By Gkhan Bilhan

Fundamentals of Mathematics I Lecture Notes(Week1)

- The objective of a mathematician is to discover and communicate certain truths of mathematics.

Logic: is a principle using truths to get new truths Mathematics: is a principle, creating itself under the rules of logic.
Our purpose in this course is to teach the rules of this principle by introducing the stepstones, deeply.

Denition of denition: The description of a notion in mathematics is called a denition.

Without denitions, no mathematics is built. Our leading denition should be the following:

Denition: A proposition (or statement) is a declarative sentence which is either true or

false but not both and not ambiguous. Note that a proposition must be clear, informative, true or false and never changes from time to time or people to people.

Example: The following sentences are not propositions:

- Hello sir! (Not declarative). - Fenerbahe is the best football team. (Not certain). - 2 x = x 4. -

Example: The following sentences are propositions:

2.3 = 6. 2 = 1. The 100000 th digit in the decimal expansion of is 3 All birds can y. Ankara is the capital city of Trkiye at present.

Critical examples:

- At the year 5042, 2.12 pm. with Greenwich hour, the Earth will be splitted into two parts. - Albert Einstein had eaten chicken at his 19 th birthday.

Remark: In mathematics, we're concerned with statements about mathematical objects. Our
business is to built true mathematics statements. - To say the statement is true? OR

Observation: When a mathematics statement is given, which one is easy:

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- To say the statement is false? Let's consider our proposition: " All birds can y." This is not true because there is a bird species which cannot y, for instance " Penguins cannot y." We showed that a statement is false by using a true statement. That will lead us to a denition: is false are called counter examples.

Denition(Counter Example): True statements which are used to prove another statement Example: Consider the statement: " For any real number x, x3 + 1 > 0.
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The statement is false because we can say: " There exists a real number x such that x + 1 0." What, if we want to show a statement is true? We'll use the denition: 2.3 = 3 + 3 = 6. But we suppose that 3 + 3 = 6 is a true proposition. There is no way of showing this (from a certain point of view), it is an axiom. But we 'll need some denitions: Denition(Prime number): A positive integer n is called a prime number if it is only divisible by 1 and itself.(THERE IS A PROBLEM WITH THIS DEFINITION) But above denition includes unexplained notions like: - What is a positive integer? - What is the meaning of "divisible"? So, we should give a few more denitions: Denition(Positive integer): A positive integer is a member of the set Z + = {1, 2, 3, ...} . Denition(Divisibility): For given integers n and m, we say n divides m, if m = nk for some integer k . But then one may still ask you the following: - What is a set? - What is being a member? and so on..... As a result, life is not so easy when you wanted to say " 2 is a prime number."

Example: Let's show 2.3 = 6.

Example: Let's show that " 2 is a prime number."

Denition(Axiom): True mathematical propositions in which their truthness are accepted

without proof are called axioms.

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Examples: The following statements are axioms.

- 2+3=5. - Every nonempty subset of the set of Natural Numbers has a smallest element. - Euclid's ve axioms: 1- Two points determine a line. 2- A line segment can be extended indenitely. 3- A point and a radius determine a circle. 4- Any two right angles are equal. 5- Given any line and any point not on that line, there is one and only one line through that point that is parallel to the rst line.

Remark: Note that only a few number of axioms are enough for mathematics, because the
rest of work is the business of mathematics. We derive with these axioms, more complicated truths. But then, we have to explain why our proposition is true.

Denition(Proof): The explanation that tells why a proposition is true is called a proof. Example: Let's prove the following proposition:
Proposition: Multiplication of rst one hundred prime numbers is even. Proof. To prove that statement, we will need the denition of an even number and to the following proposition, which will be proved later.

Denition of even number : An integer n is called even, if n = 2k for some integer k . Proposition: Multiplication of a nite number of numbers is a number.
Now, let's turn to our proof. Suppose that we multiply rst one hundred primes: 2.3.5.7.... then we may write 2.3.5.7.... = 2.(3.5.7....) = 2.k . Therefore, our proposition is proved.

Remark: When we prove a proposition, we use axioms, denitions and the propositions which
are proved. There are certain propositions that we know, they are either true or false but we cannot decide which one?

Denition(Conjecture): Mathematics propositions which are not proved and also not denied are called conjectures.
prime numbers.

Example(Goldbach's Conjecture): Every even integer greater than 2 is the sum of two
There was another conjecture, but it is proved by british mathematician Andrew Wiles in the last decade. This is the famous Fermat's Theorem.

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Proposition(Fermat's Last Theorem): For given positive integers a, b, c , there is no integer n greater than 3 and satisying the equation an + bn = cn .

QUANTIFIERS
"x is a positive integer." Obviously this is not a proposition, because the sentence includes a free variable. If we assign 2 for x, then the sentence becomes: " 2 is a positive integer." That is a proposition.

Denition (Open sentence): If a declarative sentence including variable(s) becomes a proposition, after assigning a possible value for x, this sentence including the free variable x is called an open sentence(or predicate).
Open sentences may include more than one free variable. Examples: (Of open sentences) P (x): x is a rational number. Q(x, y) : x divides y . T (x, y) : |x + 1| + |y| = 1 R(a, b) : a > 2b. There are two mathematical tools making predicates, propositions. Consider the following sentences: - For any real number x, x2 1 = 0. - There exists a real number x such that x2 1 = 0.

Universal Quantier:
For all-For every-For each Represented by the symbol:

Existential Quantier:
There exists- There is at least one- There is... Represented by the symbol

Remark: Note that these are informal symbols and are not used in formal writing. However,
they are very convenient and used in mathematical discussions.

Important Remark: By using quantiers, we can turn open sentences into propositions.

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Examples:
1. - x > 0. (An open sentence) - x : x > 0. (Not an open sentence, in fact, it is meaningless) - x Z : x > 0. (Not an open sentence, proposition, false.) 2. Consider the open sentence, (x 2)2 1. If we consider x as a member of the set {1, 2, 3}, then it is a true proposition, if x is a member of any other set, then it is a false proposition. 3. If our sentence includes two variables then we must use two quantiers, one for each variable. - For all x, there exists y such that y 2 = x.

xy : y 2 = x (Not a proposition since we do not know the places of x and y .)

4. But if we know the place of all our variables, then without specifying the sets we may accept them as propositions. For instance: In the following propositions, , and x are real numbers and n and n0 are natural numbers. - > 0, > 0 : whenever 0 < |x a| < then |f (x) b| < . - > 0, n0 : whenever n > n0 then |an a| < .

Compound Propositions:
Conjunction
Look at the following sentences: P: The Earth is spherical. Q: There is water on Earth at present. Obviously both of these sentences are true. Let's connect them as follows: The The The The Earth Earth Earth Earth is is is is spherical and there is water on it at present. (.....) not spherical and there is water on it at present. (.....) spherical and there is no water on it at present. (.....) not spherical and there is no water on it at present. (.....)

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We judged the above sentences according to our knowledge that we already have. In fact our approach was axiomatic. The above statements are composed of by two simple statements by using a connective: AND. The connective forces them to be true only if both individual statements are true. This connective is called conjunction and represented by:

Let us assign the true propositions by 1 and false propositions by 0. Now we'll make a table for conjunctions, called truth table. Note that this table will be constructed with axiomatic consideration.

P 1 1 0 0

Q 1 0 1 0

P Q 1 0 0 0

Negation:
If P represents a proposition, then P will represent the converse of P , that we call negation. It has a very simple table:

P 1 0
Also,

P 0 1

Example: The negation of the sentence: x R : x < 0

is

x R : x 0

Example: Let's nd all possible truth values of the statement P ( P ):

Let's see the truth table:

P 1 0

P 0 1

P ( P ) 0 0

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As you see from the table, for each value of P , the proposition P ( P ) is always false, independent from the choice of P .

Denition: A compound proposition having truth value 0 in any case of truth values of its
component propositions is called a contradiction.

Disjunction:
Consider the same propositions: P: The Earth is spherical. Q: There is water on Earth at present. Lets connect them as follows: The The The The Earth Earth Earth Earth is is is is spherical or there is water on it at present. (.....) not spherical or there is water on it at present. (.....) spherical or there is no water on it at present. (.....) not spherical or there is no water on it at present. (.....)

The word OR gives us a chance of choice and so, we naturally choose the positive one and admit the whole proposition is true. This connective is called disjunction and represented by:

Here is the truth table:

P 1 1 0 0

Q 1 0 1 0

P Q 1 1 1 0

Example: Lets investigate the truth values of P ( P ).

P 1 0 P 0 1 P ( P ) 1 1

Just as we did above, we show it by constructing the table.

Denition: A compound proposition having truth value 1 in any case of truth values of its
component propositions is called a tautology.

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Denition: If two compound propositions have the same truth values for each possible truth
values of their parts, then we say that the propositions are equivalent. alent propositions by doing truth table:

Example: Lets show that two compound propositions (P Q) ; ( P ) ( Q) are equivP 1 1 0 0 Q 1 0 1 0 P 0 0 1 1 Q 0 1 0 1 P Q 1 1 1 0 (P Q) 0 0 0 1 ( P ) ( Q) 0 0 0 1

If you look at the last two columns, you will see that these columns are identical.

Conditional:
It is time to talk about the most important connective, called implication. Most of the mathematics statements are written by using this connective. A statement in the form:  If P then Q  is called an implication (or conditional) abbreviated by:

P Q
We read it as:  P implies Q( if P then Q.)  We use that connective mostly because, it is very strong.

Example: Let c be a real number. The sentence c3 > 0 is not a proposition, it is just an open
sentence. But if we put a condition about c, the picture changes: Consider: If c > 0 then c3 > 0 This new sentence is certainly a true proposition. By using conditional(putting condition), we made a proposition. Note that parts of this compound proposition are just open sentences.

- If x is an integer then x2 x. - If f is a polynomial of odd degree then f has at least one real root. - If x is an integer then x is either even or odd but not both. The strongness of that connective is this. We may built strong propositions by using simple propositions that are not true themselves. It is time to write its truth table. The table may look speculative at rst, but we'll explain why it is so.

Example: Here are more:

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P 1 1 0 0

Q 1 0 1 0

P Q 1 0 1 1

1 1 is true, because Q is already true and does not need a condition to be true.
By the same reason,

0 1 is true too. 1 0 is false, because since Q is false, something which is true cannot help it to become true. - If 3 is a prime number then 2 is not a prime number.
Now, the most dicult one:

0 0 is true. We consider as  wrong thing implies wrong thing is true 

- If ies don't have wings then they cannot y. - If 3 is not a prime number then 2 is also not a prime number.

Example: A student is taking the course Fund. of Math.I and is currently receiving BA. The

student visits the instructor a few days before the nal examination and asks him, "Is there any chance that I can get an AA in this course?" The instructor looks through his grade book and says, if you earn 100 on the nal exam, then you will receive an AA for your nal grade. Now, let P: You earn 100 on the nal exam. Q: You receive an AA for your nal grade. Here are the cases for P Q:

1 1: True, i.e. the instructor did as he promised. 1 0: False, because the instructor did not take his promise. 0 1: True, Although the student didn't get 100 in the nal exam, he gets AA anyway. This is may be due to several factors: Maybe the exam was too dicult and he did a great performance in the exam or maybe instructor realized that even if he cannot get 100, a mark close to 100 would be enough for AA or may be it was just blind luck, as a result he got AA, that is the instructor did not lie. So the implication is true. 0 0: True, because the student didn't get 100 in the exam and so instructor didn't gave AA.

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Biconditional:
 P if and only if Q , abbreviated by  P Q. That connective makes it true in case both sides are same. Here is the truth table:

P 1 1 0 0

Q 1 0 1 0

P Q 1 0 0 1

We have a very important relationship between   and  

Proposition: The propositions P Q and [(P Q) (Q P )] are equivalent. Proof: Lets see the truth table:
P 1 1 0 0 Q 1 0 1 0 P Q 1 0 1 1 QP 1 1 0 1 (P Q) (Q P ) 1 0 0 1 P Q) 1 0 0 1

Remark: Note that, denitions are if and only if statements.

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(Propositions, Quantiers and Truth Tables).

Exercises

1. Show that the proposition:  2 is a prime number.is true. 2. Show that the following proposition is not true: For every real number a, the equation x2 + a = 0 has a real root. 3. Is 2.3 an axiom? 4. Which of the following expressions are propositions, which are open sentences (predicates)? Complete the predicates into propositions by using quantiers, whenever possible. (i)- 4 < 3. (ii)- If x 2 then x3 1. (iii)- y < 7. (iv)- x + y = z. (v)- (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 . (vi)- a2 + b2 = c2 . (vii)- If w = 3 then z w = 0. 5. Express the following by using quantiers: (i)- The equation x2 + a = 0 has a real root for any real number a. (ii)- Every real number is rational. (iii)- There is an irrational number. (iv)- There is a rational number between any two unequal real numbers. 6. Is there a counter example of a counter example? 7. Look at the sentence: For any complex number a, x2 +a 0 , where x is a real number. Is this a proposition? If you say it is a proposition, prove it, otherwise give a counter example. 8. Suppose that you know: - The distributive property of multiplication over addition. - Commutativity of multiplication. By using only these two facts, show that the following is true: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 . 9. Show that the statement is false: Let n be an integer, if 4|(n2 1), then 4|(n 1). 10. Translate each statement into words: a) xy : y x. b) xy : x + y = x. 11. Are the propositions A = (B = C) and (A B) = C equivalent?

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12. If I do not get money, then my wife will be unhappy, says Ali. Later you know that Ali gets money but you nd that his wife is still unhappy. Was Ali's statement true or false? 13. (Very important) Show that 14. Show that P ( 15. Show that

(P = Q) and P (

Q) are equivalent.

P ) P is a contradiction. P ) is equivalent to P. Q). Q).

16. Verify De Morgan's laws. That is, (P Q) is equivalent to ( P ) ( (P Q) is equivalent to ( P ) (

17. Show that, for propositions P ,Q and R, P (QR) and (P Q)(P R) are equivalent. This is called the distributive property of onto . 18. Negate the following statements. Write the negation, to whatever extend is possible. a) There exists a line in the plane passing through the points (-1,1), (2,-1) and (3,0). b) There exists an odd prime number. c) For all real numbers x, x3 = x. d) Every positive integer is the sum of distinct powers of three. e) For all positive real numbers x, there exists a real number y such that y 2 = x. f) There exists a positive real number y , such that for all real numbers x, y 2 = x. 19. (VERY IMPORTANT) Show that the following two propositions are equivalent by doing their truth tables: a) (P Q) (( P ) Q). b) (P Q) (( Q) ( P )). 20. Prove that (P Q R) = ((P Q) R) = (P (Q R)) 21. Prove that the proposition P Q R is equivalent to the proposition (P Q) (Q R) (R P ). Hint: Note that by considering the previous proposition, P Q R has truth value 1 in case all three P , Q and R have the same truth values,(e.g. all three are true or all three are false) otherwise, P Q R is false. 22. Prove the following(by making a table), where P, Q and R are propositions. a) P (Q R) = (P Q) R. b) P (Q R) = (P Q) R. c) P (Q R) = (P Q) (P R). d) P (Q R) = (P Q) (P R).