KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND EXTENSION STUDIES

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (PRIMARY)

MT (P):1152 MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

Course Description, Objective and learning Outcome

The course covers one major theme, Mathematical Proofs. It aims at enabling students to
appreciate why mathematics proofs are important in mathematics learning and teaching. By the
end of the course, students should be able to carry out mathematical proofs using various
methods.

Course Content

1) Introduction to Mathematical Logic (Principles of reasoning, different from everyday

reasoning).
2) True and false statements, negation, conditional statements, converse of a conditional
statement, negation of a conditional statement.
3) Mathematical Proofs: Direct proof/proof by deduction, indirect proof, proof by
contradiction, proof by use of a counter example, proof by induction.

REFERENCES

1. Hunter J, Monk D, Blackburn WT and Donald D (1983). Algebra and Number Systems.
Blackie Chambers, London.
2. Bull ACR (1986). Kenya Advanced Mathematics Project Option 2: Logic Circuits,
Algebraic Structures, 2nd edition. Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi.
3. Bostock, L. & Chandler, S. (1983). Pure Mathematics 2. Stanley Thornes (Publishers)
Ltd. London,UK.
Introduction: Reviewing Logic
Logic is a systematic way of thinking that allows us to deduce new information from old
information. For example, suppose you are working with a certain circle, call it “Circle X,” and
you have the following two pieces of information.

1. Circle X has radius equal to 3.

2. If any circle has radius r, then its area is A=π r 2 square units.

You have no trouble putting these two facts together to get: Circle X has an area of 9π square
units.

In doing this you are using logic to combine existing information to produce new information. It
is important to realize that logic is a process of deducing information correctly, not just
deducing correct information. For example, suppose we were mistaken and Circle X actually
had a radius of 4 and not 3. Let’s look at our argument again.

1. Circle X has radius equal to 3.

2. If any circle has radius r, then its area is A=π r 2 square units.
3. Circle X has an area of 9π square units.

The sentence “Circle X has radius equal to 3.” is now untrue, and so is our conclusion “Circle X
has an area of 9π square units.” But the logic is perfectly correct; the information was combined
correctly, even if some of it was false. This distinction between correct logic and correct
information is significant because it is often important to follow the consequences of an incorrect
assumption. Ideally, we want both our logic and our information to be correct, but the point is
that they are different things.

In proving theorems, we apply logic to information that is considered obviously true (such as
“Any two points determine exactly one line.”) or is already known to be true (e.g. the
Pythagorean Theorem). If our logic is correct, then anything we deduce from such information
will also be true (Or at least as true as the “obviously true” information we began with).

Statements
 A statement is a sentence or a mathematical expression that is either definitely true or
definitely false.
 A statement is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both
simultaneously.

Example 2.1 Here are some examples of statements. They are all true.
(i) If a circle has radius r, then its area is π r 2 square units.
(ii) Every even number is divisible by 2.
(iii) 2∈Z
(iv) √ 2∉Z
(v) N⊆ Z
(vi) The set {0, 1, 2} has three elements.
Example 2.2 Here are some additional statements. They are all false.
(i) All right triangles are isosceles.
(ii) 5 = 2
(iii) √ 2∉R
(iv) Z ⊆N
(v) {0, 1, 2}⋂ N =∅

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

1.1 True and False statements
Basing upon reality, experience and prior knowledge, we can say whether a statement (verbal
assertion) is true (T) or false (F), but not both! Such a statement is called a proposition in
mathematical logic. The truthfulness or falsity of a statement is called its truth value.
Examples of propositions
1. 6-3=3
2. 23 is a composite number.
3. Margaret is a female name.
4. Only those over 200 years old are over two meters tall.
5. If I am beautiful, you are clever.
6. It is now 11 00pm.
7. 17 is a prime number.
Example: Consider the following statements and their truth values.

Statement Truth Value

1. There is no prime number between 23 and 29. True
2. The Sun rises in the west. False
3. The square of a real number is negative. False
4. The sum of the angles of a plane triangle is 180°. True

1.2 Open sentences

An open sentence is a sentence whose truth can vary according to some conditions,
which are not stated in the sentence.

NOTE: No statement can be called a sentence if:

(i) It is an exclamation
(ii) It is an order or request
(iii) It is a question
(iv) It involves variable time such as ‘today’, ‘tomorrow’, ‘yesterday’ etc.
(v) It involves variable places such as ‘here’, ‘there’, ‘everywhere’ etc.
(vi) It involves pronouns such as ‘she’, ‘he’, ‘they’ etc.
Examples of non-propositions (Open statements)
i. x × 5 = 20
This is an open sentence as its truth depends on value of x (if x = 4, it is true and if
x ≠ 4, it is false).
ii. Chinese food is very tasty.
This is an open sentence as its truth varies from individual to individual.

Others include:
1. When will the lecture end?
2. Come here at once!
3. Knowledge and skills for service
4. Great!
5. x+3=7
6. Is it raining?
1.3 Notation

We shall use the letters p, q, r,… to represent propositions.

For example,

1. p: 6+4 = 10
2. q: 12 – 9 = 4
3. r: Mrs Sande is the best History teacher

ACTIVITY: State which of the following sentences are statements. Justify your answer.
In case of the statements, write down the truth value.

i. The Sun is a star.

ii. May God bless you!
iii. The sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
iv. Every real number is a complex number.
v. Why are you upset?
vi. Every quadratic equation has two real roots.

Negation of a Proposition

If p is any statement then negation of p i.e., ‘not p’ is denoted by ~p or ¬p. Negation of

any simple statement p can also be formed by writing ‘It is not true that’ or ‘It is false that’,
before p.

For example:
p : Mango is a fruit.
~p : Mango is not a fruit.
 Statements Negations
a) Rome is in Italy. a) Rome is not in Italy.
b) 5 + 5 = 10 b) 5 + 5 ≠ 10
c) 3 is greater than 4. c) 3 is not greater than 4.
d) John is good in river rafting.
d) John is not good in river rafting.
e) π is an irrational number.
f) The square of a real number is e) π is not an irrational number.
positive. f) The square of a real number is not
g) Zero is not a complex number. positive.
h) Re (z) ≤ | z |. g) Zero is a complex number.
i) The sun sets in the East.
h) Re (z) > |z|.
j) It is not true that the mangoes are
inexpensive. i) The sun does not set in the East.
j) It is true that the mangoes are
inexpensive.

The negation can be shown on a Venn diagram or a truth table as shown below.

Venn diagram Truth table

Not p
p P ~P
T F
F T
From the Venn diagram and truth table we note that p and ~ p cannot both be true i.e. when one
is true, the other is false. We define the negation of p as a proposition which is false when p is
true and true when p is false. Compare this with a set A and its complement A’. Either an
element is in A or in A’ if the element is in the universal set, ε .

1. There are exactly five prime numbers x such that 2 < x < 20.
Solution set A= {3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}, n (A) =7. Proposition is F.
Negation: There are NOT exactly five prime numbers x such that 2 < x < 20. (T).
2. There are exactly six integers satisfying – 1.2 < x < 5.
Solution set A= {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, n (A) =6. Proposition is T.
Negation: There are NOT exactly six integers satisfying – 1.2 < x < 5. (F).
3. There is no real value of x for which x2 is negative. T.
Negation; x2 is negative for at least one real value of x.
4. All quadratic equations in one variable have two real roots. F.
Negation: At least one quadratic equation in one variable does not have real roots.
5. At least one make of cars does not have four tyres. (T).
Negation: All cars have four tyres (F).
ACTIVITY: NEGATE THE GIVEN PROPOSITIONS.

1. The area enclosed by a circle of radius r is given by πr2. T.

2. The only real numbers x for which sin x = 0 are 0, π and 2π. F. (nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...).
3. For all real numbers x, x3> x. F. (x = 0, 1, ½).
4. There exists a rational number x such that 2x2 –x -1 = 0. T. (1, -1/2).
5. For all integers n, n2 ≥ 1. F. (02< 1).

Simple statements
A statement is called simple if it cannot be broken down into two or more statements.
Examples
(i) 2 is an even number,
(ii) A square has all its sides equal,

Compound statements
A compound statement is the one which is made up two or more simple statements.
Example: 11 is both an odd and prime number” can be broken into two statements “11 is an
odd number” and “11 is a prime number” so it is a compound statement.
Note: The simple statements which constitutes a compound statement are called
component statements.
Example: Find the component statements of the following compound statements.
(i) Number 7 is prime and odd.
(ii) Chennai is in India and is the capital of Tamil Nadu.
(iii) The number 100 is divisible by 3, 11 and 5.
(iv) Two lines in a plane either intersect at one point or they are parallel.

1.4 COMPOUND STATEMENTS/ LOGICAL CONNECTIVES/LOGICAL

OPERATORS

We can form new statements from given statements by use of the words not, and, or, if p then q.
The words not, and, or, if p then q are called logical connectives or logical operators. We have
already seen the use of not. Let us see how the other logical connectives are used.

1.4.1 Conjunction of p and q

The conjunction of p and q is the single statement/proposition (Compound or composite

statement/proposition) obtained by forming p and q.

Examples

1. He kicked the ball and it rained

2. Paris is in France and 3+3=6
 3. The doctor is in hospital and he is not at home
4. She is late and she is being punished

The conjunction of p and q is denoted by p∧q and may be true or false. When two propositions
are joined, their truth values can be combined in 22 possible ways. We show this in a truth table.

p Q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
The truth of the compound statement p∧q depends on the truth of p and on the truth of q.

From the truth table we see that p∧q is true only when both p and q are true. P and q are called
the components of the compound statement p∧q. Thus, the conjunction is true only when both
p and q are true.

Example: Form the conjunction of the following simple statements:

p : Dinesh is a boy.
q : Nagma is a girl.
Solution: The conjunction of the statement p and q is given by

p ∧ q : Dinesh is a boy and Nagma is a girl.

Example 5 Translate the following statement in symbolic form

“Jack and Jill went up the hill.”
Solution The given statement can be rewritten as
“Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill” Let p : Jack went up the hill and q : Jill went up
the hill. Then the given statement in symbolic form is p ∧ q.

1.4.2 Disjunction of p and q (inclusive or)

This is the compound statement/proposition obtained by forming p or q. It is denoted by p∨q.

We show this in a truth table.

p Q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
From the truth table we see that p∨q is true when at least ONE of the components p, q is true.

Example: Form the disjunction of the following simple statements:

 p : The sun shines.
q : It rains.
Solution: The disjunction of the statements p and q is given by
p∨q : The sun shines or it rains.

Example 8: Write the truth value of each of the following statements:

(i) India is in Asia or 2 + 2 = 4.
(ii) India is in Asia or 2 + 2 = 5.
(iii) India is in Europe or 2 + 2 = 4.
(iv) India is in Europe or 2 + 2 = 5.
Solution: We observe that only the last statement has the truth value F as both the sub-
statements “India is in Europe” and “2 + 2 = 5” have the truth value F. The remaining
statements (i) to (iii) have the truth value T as at least one of the sub-statements of these
statements has the truth value T.
EXERCISE
1. Express the following statements in symbolic form:
i. Mango is a fruit but potato is a vegetable.
ii. Either we play football or go for cycling.
iii. Milk is white or grass is green.
iv. Inspite of physical disability, Rahul stood first in the class.
v. Jagdish stays at home while Shrijeet and Shalmali go for a movie.
2. Write the truth values of following statements.
a) Jupiter is a planet and Mars is a star.
b) 2 + 3 ≠ 5 or 2 × 3 < 5
c) 2 × 0 = 2 and 2 + 0 = 2
d) 9 is a perfect square but 11 is a prime number.
e) Moscow is in Russia or London is in France.

Negation of compound statements

Negation of a conjunction

Recall that a conjunction p  q consists of two component statements p and q both of

which exist simultaneously. Therefore, the negation of the conjunction would mean
the negation of at least one of the two component statements. Thus, we have
The negation of a conjunction p  q is the disjunction of the negation of p and the
negation of q. Equivalently, we write

~ (p  q) = ~ p  ~ q

Example: Write the negation of each of the following conjunctions:

 (a) Paris is in France and London is in England.
(b) 2 + 3 = 5 and 8 < 10.
Solution
(a) Write p : Paris is in France and q : London is in England. Then, the
conjunction in (a) is given by p  q.
Now ~ p : Paris is not in France, and
~ q : London is not in England.
Therefore, the negation of p  q is given by
~ ( p  q): Paris is not in France or London is not in England.

(b) Write p : 2 + 3 = 5 and q : 8 < 10. Then the

conjunction is given by p  q.

Now ~ p : 2 + 3  5 and ~ q : 8  10.

Then, the negation of p  q is given by
– ( p  q): (2 + 3  5 ) or (8  10)

Negation of disjunction
Recall that a disjunction p  q is consisting of two component statements p and q which are
such that either p or q or both exist. Therefore, the negation of the disjunction would mean the
negation of both p and q simultaneously.
The negation of a disjunction p  q is the conjunction of the negation of p and the negation
8
of q. Equivalently, we write

~ (p  q) = ~ p   q

Example: Write the negation of each of the following disjunctions :

(a) Ram is in Class X or Rahim is in Class XII.
(b) 7 is greater than 4 or 6 is less than 7.
Solution
(a) Let p : Ram is in Class X and q : Rahim is in Class XII. Then the
disjunction in (a) is given by p  q.
Now ~ p : Ram is not in Class X.
~ q : Rahim is not in Class XII.
Then, the negation
8 of p  q is given by
~ (p  q) : Ram is not in Class X and Rahim is not in Class XII.

(b) Write p : 7 is greater than 4, and q : 6 is less than 7.

8
 Then, the negation of p  q is given by
~ (p  q) : 7 is not greater than 4 and 6 is not less than 7.

Negation of a negation
The negation of negation of a statement is the statement itself. Equivalently, we write
~ ( ~ p) = p

ACTIVITY

1. Draw truth tables for (i) ~ (p∧q), (ii) ~ p ∨ q ,(iii) ( p∧ q ) ∨ r .

2. Use truth tables to show that (i) ( p∧q)’ and ~ p ∨ q (ii)(p∨q)’ and ~ p∧ q (iii)~ (~p) and p
are logically equivalent (are built up with the same component statements and have the same
truth values).

3. Let p: I want to go swimming today, q: I want to play tennis today. Write out the following
statements (i) ~q (ii) p∨q (iii) p∧q (iv) ~(p∧q) (v) p ∧~q (vi) ~p∨q (vii) (~p∧q)∨(p
∨ q¿

4. Let e: He is good at English, m: He is good at Maths. Express in symbols:

(i). He is good at English and he is good at maths

(ii).He is not both good at English and good at maths

(iii). He is neither good at English nor good at maths

1.4.3 Logical implication of q by p (Conditional Statement)

Recall that if p and q are any two statements, then the compound statement “if p then q”
formed by joining p and q by a connective ‘if then’ is called a conditional statement or an
implication and is written in symbolic form as p  q or p  q.
Remark The conditional statement p  q can be expressed in several different ways. Some of
the common expressions are :
(a) if p, then q
(b) q if p
(c) p only if q
(d) p is sufficient for q
(e) q is necessary for p.
Observe that the conditional statement p  q reflects the idea that whenever it is known
that p is true, it will have to follow that q is also true.
The proposition p⟹ q is a given a truth value according to the following truth table.
 P Q p⟹
q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

We say that p⟹ q is false when p is true and q is false, otherwise, p⟹ q is true. In the
conditional statement p⟹ q, p is called the hypothesis(a provisional explanation of something,
a theory to be proved or disproved, supposition), and q is called the conclusion. The implication/
conditional statement p⟹ q will clearly be untrue if a false conclusion is drawn from a true
hypothesis. The implication/ conditional statement p⟹ q is substantially the same as ~ (p∧ ~q),
i.e. they have the same truth table.

NOTE: Rather than memorizing the truth tables for the logical connectives we have seen so far,
it may be easier for some people to use the rules summarised in the table below.

Connective Symbolic form Summary of truth values

Negation ~p True when p is false and false when p is true
Conjunction p∧q True only when both p and q are true
Disjunction p∨q False only when both p and q are false
Conditional p⟹ q False only when p is true and q are false

EXAMPLES

1. X +1 = 0 ⟹X = 2
2. cos A + cos B = 1 ⟹cos (A + B) =1
3. log (x + y) = 3 ⟹log x + log y = 3

are all false since the conclusions do not follow from the hypotheses.

Example: Each of the following statements is a conditional statement.

(i) If 2 + 2 = 5, then Rekha will get an ice-cream.
(ii) If you eat your dinner, then you will get dessert.
(iii) If John works hard, then it will rain today.
(iv) If ABC is a triangle, then  A +  B +  C = 180°.
Example: Express in English, the statement p  q, where

p : it is raining today
q:2+3>4
Solution: The required conditional statement is
 “If it is raining today, then 2 + 3 > 4”

Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive statements

If p → q is given, then its
converse is q→p
inverse is ~p → ~q
contrapositive is ~q → ~p
For example:
Let p : Smita is intelligent.
q : Smita will join Medical.
i. q → p: If Smita joins Medical then she is intelligent.
ii. ~p → ~q: If Smita is not intelligent then she will not join Medical.
iii. ~q → ~p: If Smita does not join Medical then she is not intelligent.

Consider, the following truth table:

p q p→q ~p ~q q→p ~q→~ ~p →~q

p
T T T F F T T T
T F F F T T F T
F T T T F F T F
F F T T T T T T
From the above table, we conclude that
i. a conditional statement and its contrapositive are always equivalent.
ii. converse and inverse of the conditional statement are always equivalent.

Example: Write the converse of the following statements

(i) If x < y, then x + 5 < y + 5
(ii) If ABC is an equilateral triangle, then ABC is an isosceles triangle
Solution

(i) Let p : x < y

q:x+5<y+5

Therefore, the converse of the statement p  q is given by

“If x + 5 <y+ 5, then x < y
(ii) Converse of the given statement is
“If ABC is an isosceles triangle, then ABC is an equilateral triangle.”
Example: Write each of the following statements in its equivalent contrapositive form.
(i) If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot go to the market.
 (ii) If Karim cannot swim to the fort, then he cannot swim across the river.
Solution
(i) Let “p : my car is in the repair shop” and “q : I can not go to the market”. Then, the given
statement in symbolic form is p  q. Therefore, its contrapositive is
given by ~ q  ~ p.
Now ~ p : My car is not in the repair shop
~ q : I can go to the market
Therefore, the contrapositive of the given statement is
“If I can go to the market, then my car is not in the repair shop”.
(ii) Proceeding on the lines of the solution of (i), the contrapositive of the statement in (ii) is
“If Karim can swim across the river, then he can swim to the fort”.

ACTIVITY

1. Draw a truth table for p⟹ q (the implication), q⟹ p (the converse of p⟹ q), ~ q⟹

~p ( the contrapositive of p⟹ q) and ~p⟹ ~q (the contrapositive of p⟹ q).

Note that the implication and its contrapositive are logically equivalent. Is it the same true for the
converse and inverse?

2. Use truth tables to show that the following are logically equivalent;
(i) p⟹ q and ~ p ∨ q
(ii) ~ (p⟹ q) and p∧ q
(iii) p⟹ (q∧r) and(p⟹ q)∧ (p⟹ r)
(iv) (p∨q)⟹ r and (p⟹ r)∧ (q⟹ r)
(v) p∧(q ∨ r) and ( p∧ q ¿ ∨ ( p∧r ¿
3. State the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following conditional
statements:
i. If it rains then the match will be cancelled.
ii. If a function is differentiable then it is continuous.
iii. If surface area decreases then the pressure increases.
iv. If a sequence is bounded then it is convergent.

1.5 THE BICONDITIONAL (Necessary and sufficient condition) p⟺ q

In a situation where both p⟹ q (the implication) and q⟹ p (the converse of p⟹ q) are true,
we write p⟺q. In this case, p is true if and only if q is true or “p iff q”. We say that a necessary
and sufficient condition for p to be true is that q is true. q being true is a necessary condition for
p to be true and q being true is a sufficient condition for p to be true. The truth table for the
biconditional is given below.
 P Q p⟹ q⟹ (p⟹ q)∧ ( q⟹ p⟺
q p p) q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
Example: If p: It is daytime, q: It is warm, give the compound statements in verbal form
denoted by q ↔ p.
Solution: It is warm if and only if it is daytime.

Example: Form the biconditional of the following statements.

p : One is less than seven
q : Two is less than eight
Solution: The biconditional of p and q is given by “One is less than seven, if and only if two
is less than eight”.
Example: Translate the following biconditional into symbolic form: “ABC is an
equilateral triangle if and only if it is equiangular”.
Solution: Let p : ABC is an equilateral triangle
q : ABC is an equiangular triangle.
Then, the given statement in symbolic form is given by p  q.

1.6 NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

The negation of p⟹ q is ~ (p⟹ q). Note that the whole conditional statement is negated.

Example: If I love Maths then I teach it well.

Negation: It is not true to say that if I love Maths then I teach it well.

Logical equivalence
Two propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent if their truth tables are identical. If
S1 and S2 are logically equivalent statement patterns, we write S1 ≡ S2.
For example:
To prove:
i) p ∧ q ≡ ~ (p → ~q)
 p q p ∧ q ~q (p → ~q) ~(p → ~q)
T T T F F T
T F F T T F
F T F F T F
F F F T T F

In the above truth table, all the entries in the columns of p ∧ q and ~(p → ~q) are identical.
∴ p ∧ q ≡ ~(p → ~q).

ii) ~(p ∨ q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q

P q ~p ~q p ∨ q ~(p ∨ ~p ∧
q) ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

iii) ~(p ∧ q) ≡ ~p ∨ ~q

p Q ~p ~q p∧ ~(p ∧ ~p ∨
q q) ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T
iv) p → q ≡ (~p) ∨ q

P q ~p p→ ~p ∨
q q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

v) p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)

p Q p→ q→ p↔ (p → q) ∧ (q →
q p q p)
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
1.7 TAUTOLOGIES AND CONTRADICTIONS

Tautology
A proposition which is always true is called a tautology. The statement pattern has truth
value always T, irrespective of the truth values of its component statements. The final entry
in the truth table will be a complete column of T’s. It is said to be logically true.(e.g.p or
not p).

For example, consider (p ↔ q) ↔ (q ↔ p)

p q p↔ q↔p (p ↔ q) ↔ (q ↔
q p)
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T F F T
F F T T T

The given statement pattern (p ↔ q) ↔ (q ↔ p) is a tautology.

Contradiction
A proposition whose final column is all F’s is called a contradiction and is said to be
logically false. (e.g. p and not p). The statement pattern has truth values always F,
irrespective of the truth values of its component statements.
For example, consider p ∧ ~ p

P ~p p∧~p
T F F
F T F

In the above truth table, all the entries in the last column are F.
∴ The given statement pattern is a contradiction.

Note: A statement pattern which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called

Contingency. Both T’s and F’s appear in the final column and the proposition is said to be
logically indeterminate.

ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS/LAWS OF THE ALGEBRA OF

PROPOSITIONS/LAWS OF THE ALGEBRA OF SETS

1a). p ∨ p ≡ p 1b ¿ . p ∧ p ≡ p Idempotent laws

2a). ( p ∨q ) ∨ r ≡ p∨ ( q ∨ r ) 2 b ¿ .( p ∧ q)∧ r ≡ p ∧(q ∧r ) Associative laws
 3a). p ∨q ≡ q ∨ p 3 b ¿ . p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p Commutative laws
4a). p ∨ ( q ∧ r ) ≡ ( p ∨q ) ∧( p ∨r )
4b). p ∧(q ∨r )≡( p ∧ q)∨( p ∧r ) Distributive laws
5a). p ∨ F ≡ p 5 b ¿ . p ∧T ≡ p
6a). p ∨T ≡ T 6 b ¿ . p ∧ F ≡ F Identity laws
7a). p ∨ p ≡T 6 b ¿ . p ∧ p ≡ F
8a). ~ ~p≡ p 8b). ~T ≡ F ,~F ≡T Complement laws

9a). ~( p ∨q ) ≡ p ∧ q 9 b ¿ . ( p ∧ q ) ≡ p ( ∨ q ) De Morgan’s Laws

It is important to be aware of the reasons that we study logic. There are three very significant
reasons.
1. The truth tables we studied tell us the exact meanings of the words such as “and,” “or”,
“not” and so on. For instance, whenever we use or read the “If..., then” construction in a
mathematical context, logic tells us exactly what it means.
2. The rules of inference provide a system in which we can produce new information
(statements) from known information.
3. Finally, logical rules such as De Morgan’s laws help us to correctly change certain
statements into (potentially more useful) statements with the same meaning. Thus logic
helps us understand the meanings of statements and it also produces new meaningful
statements. Logic is the glue that holds strings of statements together and pins down the
exact meaning of certain key phrases such as the “If..., then” or “For all” constructions.
Logic is the common language that all mathematicians use, so we must have a firm grip
on it in order to write and understand mathematics.