MATHEMATICS FOR MANAGEMENT SCIENCES I

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Mathematics and Symbolic Logic

Unit 2 Matrices and Determinants
Unit 3 Vectors and Complex Numbers
Unit 4 Introduction to Straight Lines
Unit 5 Introduction to Circle

UNIT 1 MATHEMATICS AND SYMBOLIC

LOGIC

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 Some objectives of Symbolic Logical reasoning
3.3 Definition of Basic Logical Terms
3.4 Connectives
3.5 Tautology and Contradiction
3.6 An Argument
3.7 Algebra of Propositions
3.8 Conjunction (p  q)
3.9 Disjunction (p  q)
3.10 Negation
3.10.1 Conditional (p  q)
3.10.2 Bi-conditional (p q)
3.10.3 Laws of Algebra of Proposition
3.10.4 Converse/Inverse and Contra-positive Statements
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

One important instrument for communication, but not easily mentioned

is the use of figures. Figures are major instrument used for expression,
especially where large data are involved. It makes expression very
concise in explanation and interpretation. This makes it important for us
to know how mathematical symbols and logic could be used.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Solve simple problems using mathematical symbols and logic.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition

Mathematics is the science of numbers and shape. It can also be applied

to some real life happening.

Example includes Arithmetic algebra (using of symbols or letters).

Symbol in this context is a letter that is made to represent a statement or
an argument.

Example, let „p‟ represent the statement “She is tall and beautiful” and
the letter „q‟ represent the statement “She is intelligent”.
Therefore p and q can be regarded as a statement also meaning “She is
tall, beautiful and intelligent.”
Hence, Logic is the science of reasoning or explaining events. In other
words, it could still be defined as the study and analysis of a
mathematical proposition as to ascertain the Truth Value of the
proposition.
The TRUTH VALUE of a proposition is termed “T” if it is true and “F”
if it is false.

Example 1

Given that 2 + 3 = 4, the Truth Value of this statement is False i.e. „F‟.

Example 2

Lagos is a cosmopolitan state.

The Truth Value of this is True „T‟
Te Truth Value Table can be used to depict or analyze the Truth Value
of any mathematical statement.

Example 3

Find the Truth Table of p q, meaning (p and q).

p Q p q
T T T
T F F

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Meaning, “if p is true, q is true; then p and q must be true”. Also, “if p
is true, q is false; then p and q must be false”.
This shall be expansible in this further study.

3.1 Some Objectives of Symbolic Logic Reasoning

1. Logical reasoning could be used to ascertain or analyze

complicated business argument.

2. It could be used to decode equivalent, negation or contradictory

propositions.

3. It could be used to analyze a statement.

4. It could be used to form composite statements from simple ones

using logical connectives.

5. It could be used to ascertain the Truth Value of a statement.

3.2 Definition of Basic Logical Terms

A statement or (proposition) in the context of logic is a declarative

sentences or an expression of words which are either true or false, but
cannot assume both.

3.3 Types of Statement

There are two types of statements: simple and composite (compound)

statements respectively.

Example of Simple Statement

1. Mr. Alakija is the H.O.D

2. I am an undergraduate
3. Rose flower is red
4. 2+5=4
5. Accra is in Nigeria

The proposition/statement/ascertain (1 – 5) above are simple ones and

can either be true or false.

However, a composite statement is the use of connectives to combine

two or more simple statements to form just one.

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Example of Composite Statements

1. Mr. Alakija is the H.O.D and I am an undergraduate

2. Accra is in Nigeria implies that 2 + 5 = 4

The Truth Value of a composite statement is determined by the Truth

Value of each of the simple statements and the way they are connected.

3.4 Connectives

These are expressions; phrases or symbols that are made used of, to join
(combine) two or more simple statements together in order to form a
composite statement.

Examples of connectives used in logic are:

Name Meaning Symbol

i. Conjunction “and” 
ii. Disjunction “OR” 
iii. Negation “NOT” ~
iv. Conditional “If …. Implies that”  or 
v. Bi – implication “if and only if” 

Other connectives could be used but must be defined properly.

3.5 Tautology and Contradiction

The negation of contradiction is a tautology, while the negation of

tautology is a contradiction.

3.6 An Argument

It is said to be formed when the conjunction of a set of simple

mathematical statements gives rise to another mathematical statement
(conclusion).

An argument may be valid or invalid.

If the conclusion derives its support from its support from its premises,
the argument is said to be valid, otherwise invalid.

Example 1

Let p: Lagos is in Nigeria

q: Nigeria is in West Africa
r: It means that Lagos is in West Africa.

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The above argument is valid i.e. r derives its supports from p and q
respectively.

3.7 Algebra of Propositions

Any logical statement can be represented by the letter p, q, r…

The fundamental property of a logical statement is that it is either true or

false but not both.

3.8 Conjunction (pq)

p  q represent the conjunction of p and q by „and‟.

Example 2

Let p be “It is sunning” and q be “The day is windy”.

Then p  q means “it is sunning and the day is windy”.

Recall the symbol () represents intersection of two sets.

p  q = {x / x p   x  q}

The Truth Value of the composite statement p  q satisfies the

following property.

If p is true and q is true, then p  q is true; otherwise p  q is false.

Example 3

Consider the following four propositions

i. Garri is from cassava and 5 + 2 = 3

ii. Garri is from yam and 5 + 2 = 7
iii. Garri is from yam and 5 + 2 = 6
iv. Garri is from cassava and 5 + 2 = 7

Considering the statements (i) to (iv), only proposition (iv) is true, and
(i), (ii), (iii) are false because in each case, one of the simple statement is
false.

The above proposition can be written in tabular form thus:

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Statements p q (p q)

i) T F F
ii) F T F
iii) F F F
iv) T T T

Remark

This is the exact order the statement above follows, but in the final
presentation, the Truth Value Table must be formulated considering
Truth first before False.

Please see the acceptable way below:

Statements p q (p q)

iv) T T T
i) T F F
ii) F T F
iii) F F F

3.9 Disjunction (p  q)

Any two statements can be combined by the word “or” (), to form
another statement. The disjunction of p and q is denoted by p  q.

Example 4

Let p be “It is raining” and q be “The weather is cold”.

Then, p q means that “It is raining or the weather is cold”.

The symbol () can be used to define union of two sets.

Thus: p  q = x / x  p  x  q


Note that, the (p  q) satisfies the following property;
If p is true or q is true or both p and q are true, then (p  q) is true:
otherwise (p  q) is false.

Hence, consider the Truth Table below:

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p q (p q)

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F F

Example 5

Consider the following four statements:

i. Garri is from cassava or 5 + 2 = 4

ii. Garri is from yam or 5 + 2 = 7
iii. Garri is from cassava or 5 + 2 = 7
iv. Garri is from yam or 5 + 2 = 6

Only (iv) is false, every other proposition is true; since at least one of the
propositions is true.

3.10 Negation

If (p) is a given proposition, its negation is denoted by (~ p) meaning it

is not (p), or it is false that (p).

Example 6

Let (p) be Garri is from yam; therefore (~ p) means, “It is false that
Garri is from yam”.

Then, the Truth Value of the negation of statement satisfies the property.
If (p) is true, (~ p) is false.

Consider the Truth Value of negation below:

P (~ p)

T F
F T

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Further Examples

If (p) is the statement 5 + 2 = 6, then (~ p) is the statement 5 + 2  6

3.10.1 Conditional (p  q)

Conditional statement is of the form “if p then q”

Moreso, (p  q) can also be read as:

i. p implies w
ii. p is sufficient for q
iii. q is necessary for p
iv. p only if q
v. q if p or
vi. if p then q or
vii. q follows from p or (p  q)satisfies the following property:

The conditional (p  q) is true unless (p) is true and (q) is false.

In other words, a true statement cannot imply a false statement.

His can be stated in tabular form, thus:

p q (p  q)

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F F

Example 7

Consider the following statements:

i. IF Garri is from cassava then 5 + 2 = 6

ii. If Garri is from Yam then 5 + 2 = 7
iii. If Garri is from cassava then 5 + 2 = 7
iv. If Garri is from yam then 5 + 2 = 7

Here, only (i) is false, because true statement cannot imply false
statement, Garri is from cassava is true, 5 + 2 =6: while all other
statements are true.

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3.10.2 Bi-conditional (p  q)

Consider the statement of the form “p if and only if q” or (p if q) and can

be denoted by (p  q).

(p  q) satisfies the following property:

If (p) and (q) have the same Truth Value, then (p  q) is true.

If (p) and (q) have opposite Truth Value, then (p  q) is false.

Consider the True value of Bi-conditional statement

p Q (p  q)
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example 8

Consider the following statements:

i. Garri is from cassava if and only if 5 + 2 = 6

ii. Garri is from yam if and only if 5 + 2 = 7
iii. Garri is from cassava if and only if 5 + 2 = 7
iv. Garri is from yam if and only if 5 + 2 = 7

Hence, statements (iii) and (iv) are true and statements (i) and (ii) are
false.

3.10.3 Laws of Algebra of Proposition

Idempototent Laws

1. (a) ( p  q) = p (b) ( p  q) = p

The intersection or the union of two similar sets is the same set.

Associate Laws

2. (a) (p  q)  r = p  (q r) (b) (p  q)  r = p  (q r)

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Commutative Laws

3. (a) (p  q) = (q p) (b) (p  q) = (q p)

Distributive Laws

4. (a) p  ( q r) = (p  q)  (p r)

(b) p  ( q r) = (p  q)  (p r)

Identity Laws

5. (a) (P  T) = P (b) (P  F) = F

(c) (P  F) = P (d) (P  T) = T

Complement Laws

6. (a) (P  ~P)= F (b) (~T) = F, (~F) = T

(c) (P  ~T) =T (d) (~P) = P

De Morgan‟s Laws

7. (a) ~ (p  q)= (~ p ~ q) (b) ~ (p  q)= (~ p ~ q)

Example 1.1

Given the following statements:

Let p be “The goods are standard” and q be “The goods are expensive”.

Write a proposition, which describes each of the following statements:

1. (p  q)
2. (p  q)
3. (  q)
4. (p  q)
5. (~ p  ~ q)
6. ~ (~ p  ~ q)

Solution

1. (p  q) Reads “The goods are standard and The goods are

expensive”

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2. (p  q) Reads “The goods are standard or The goods are

expensive”

3. (~~ q) Reads “It is not false that the goods are expensive”

4. (p  q) Reads “The goods are standard if and only if the goods

are expensive”
5. ~ (~ p  ~ q) Reads “It is not true that the goods are standard or
the goods are expensive”
6. ~ (~ p  ~ q) Is equivalent to (p  q)

Example 1.2

Let (p) be “she is tall” and (q) be “She is dark”

Write each of the following statements in symbolic form using p and q:

a) “She is tall and dark”

b) “She is tall or dark”
c) “She is neither tall nor dark”
d) “It is false that she is tall or dark”
e) “She is tall or she is short and dark”
f) “She is tall but not dark”

Solution

a) (p  q)
b) (p  q)
c) (  p ~ q) = ~ (p  q)
d) (~p  q)
e) p (~ p  q)
f) ( p  ~ q)

Example 1.3

Use the Truth Value Table to express the following statements:

a) (p  q)  (p  q)

b) p ~ (p  q)

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Solution

a) (p  q)  (p  q)

P Q (p  q) (p  q) (p  q)  (p  q)

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T F T T
F F F F F
b) p ~ (p  q)

p q (p  q) ~ (p  q) p ~ (p  q)

T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

Example 1.4

By using the Truth Value Table, prove the following:

a. (p  q)  ( p r) = p (q  r )= , Distributive Law b.

(~ (p ~ q)= ~ (p~ q), De Morgan‟s Law

Solution

a. (p  q)  ( p r) = p (q  r )

p Q T (p q) ( p r) (p q)  (p  q) (q  r ) p (q  r )

T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F T
T F T T T T F T
T F F T T T F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F F F
F F T F T F F F
F F F F F F F F

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Therefore, its clearly from the table that (p q)  (p  q) = p (q  r).

b. (~ (p ~ q) = ~ (p~ q)

p Q (~ p) (~ q) (~ (p ~ q) (p  q) ~(q  r )

T T F F F T F
T F F T T F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T F T

Also, it can be seen that (~ (p ~ q) = ~ (p~ q)

Example 1.5

Use the Truth Value Table to show that (~~q) = (p)

Solution

(~~q) = (p)

Q (~ q) (~~ q)
T F T
F T F

Therefore, (~~q) = (p) as shown above.

10.1.4 Converse/Inverse and Contra-Positive Statements

If p  q is a conditional statement, then (if q then p) is called the

converse statement of the conditional statement.

Example 1.6

Let p be the statement “2 + 2 = 5” and, q be the statement “Abuja is in

U.K”
Then p implies q, i.e. p  q, i .e. 2 + 2 =5 implies that Abuja is in U.K.
The converse is that Abuja is in U.K. then 2 + 2 =5.

Example 1.7

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Let p be the statement “It is born again” and, q be the statement “He can
see the kingdom of God
Then, (~ p) Is “He is not born again”
(~ q) Is “He cannot see the kingdom of God”.
 ~ q ~ p is called the contra-positive of p  q.

He cannot see the kingdom of God implies that he is not born again.

Where ~ p  ~ q is the inverse of p  q.

He is born again implies that He can see the kingdom of God.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Logic as science of reasoning has been thoroughly dealt

with in this section. However, some real life happenings have been
demonstrated in the examples and even in the summary below.

5.0 SUMMARY

Consider proposition p and q respectively.

The converse of p  q and q is q  p
The inverse of p  q is ~ p  ~ q
While, the contra-positive of p  q is ~ q  ~ p
The Truth Table of the above propositions, converse, inverse and contra-
positive are show below:

p q ~p ~q p q ~ p ~ q ~ q ~ p q p

T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T F T
F T T F T F T F
F F T T T T T T

The analysis of the table above is:

p  q  ~ q  ~ p, Contra-positive p
 q  ~ p  ~ q, Inverse.
Where, the symbol  means “Logical Equivalence”.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Let the following statements be defined as stated below:

(p) be “3 is greater than 2”, and (q) be “The sum of 2 and 6 is
30”.

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Give the verbal expression of the following:

i. pq ii. pq iii. (p  q)  p iv.
(p  ~ q) v. (~ p ~ q) vi. (p  ~ q)
2. Give the contra-positive statement of p  q above in symbols
and words.
3. Verify that implication and its contra-positive are equivalent.
4. Is the following argument valid?
“If the temperature is set for 200C, the chemical will not explode.
The temperature is set for 200C; therefore the chemical did not
explode.
5. Let the connective (∆) be defined as follows:

Q p∆q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Construct the Truth Value Table for the
following:

i. p ∆ (p  q) ii. (p∆q) ∆q iii. (p∆q)  p

iv. (p∆q) ∆ (p  q) v. (p∆ ~p)

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

1) Pure Mathematics for Advanced Level By B.D Bunday H Mulholland

1970.
2) Introduction to Mathematical Economics By Edward T. Dowling.
3) Mathematics and Quantitative Methods for Business and
Economics.By Stephen P. Shao. 1976.
4) Mathematics for Commerce & Economics By Qazi Zameeruddin &
V.K. Khanne 1995.
5) Engineering Mathematics By K. A Stroad.
6) MATHEMATICS FOR MANAGEMENT SCIENCES I and
Information Technology. ACCA STUDY MANUAL By. Foulks Lynch.

7) Introduction to Mathematical Economics SCHAUM‟S Out lines

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