2.

3 Some Elementary Logic

Every language contains different types of

sentences, such as statements, questions, and
commands.
For example:
 QUESTION: “Is the test today?”
 COMMAND: “Go get the newspaper.”
 OPINION: “This is a nice car.”
 STATEMENT: “Sogod is a municipality of
Southern Leyte.”
The symbolic logic that Boole created applies
only to sentences that are statements.

Definition: A proof in mathematics demonstrates the truth of certain statement. It is therefore

natural to begin with a brief discussion of statements. A statement, or proposition, is the content
of an assertion. It is either true or false, but cannot be both true and false at the same time.

Example:
Determine if each statement is a proposition.
a. There are no classes at Sothern Leyte State University today.
b. Welcome to the Philippines!
c. All parallelograms are quadrilaterals.
d. 4 + 6 = 9
e. What is the domain of the function?
Solution:
Recall that for a statement to be a proposition it has to be a declarative sentence, and it should
have a truth value of either true or false, but cannot be both true and false at the same time.
a. This is a declarative sentence. Hence it is a proposition since the truth value is either true
or false. Remark that it is not necessary that its true value is immediately known.
b. The statement is an exclamatory sentence, and so it is not a proposition.
c. This is a declarative sentence. Hence it is a proposition since the truth value is either true
or false.
d. This is declarative sentence. Even if the sum of 4 and 6 is not 9 but still it is a proposition.
Take note that false mathematical sentences are still proposition.
e. It is an interrogative sentence. Hence, it is not a proposition.

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Simple and Compound Statement
Definition. A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simpler propositions
using logical connectors or some combination of logical connectors. Some logical connectors
involving propositions p and/or q may be expressed as follows:
not p p and q p or q if p then q
A proposition is simple if it cannot be broken down any further into other component
propositions.

Later in this lesson, we will be required to establish the truth value or falsity of a
compound proposition. To facilitate the process of establishing its truthfulness or falsity,
propositions will be symbolized together with the connectives to be used.
Consider relating proposition p to another proposition q to form a new proposition.

Connective Symbol Read as Name In symbols

 and Conjunction pq
 or Disjunction pq
implies
→ Implication 𝑝→𝑞
If…, then
is equivalent to… Equivalence/
↔ 𝑝↔𝑞
if and only if… Biconditional
~ Not negation ~𝑝
Example:
Let 𝑝 denote the proposition “7 is odd,” 𝑞 denote the proposition “49 is the square of 7,” and 𝑟
denote the proposition “49 is odd.” Write each of the following propositions verbally in words.
a. 𝑝  𝑞 → 𝑟 d. ~𝑟 → (~𝑝  ~𝑞)
b. 𝑝  q e. 𝑝  ~(𝑞  r)
c. 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
Solution:
a. If 7 is odd and 49 is the square of 7, then 49 is odd.
b. 7 is odd and 49 is the square of 7.
c. 7 is odd if and only if 49 is the square of 7.
d. If 49 is even, then 7 is even or 49 is not the square of 7.
e. Either 7 is odd, or it is not the case that 49 is the square of 7 and 49 is odd.
Example:
Write each compound sentence in symbolic form.
a. If the sky is cloudy, then probably it will rain.
b. A triangle is right if and only if it has a 90-degree angle.
c. 2 is prime and even.
d. I do not fail the course if and only if I study hard and I pass the final exam.
Solution: a. 𝑝 → 𝑞 b. 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 c. p  q d. ~𝑝 ↔ 𝑞  r

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 Republic of the Philippines
SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY – TOMAS OPPUS
San Isidro, Tomas Oppus, Southern Leyte

ACTIVITY IN THE MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

Name: __________________________________________________ Date: _______________________

Course & Section: _________________________ Score: _________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
General Instructions:
a. Write all your answers in a clean sheet of bond paper.
b. Show all your solution and box your final answer.
c. Take a picture of your answer and send it through messenger.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A. State whether each of the following sentences is a statement or not. If it is a statement
determine is truth value. If it is not statement, give your reason.
1. Is it raining?
2. 2016 is a leap year.
3. The sum of two prime numbers is even.
4. Cagayan de Oro City is located in Mindanao, Philippines.
5. Shut the door!
6. 3y + 5 = 11 is an equation.
7. Is 23 equal to 8?
8. There exists an even number n such n + 8 = 20.
9. 5 divided by 0 is 0.
10. Gen. Fidel V. Ramos is a politician who served as the 12th President of the Philippines.
B. Let p be “She is beautiful.” and let q be “She is intelligent.” Write each symbolism in ordinary
English sentence.
1. ~𝑞  ~𝑝 3. ~𝑞 ↔ ~𝑝 5. ~(~𝑝)
2. (~𝑝  𝑞) → 𝑞 4. ~( p  q )
C. Write each compound sentence in symbolic form using p and q.
1. It is not true that if Bryan is not happy, then he is not handsome.
2. The best things in life are free implies that things that are not free are not the best.
3. If bullying is not stopped and children are not protected, implies that children are
protected if and only if bullying is stopped.
4. She can be candidate for valedictorian if and only if she has no grade lower than 85.
5. To be alone is to be unhappy.

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Argument Forms and Truth Table
Recall that a simple proposition is a statement with true value, that is, the statement is
either true or false. Operations involving two or more propositions make use of connectives.
Combining propositions using a connective will result in the formation of a new proposition. To
determine whether this resulting proposition is true or false, a scheme for listing all possible
truth values will be used. This scheme can be done with the help of the so-called truth table. A
truth table involving n propositions has 2𝑛 rows.
There are five common propositions that are result of five common connectives:
conjunction, disjunction, conditional, biconditional, and negation.
Conjunction: This is a proposition which is the result of combining two other propositions
called conjuncts with the connective word and.
Rule: The conjunction of two statements is true only if both conjuncts are true.
Truth Table: 𝑝 𝑞 pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example:
Determine whether each conjunction is true or false.
a. 3 is odd and prime.
b. 3 and -3 is a root of 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = 0 .
Solution:
a. If p is the conjunct “3 is odd.” which is a true statement, and q is the conjunct “3 is
prime” which is also a true statement, then the statement is true which asserts the first
row of the truth table.
b. If p is the conjunct “3 is a root of .” which is a false statement, and q is the conjunct “-3 is
a root of .” which is a true statement, then the statement is false which asserts the third
row of the truth table.

Disjunction: This is proposition which is the result of combining two other propositions called
disjuncts with the connective word or. Note that the word or will be considered
with inclusive sense.
Rule: The disjunction of two statements is false only if both conjuncts are false.
Truth Table:
𝑝 𝑞 pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 Example:
Determine whether each disjunction is true or false.
a. Male seahorse is a fish or female seahorse carries the egg until their release into the water.
b. A group of dogs is a herd or a group of horses is a flock.
Solution:
a. If p is the disjunct “A male seahorse is a fish.” which is a true statement, and q is the
disjunct “A female seahorse carries the egg until their release into the water.” which is a
false statement, then it is a true statement since one of the disjuncts is a true statement.
b. If p is the disjunct “A group of dogs is a herd.” which is a false statement, and q is the
disjunct “A group of horses is a flock.” which is also a false statement, then it is a false
statement since both disjuncts are false statements.

Conditional: This proposition is the result of combining a hypothesis or antecedent to a

conclusion or consequent in the form If…, then…
Rule: The conditional is true in all cases, except when the antecedent is true and the
consequent is false. In other words, a true hypothesis cannot imply a false
conclusion.
Truth Table: 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example:
Determine whether each conditional statement is true or false.
a. If 2 + 5 = 7, then 2 − 5 = 7.
b. If 2 + 7 = 5, then 7 − 5 = 2
Solution:
a. If 𝑝 is the antecedent “2 + 5 = 7” which is a true statement, and 𝑞 is the consequent “2 −
5 = 7.” which is a false statement, then the conditional statement is a false statement.
b. If 𝑝 is the antecedent “2 + 7 = 5” which is a false statement, and 𝑞 is the consequent “7 −
5 = 2.” which is a true statement, then the conditional statement is a true statement.

Biconditional: This proposition is the result of combining two propositions in the form … if and
only if …
Rule: The biconditional is true if both propositions are true or both are false.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞

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Truth Table: T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example:
Determine whether each biconditional statement is true or false.
a. A square is a polygon if and only if the square is a rectangle.
b. The diagonals of a square are parallel if and only if the square is a quadrilateral.

Solution:
a. If p is the proposition “A square is a polygon.” which is a true statement, and q is the
proposition “The square is a rectangle.” which is also a true statement, then it is a true
statement.
b. If p is the proposition “The diagonals of a square are parallel.” which is a false statement
and q is the proposition “The square is a quadrilateral.” which is a true statement, then
it is a false statement.

Negation: This is a proposition which is the result of reversing the truth value of a given
proposition.
Rule: If a proposition is true, its negation is false, and if a proposition is false, its
negation is true.
Truth Table: 𝑝 ~𝑝
T F
F T

Example:
Determine the negation of each proposition and tell whether each negation is true or false.
a. Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.
b. 1 = 2.
Solution:
a. The negation of the proposition “Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.” which is a
true statement, is “It is not true that Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.” or
“Manila is not the capital city of the Philippines.” which is a false statement.
b. The negation of the proposition “1 = 2.” which is a false statement, is “1 ≠ 2.” which is a
true statement.

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Constructing Truth Tables
In the previous lesson, we identified the following statements as compound propositions and
also define their corresponding logical operator. By now, you should have mastered the truth
table of the logical operators because we are going to use them to determine all the possible
truth values of more complex compound propositions using the truth tables. Consider the
example below.

Example:
Consider the compound proposition below. Construct its truth table.
a. (𝑝 → 𝑞)  (𝑞 → 𝑝) b. ~[(𝑝  𝑞) → 𝑟]
Solution:
Remember: A truth table involving n propositions has 2𝑛 rows.
a. 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 𝑞→𝑝 (𝑝 → 𝑞)  (𝑞 → 𝑝)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

b. 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝 𝑞 (𝑝  𝑞) → 𝑟 ~[(𝑝  𝑞) → 𝑟]
T T T T T F
T T F T F T
T F T T T F
T F F T F T
F T T T T F
F T F T F T
F F T F T F
F F F F T F

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 Republic of the Philippines
SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY – TOMAS OPPUS
San Isidro, Tomas Oppus, Southern Leyte

ACTIVITY IN ARGUMENT FORMS AND TRUTH TABLE

Name: __________________________________________________ Date: _______________________

Course & Section: _________________________ Score: _________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
General Instructions:
a. Write all your answers in a clean sheet of bond paper.
b. Show all your solution and box your final answer.
c. Take a picture of your answer and send it through messenger.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Construct the truth table of the following propositions.

1. (𝑝 → 𝑞) ↔ (~𝑝  𝑞)
2. [(𝑝 → 𝑞)  𝑞] → 𝑝
3. (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞) ↔ [(𝑝  𝑞)  (~𝑝  ~𝑞)]
4. [~(𝑝  𝑞)  (~𝑝)] → 𝑞
5. [(𝑝 → 𝑞)  (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → (𝑝 → 𝑟)

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