the problem instance:

Now we encode problem of circuit C1, firstly we categorize the circuit and its gate
components. This step is easy if ontology about the problem is already thought. This
 step involves the writing simple atomics sentences of instances of concepts, which is
known as ontology.

For the given circuit C1, we can encode the problem instance in atomic sentences as
below:

Since in the circuit there are two XOR, two AND, and one OR gate so atomic
sentences for these gates will be:

1. For XOR gate: Type(x1)= XOR, Type(X2) = XOR

2. For AND gate: Type(A1) = AND, Type(A2)= AND

3. For OR gate: Type (O1) = OR.

And then represent the connections between all the gates.

Note: Ontology defines a particular theory of the nature of existence.

6. Pose queries to the inference procedure and get answers:

In this step, we will find all the possible set of values of all the terminal for the adder
circuit. The first query will be:

What should be the combination of input which would generate the first output of
circuit C1, as 0 and a second output to be 1?

1. ∃ i1, i2, i3 Signal (In(1, C1))=i1 ∧ Signal (In(2, C1))=i2 ∧ Signal (In(3, C1))= i3
2. ∧ Signal (Out(1, C1)) =0 ∧ Signal (Out(2, C1))=1

7. Debug the knowledge base:

Now we will debug the knowledge base, and this is the last step of the complete
process. In this step, we will try to debug the issues of knowledge base.

In the knowledge base, we may have omitted assertions like 1 ≠ 0.

Inference in First-Order Logic

Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences from existing
sentences. Before understanding the FOL inference rule, let's understand some basic
terminologies used in FOL.

Substitution:
Substitution is a fundamental operation performed on terms and formulas. It occurs
in all inference systems in first-order logic. The substitution is complex in the
presence of quantifiers in FOL. If we write F[a/x], so it refers to substitute a constant
"a" in place of variable "x".

Note: First-order logic is capable of expressing facts about some or all objects in the
universe.

Equality:

First-Order logic does not only use predicate and terms for making atomic sentences
but also uses another way, which is equality in FOL. For this, we can use equality
symbols which specify that the two terms refer to the same object.

Example: Brother (John) = Smith.

As in the above example, the object referred by the Brother (John) is similar to the
object referred by Smith. The equality symbol can also be used with negation to
represent that two terms are not the same objects.

Example: ￢(x=y) which is equivalent to x ≠y.

FOL inference rules for quantifier:

As propositional logic we also have inference rules in first-order logic, so following
are some basic inference rules in FOL:

o Universal Generalization
o Universal Instantiation
o Existential Instantiation
o Existential introduction

1. Universal Generalization:

o Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states that if premise P(c) is
true for any arbitrary element c in the universe of discourse, then we can have a
conclusion as ∀ x P(x).

o It can be represented as:

o This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a similar property.
o In this rule, x must not appear as a free variable.
Example: Let's represent, P(c): "A byte contains 8 bits", so for ∀ x P(x) "All bytes
contain 8 bits.", it will also be true.

2. Universal Instantiation:

o Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a valid inference

rule. It can be applied multiple times to add new sentences.
o The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.
o As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a ground term for
the variable.
o The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a ground term c
(a constant within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any object in the universe of
discourse.

o It can be represented as:

Example:1.

IF "Every person like ice-cream"=> ∀x P(x) so we can infer that

"John likes ice-cream" => P(c)

Example: 2.

Let's take a famous example,

"All kings who are greedy are Evil." So let our knowledge base contains this detail as
in the form of FOL:

∀x king(x) ∧ greedy (x) → Evil (x),

So from this information, we can infer any of the following statements using
Universal Instantiation:

o King(John) ∧ Greedy (John) → Evil (John),

o King(Richard) ∧ Greedy (Richard) → Evil (Richard),
o King(Father(John)) ∧ Greedy (Father(John)) → Evil (Father(John)),

3. Existential Instantiation:

o Existential instantiation is also called as Existential Elimination, which is a valid

inference rule in first-order logic.
 o It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.
o The new KB is not logically equivalent to old KB, but it will be satisfiable if old KB was
satisfiable.
o This rule states that one can infer P(c) from the formula given in the form of ∃x P(x)
for a new constant symbol c.
o The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a new term for which
P(c ) is true.

o It can be represented as:

Example:

From the given sentence: ∃x Crown(x) ∧ OnHead(x, John),

So we can infer: Crown(K) ∧ OnHead( K, John), as long as K does not appear in the
knowledge base.

o The above used K is a constant symbol, which is called Skolem constant.

o The Existential instantiation is a special case of Skolemization process.

4. Existential introduction

o An existential introduction is also known as an existential generalization, which is a

valid inference rule in first-order logic.
o This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe of discourse which has
a property P, then we can infer that there exists something in the universe which has
the property P.

o It can be represented as:

o Example: Let's say that,
"Priyanka got good marks in English."
"Therefore, someone got good marks in English."

Generalized Modus Ponens Rule:

For the inference process in FOL, we have a single inference rule which is called
Generalized Modus Ponens. It is lifted version of Modus ponens.
 Generalized Modus Ponens can be summarized as, " P implies Q and P is asserted to
be true, therefore Q must be True."

According to Modus Ponens, for atomic sentences pi, pi', q. Where there is a
substitution θ such that SUBST (θ, pi',) = SUBST(θ, pi), it can be represented as:

Example:

We will use this rule for Kings are evil, so we will find some x such that x is king,
and x is greedy so we can infer that x is evil.

1. Here let say, p1' is king(John) p1 is king(x)

2. p2' is Greedy(y) p2 is Greedy(x)
3. θ is {x/John, y/John} q is evil(x)
4. SUBST(θ,q).