Module for the Course

Mathematics for Social Science

Prepared By: Mohammed Sani (MSc)

October 2020
 Content Page
Chapter 1: Propositional Logic and Set Theory …………………………………….1
1.1. Propositional Logic ……………………………………………………… 1
1.1.1 Definition and examples of Propositions ……………………….. 2
1.1.2 Logical connectives ..…………………………………………….. 2
1.1.3 Compound (or complex) proposition …………………………… 7
1.1.4 Tautology and contradiction …………………………………….. 10
1.2. Open propositions and quantifiers ………………………………………. 12
1.3. Arguments and Validity …………………………………………………. 20
1.4. Set Theory ……………………………………………………………….. 25
1.4.1 The Concept of a set ……………………………………………… 26
1.4.2 Description of sets ………………………………………………... 26
1.4.3 Set operations and Venn diagrams ……………………………….. 31
Chapter 2: Functions ……………………………………………………………….. 39
2.1 The real number system …………………………………………………. 40
2.2. Solving equations and inequalities; linear and quadratic equations ……. 44
2.3 Review of relations and functions ………………………………………. 53
2.4 Real valued functions and their properties ……………………………… 61
2.5 Types of functions and inverse of a function …………………………… 66
2.6 Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs... 70
2.7 Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric
functions and their graphs. …………………….……………………….... 83
Chapter 3: Matrices and determinant ………………………………………………. 105
3.1 Definition of a matrix …………………………………………………… 105
3.2 Matrix Algebra ………………………………………………………….. 108
3.3 Types of matrices ……………………………………………………….. 116
3.4 Elementary row operations ……………………………………………… 120
3.5 Row echelon form and reduced row echelon form of a matrix …………. 121
3.6 Rank of a matrix using elementary row operations …………………….. 125
3.7 Determinant and its properties ………………………………………….. 126
3.8 Adjoint and inverse of a matrix …………………………………………. 135
3.9 System of linear equations …………………………………………….. 140
3.9.1 Gaussian elimination …………………………………………. 143
3.9.2 Cramer’s rule ………………………………………………… 149
3.9.3 Inverse method ………………………………………………. 152
Chapter 4: Introduction to Calculus
4.1 Limit and continuity …………………………………………………… 158
4.2 Derivatives …………………………………………………………….. 176
4.3 Application of derivative ……………………………………………… 185
4.4 Integrals and their applications ………………………………………... 197
Answer Key…………………………………………………………………………212
References …………………………………………………………………….…. . 213
 Chapter One
Propositional Logic and Set Theory
In this chapter, we study the basic concepts of propositional logic and some part of set theory. In the
first part, we deal about propositional logic, logical connectives, quantifiers and arguments. In the
second part, we turn our attention to set theory and discus about description of sets and operations of
sets.
Main Objectives of this Chapter
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:-
 Know the basic concepts of mathematical logic.
 Know methods and procedures in combining the validity of statements.
 Understand the concept of quantifiers.
 Know basic facts about argument and validity.
 Understand the concept of set.
 Apply rules of operations on sets to find the result.
 Show set operations using Venn diagrams.
1.1. Propositional Logic
Mathematical or symbolic logic is an analytical theory of the art of reasoning whose goal is to
systematize and codify principles of valid reasoning. It has emerged from a study of the use of
language in argument and persuasion and is based on the identification and examination of those parts
of language which are essential for these purposes. It is formal in the sense that it lacks reference to
meaning. Thereby it achieves versatility: it may be used to judge the correctness of a chain of
reasoning (in particular, a "mathematical proof") solely on the basis of the form (and not the content)
of the sequence of statements which make up the chain. There is a variety of symbolic logics. We shall
be concerned only with that one which encompasses most of the deductions of the sort encountered in
mathematics. Within the context of logic itself, this is "classical" symbolic logic.
Section objectives:
After completing this section, students will be able to:-
 Identify the difference between proposition and sentence.
 Describe the five logical connectives.
 Determine the truth values of propositions using the rules of logical connectives.
 Construct compound propositions using the five logical connectives.
 Determine the truth values of compound propositions.
 Distinguish a given compound proposition is whether tautology or contradiction.
1.1.1. Definition and examples of propositions
Definition 1.1: A proposition (or statement) is a sentence which has a truth value (either True or False but
not both).
Example 1.1 : Consider the following sentences.
a. 2 is an even number. c. Give me that book.
b. A triangle has four sides. d. What is your name?
The first two sentences are declarative sentences, so a) and b) are propositions. The truth value of a) is
true and b) is false. On the other hand, c) and d) have not truth value. So they are not declaratives and
not propositions.

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The above definition does not mean that we must always know what the truth value is. For example,
the sentence “The 1000th digit in the decimal expansion of π is 7” is a proposition, but it may be
necessary to find this information in a Website on the Internet to determine whether this statement is
true. Indeed, for a sentence to be a proposition (or a statement), it is not a requirement that we be able
to determine its truth value.
Remark: Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by T ) or false (denoted by F ).

1.1.2. Logical connectives

Two or more propositions can be connected by the words “not”, “and”, “or”, “if . . . then (or implies)”,
and “if and only if. These five words are called propositional (Logical) connectives.
Note: Letters such as p , q , r , s etc. are usually used to denote actual propositions.
1. Conjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective “and,” the proposition formed is a logical
conjunction. “and” is denoted by “ ”. So, the logical conjunction of two propositions, p and q , is
written: p ∧q , read as “ p and q ,” or “ p conjunction q ”.
p and q are called the components of the conjunction. p ∧q is true if and only if p is true and q is true.

The truth table for conjunction is given as follows:

p q p ∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 1.2: Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True) q : 27 is a prime number. (False)
r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
a. p ∧q : 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime number. (False)
b. p ∧r : 3 is an odd number and Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
2. Disjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective “or,” the proposition formed is called a logical
disjunction. “or” is denoted by “ ”. So, the logical disjunction of two propositions, p and q , is written:
p ∨q read as “ p or q ” or “ p disjunction q .”
p ∨q is false if and only if both p and q are false.
The truth table for disjunction is given as follows:
p q p ∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example 1.3: Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True); q : 27 is a prime number. (False)
s: Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
a. p ∨q : 3 is an odd number or 27 is a prime number. (True)
b. p ∨ s : 27 is a prime number or Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)

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 3. Implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective “implies,” the proposition formed is called a
logical implication. “implies” is denoted by “ .” So, the logical implication of two propositions, p and
q , is written: p ⟹ q read as “ p implies q .”
The function of the connective “implies” between two propositions is the same as the use of “If … then
…” Thus p ⟹ q can be read as “if p, then q .” p ⟹ qis false if and only if p is true and q is false.
The proposition p is called the hypothesis or the antecedent of the conditional proposition p ⟹ q
while q is called its conclusion or the consequent.
The following is the truth table for implication.
p q p⟹q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Examples 1.4: Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True) q : 27 is a prime number. (False)
r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
p ⟹ q: If 3 is an odd number, then 27 is prime. (False)
p ⟹ r : If 3 is an odd number, then Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
There are various ways of expressing the proposition p ⟹ q, namely:
q if p, p only if q , p is sufficient for q , q is necessary for p
4. Bi-implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective “bi-implication,” the proposition formed is called
a logical bi-implication or a logical equivalence. A bi-implication is denoted by “ ”. So the logical bi-
implication of two propositions, p and q , is written: p ⟺ q.
p ⟺ q is false if and only if p and q have different truth values.
The truth table for bi-implication is given by:
p q p⟺q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Examples 1.5: Let p: 2 is greater than 3. (False) q : 5 is greater than 4. (True)
Then p ⟺ q: 2 is greater than 3 if and only if 5 is greater than 4. (False)
There are various ways of stating the proposition p ⟺ q.
p if and only if q (also written as p iff q ), p implies q and q implies p,
p is necessary and sufficient for q , q is necessary and sufficient for p, p is equivalent to q .
5. Negation
Given any proposition p, we can form the proposition p called the negation of p. The truth value of p is
F if p is T and T if p is F .
We can describe the relation between p and p as follows.
p p
T F
F T
Example 1.6: Let p: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)

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 p: Addis Ababa is not the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
Exercise 1.1
1. Which of the following sentences are propositions? For those that are, indicate the truth
value.
a. 123 is a prime number. d. x 2−4=0.
b. 0 is an even number. e. Multiply 5 x+ 2 by 3.
c. What an impossible question!
2. State the negation of each of the following statements.
a. √ 2 is a rational number. b. 0 is not a negative integer. c. 111 is a prime number.
3. Let p: 15 is an odd number and q : 21 is a prime number.
State each of the following in words, and determine the truth value of each.
a. p ∨q c. p ∧q e. p ∨q g. p ∧q
b. p ⟹ q. d. q ⟹ p f. p ⟹ q h . q ⟹ p

1.1.3. Compound (or complex) propositions

Definition 1.2: The proposition formed by joining two or more proposition by connective(s) is called a
compound (complex) statement.
Note: We must be careful to insert the brackets in proper places, just as we do in arithmetic. For
example, the expression p ⟹ q ∧r will be meaningless unless we know which connective should
apply first. It could mean ( p ⟹ q)∧ r or p ⟹(q ∧ r ), which are very different propositions.
The possible truth values of a proposition are often listed in a table, called a truth table. If p and q are
propositions, then there are four possible combinations of truth values for p and q . That is, TT , TF , FT
and FF . If a third proposition r is involved, then there are eight possible combinations of truth values for
p,q and r . In general, a truth table involving “n” propositions p1, p2,…, pn contains 2n possible
combinations of truth values for these propositions and a truth table showing these combinations would
have n columns and 2n rows. So, we use truth tables to determine the truth value of a compound
proposition based on the truth value of its constituent component propositions.

Examples 1.7:
a. Suppose p and r are true and q and s are false. What is the truth value of ( p ∧q ) ⟹ (r ∨ s )?
i. Since p is true and q is false, p ∧q is false. iii. Since r is true and s is false, r ∨ s is true.
ii. Thus by applying the rule of implication, we get that ( p ∧q ) ⟹ (r ∨ s ) is true.
b. Suppose that a compound proposition is symbolized by: ( p ∨q)⟹(r ⟺ s)
and that the truth values of p , q , r , and s are T , F , F , and T , respectively. Then the truth value of p ∨q
is T , that of s is , that of r ⟺ s is T . So the truth value of ( p ∨q)⟹(r ⟺ s) is T .
Remark: When dealing with compound propositions, we shall adopt the following convention on the
use of parenthesis. Whenever “ ” or “ ” occur with “ ” or “ ”, we shall assume that “ ” or “ ” is
applied first, and then “ ” or “ ” is then applied. For example,
p ∧q ⟹ r means ( p ∧q) ⟹ r , q ⟹ p means ( q ) ⟹ (p)
p ∨q ⟺ r means ( p ∨q) ⟺ r , q ⟹ p ⟺ r means ((q)⟹ p)⟺ r
However, it is always advisable to use brackets to indicate the order of the desired operations.
Definition 1.3: Two compound propositions P and Q are said to be equivalent if they have the same
truth value for all possible combinations of truth values for the component propositions occurring in both
P and Q . In this case we write P ≡Q .

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Example 1.8: Let P : p ⟹ q , Q :q ⟹ p , R : p ⟹ q and S : p ∨q
p q p q p⟹q q⟹ p p⟹q p ∨q
T T F F T T F F
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T T T
T T
F F T T T T
Then, P ≡ Q , R ≡ S since columns 5 and 6; columns 7 and 8 of the above table are identical.
Given the conditional p ⟹ q, we give the related conditional propositions:-
q ⟹ p: Converse of p ⟹ q
p ⟹ q: Inverse of p ⟹ q
q ⟹ p: Contrapositive of p ⟹ q
Propositions, under the relation of logical equivalence, satisfy various laws or identities, which are
listed below.
1. Idempotent Laws 6. Commutative Laws
a. p ≡ p ∨ p. c. p ∧q ≡ q ∧ p .
b. p ≡ p ∧ p. d. p ∨q ≡ q ∨ p
2. Associative Laws 7. De Morgan’s Laws
a. p ∧(q ∧r ) ≡( p ∧ q)∧ r . c. ( p ∧q) ≡ p ∨ q.
b. p ∨(q ∨r ) ≡( p ∨ q)∨ r . d. ( p ∨q) ≡ p ∧ q
3. Distributive Laws
a. p ∨(q ∧r )≡( p ∨ q)∧( p ∨r ).
b. p ∧(q ∨r )≡( p ∧ q)∨( p ∧r ).

5.
4. Law of Contrapositive: p ⟹ q ≡q ⟹ p
Complement Law: ( p)≡ p .

1.1.4. Tautology and contradiction

Definition: A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true regardless of the truth values of its
component propositions. If, on the other hand, a compound proposition is always false regardless of its
component propositions, we say that such a proposition is a contradiction.
Examples 1.9:
a. Suppose p is any proposition. Consider the compound propositions p ∨ p and p ∧ p.
p p p∨ p p∧ p
T F T F
F T T F
Observe that p ∨ p is a tautology while p ∧ p is a contradiction.
b. For any propositions p and q . Consider the compound proposition p ⟹(q ⟹ p) and
( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧ q)

p q q⟹ p p ⟹(q ⟹ p) ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧ q)
T T T T F
T F T T F
F T F T F
T
F F T F

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We have exhibited all the possibilities and we see that for all truth values of the constituent
propositions, the proposition p ⟹(q ⟹ p) is always true. Thus, p ⟹(q ⟹ p) is a tautology, while
( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧ q) is a contradiction.
Remark: Two compounds propositions P and Q are equivalent if and only if “ P ⟺ Q” is a tautology.
Exercises 1.2
1. For statements p , q and r , use a truth table to show that each of the following pairs of
statements is logically equivalent or not.
a. ( p ∧q)⟺ p and p ⟹ q. d. p ⟹(q ∨ r ) and (r )⟹ ( p⟹ q ).
b. p ⟹(q ∨ r ) and q ⟹ (p ∨ r ). e. p ⟹(q ∨ r ) and ((r )∧ p)⟹ q.
c. ( p ∨q) ⟹ r and ( p ⟹ q ) ∧(q ⟹ r ).
2. For statements p , q, and r , show that the following compound statements are tautology.
a. p ⟹( p ∨q) b. ( p ∧ ( p ⟹ q ) )⟹ q c. ( ( p ⟹ q ) ∧ ( q ⟹r ) ) ⟹ (p ⟹ r ).
3. For statements p and q , show that ( p ∧q ) ∧( p ∧q ) is a contradiction.
4. Write the contrapositive and the converse of the following conditional statements.
a. If it is cold, then the lake is frozen. c. If it rains, Tigist does not take a walk.
b. If Solomon is healthy, then he is happy.
5. Let p and q be statements. Which of the following implies that p ∨q is false?
a . p ∨q is false c. p ∧q is true e . p ⟹ q is true.
b . p ∨q is true d. p ∧q is false.
6. Suppose that the statements p , q , r , and s are assigned the truth values T , F , F , and T ,
respectively. Find the truth value of each of the following statements.
a. ( p ∨q) ∨r d. r ⟹(s ∧ p). f. p ⟹(r ∨ s) h. ( r ∧ s ) ⟹( p ⟹(q ∨s ))
b. p ∨(q ∨r ) e. p ⟹(r ⟹ s) g. ( p ∨r ) ⟺(r ∧ s) i. ( s ⟺ p ) ⟹ (p ∨ s )
c. ( q ∧ s ) ⟹ (p ⟺ s) j. ( p ∨q ) ∨ r ⟹ (s ∧s ).
7. Suppose the value of p ⟹ q is T ; what can be said about the value of p ∧q ⟺ p ∨q ?
8. a. Suppose the value of p ⟺ q is T ; what can be said about the values of p ⟺ q and p ⟺ q?
b. Suppose the value of p ⟺ q is F ; what can be said about the values of p ⟺ q and p ⟺ q ?
9. Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.
a. p ⟹( p ⟹ q) c. p ⟹(q ∧ r ) e. ( p ∧q ) ⟹ ( ( q ∧ q ) ⟹(r ∧q))
b. ( p ∨q ) ⟺(q ∨ p) d. ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∨ q) f. ( p ⟹ ( q ∧r ) ) ∨( p ∧q)
10. For each of the following determine whether the information given is sufficient to decide
the truth value of the statement. If the information is enough, state the truth value. If it is
insufficient, show that both truth values are possible.
a. ( p ⟹ q)⟹ r , where r =T . d. ( p ∨q ) ⟺( p∧ q), where p ∨q=T .
b. p ∧(q ⟹ r ), where q ⟹ r =T . e. ( p ⟹ q ) ⟹(q ⟹ p), where q=T .
c. p ∨(q ⟹ r ), where q ⟹ r =T . f. ( p ∧q ) ⟹ (p ∨ s) , where p=T and s=F .

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1.2. Open propositions and quantifiers
In mathematics, one frequently comes across sentences that involve a variable. For example,
2
x + 2 x−3=0 is one such. The truth value of this statement depends on the value we assign for the
variable x . For example, if x=1, then this sentence is true, whereas if x=−1, then the sentence is false.
Section objectives:
After completing this section, students will be able to:-
 Define open proposition.
 Analyze the difference between proposition and open proposition.
 Differentiate the two types of quantifiers.
 Convert open propositions into propositions using quantifiers.
 Determine the truth value of a quantified proposition.
 Convert a quantified proposition into words and vise versa.
 Explain the relationship between existential and universal quantifiers.
 Analyze quantifiers occurring in combinations.
Definition 1.4: An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that contains one or more
variables and whose truth value depends on the values assigned for the variables. We represent an open
statement by a capital letter followed by the variable(s) in parenthesis, e.g., P ( x ) , Q(x ) etc.
Example 1.10: Here are some open propositions:
a. x is the day before Sunday b. y is a city in Africa c. x is greater than y d. x +4=−9
It is clear that each one of these examples involves variables, but is not a proposition as we cannot
assign a truth value to it. However, if individuals are substituted for the variables, then each one of
them is a proposition or statement. For example, we may have the following.
a. Monday is the day before Sunday b. London is a city in Africa c. 5 is greater than 9 d. –13 + 4= –9
Remark: The collection of all allowable values for the variable in an open sentence is called the
universal set (the universe of discourse) and denoted by U .
Definition 1.5: Two open proposition P(x ) and Q(x ) are said to be equivalent if and only if
P ( a ) =Q(a) for all individual a . Note that if the universe U is specified, then P(x ) and Q(x ) are
equivalent if and only if P ( a ) =Q(a) for all a ∈ U .
1
Example 1.11: Let P ( x ) : x 2−1=0 and Q ( x ) :|x|≥ 1. Let U ={−1 ,− , 0 , 1}.
2
Then for all a ∈ U ; P ( a ) and Q(a) have the same truth value.
2
P (−1 ) : (−1) −1=0 (T ) Q (−1 ) :|−1|≥1 (T )

( ) ( )| |
2
−1 −1 −1 −1
P :( ) −1=0 ( F ) Q : ≥ 1 (F)
2 2 2 2
P ( 0 ) :0−1=0 (F) Q ( 0 ) :|0|≥ 1 (F)
P ( 1 ) :1−1=0 (T ) Q ( 1 ) :|1|≥ 1 (T )
Therefore P ( a ) =Q(a) for all a ∈ U .
Definition 1.6: Let U be the universal set. An open proposition P ( x ) is a tautology if and only if P ( a ) is
always true for all values of a ∈ U .
Example 1.12: The open proposition P ( x ) : x 2 ≥ 0 is a tautology.
As we have observed in example 1.10, an open proposition can be converted into a proposition by
substituting the individuals for the variables. However, there are other ways that an open proposition
can be converted into a proposition, namely by a method called quantification. Let P(x ) be an open

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proposition over the domain S. Adding the phrase “For every x ∈ S ” to P(x ) or “For some x ∈ S ” to
P(x ) produces a statement called a quantified statement.
Consider the following open propositions with universe .
a. R ( x ) : x 2 ≥0 . b. P ( x ) : ( x +2 ) ( x−3 )=0. c. Q(x ): x 2 <0.
Then R ( x ) is always true for each x ∈ R, P(x ) is true only for x=−2 and x=3, and
Q(x ) is always false for all values of x ∈ R.
Hence, given an open proposition P(x ), with universe U , we observe that there are three possibilities.
a. P(x ) is true for all x ∈ U . b. P ( x ) is true for some x ∈ U . c. P(x ) is false for all x ∈ U .
Now we proceed to study open propositions which are satisfied by “all” and “some” members of the
given universe.
a. The phrase "for every x " is called a universal quantifier. We regard "for every x ," "for all x ,"
and "for each x " as having the same meaning and symbolize each by “ (∀ x).” Think of the
symbol as an inverted A (representing all). If P(x ) is an open proposition with universe U ,
then ( ∀ x ) P(x ) is a quantified proposition and is read as “every x ∈ U has the property P .”
b. The phrase "there exists an x " is called an existential quantifier. We regard "there exists an x ,"
"for some x ," and "for at least one x " as having the same meaning, and symbolize each by “ (∃ x )
.” Think of the symbol as the backwards capital E (representing exists). If P(x ) is an open
proposition with universe U , then (∃ x )P( x) is a quantified proposition and is read as “there
exists x ∈ U with the property P .”
Example 1.13: Consider the following
i. Let P ( x ) : x 2 +1≥ 0 . The truth value for ( ∀ x ) P(x ) [i.e ( ∀ x ) (x 2+1 ≥ 0)] is T .
1 1
ii. Let P ( x ) : x < x 2. The truth value for ( ∀ x ) (x< x2 ) is F . x= is a counterexample since ∈ R
2 2
1 1
but < . On the other hand, ( ∃ x ) P(x) is true, since −1 ∈ R such that −1<1.
2 4
iii. Let P ( x ) :|x|=−1. The truth value for ( ∃ x ) P(x) is F since there is no real number
whose absolute value is −1.
Relationship between the existential and universal quantifiers
If P ( x ) is a formula in x , consider the following four statements.
a. ( ∀ x ) P ( x ) b. ( ∃ x ) P(x) c. ( ∀ x ) P ( x ) d. ( ∃ x ) P(x)
We might translate these into words as follows.
a. Everything has property P c. Nothing has property P
b. Something has property P d. Something does not have property P
Now (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b), on the basis of everyday meaning.
Hence we conclude that:
( ∀ x ) P ( x ) ≡ ( ∃ x ) P(x ) and ( ∃ x ) P ( x ) ≡ ( ∀ x ) P(x ).
Example 1.14: Let U =R .
a. ( ∃ x ) ( x< x 2) ≡ ( ∀ x ) (x < x 2) ≡ ( ∀ x ) ( x ≥ x 2) .
b. ( ∀ x ) (4 x +1=0)≡ (∃ x ) (4 x +1=0) ≡ (∃ x ) (4 x +1 ≠ 0) .
Example 1.15: Let U =¿ The set of integers. Let P ( x ): x is a prime number;Q ( x ): x is an even number;
R ( x ): x is an odd number. Then,
a. ( ∃ x ) [ P(x )⟹ Q(x)] is T ; since there is an x , say 2, such that P(2)⟹ Q(2) is T .

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 b. ( ∀ x ) [P( x)⟹ Q(x )] is F . As a counterexample take 7. Then P(7) is T and Q(7) is F . Hence
P(7) ⟹ Q(7) is F.
c. ( ∀ x ) [R ( x) ∧ P(x )] is F . d. ( ∀ x ) [(R ( x ) ∧ P ( x ) )⟹ Q(x)] is F .
Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations
So far, we have only considered cases in which universal and existential quantifiers appear simply.
However, if we consider cases in which universal and existential quantifiers occur in combination, we
are lead to essentially new logical structures. The following are the simplest forms of combinations:
1. ( ∀ x )( ∀ y ) P ( x , y ): “for all x and for all y the relation P(x , y) holds”;
2. ( ∃ x ) ( ∃ y ) P(x , y ) : “there is an x and there is a y for which P(x , y) holds”;
3. ( ∀ x )( ∃ y ) P( x , y) : “for every x there is a y such that P(x , y) holds”;
4. ( ∃ x ) ( ∀ y ) P ( x , y ) : “there is an x which stands to every y in the relation P(x , y).”
Example 1.16: Let U =¿ The set of integers and P(x , y): x+ y=5.
a. (∃ x )(∃ y )P (x , y ) means that there is an integer x and there is an integer y such that x + y=5 .
This statement is true when x=4 and y=1 . Therefore, the statement (∃ x )(∃ y )P (x , y ) is
always true for this universe.
b. (∃ x )(∀ y) P(x , y ) means that there is an integer x 0 such that for every y , x 0 + y=5. This is false
since no fixed value of x 0 will make this true for all y in the universe; e.g. if x 0=1, then1+ y=5
is false for some y .
c. (∀ x)(∃ y) P(x , y ) means that for every integer x , there is an integer y such that
x + y=5 . Let x=a , then y=5−a will always be an integer, so this is a true statement.
d. (∀ x)(∀ y ) P(x , y ) means that for every integer x and for every integer y , x + y=5 . This is
false, for if x=2 and y=7 , we get 2+7=9 ≠ 5.
In the statement ( ∀ x )( ∃ y ) P( x , y) , the choice of y is allowed to depend on x - the y that works for
one x need not work for another x . On the other hand, in the statement ( ∃ y )( ∀ x ) P( x , y), the y must
work for all x , i.e., y is independent of x . For example, the expression ( ∀ x )( ∃ y ) (x< y), where x and y
are variables referring to the domain of real numbers, constitutes a true proposition, namely, “For
every number x , there is a number y , such that x is less that y ,” i.e., “given any number, there is a
greater number.” However, if the order of the symbol ( ∀ x ) and ( ∃ y ) is changed, in this case, we
obtain: ( ∃ y )( ∀ x ) (x< y), which is a false proposition, namely, “There is a number which is greater than
every number.” By transposing ( ∀ x ) and ( ∃ y ), therefore, we get a different statement.
The logical situation here is:
( ∃ y )( ∀ x ) P( x , y)⟹ ( ∀ x ) ( ∃ y ) P(x , y ).
Exercise 1.3
1. In each of the following, two open statements P(x , y) and Q(x , y) are given, where the
domain of both x and y is . Determine the truth value of P(x , y)⟹Q (x , y ) for the
given values of x and y .
a. P ( x , y ) : x2 − y 2=0. and Q ( x , y ) : x= y . ( x , y ) ∈{ ( 1 ,−1 ) , (3 , 4 ) ,(5 , 5)}.
b. P ( x , y ) :|x|=| y|. and Q ( x , y ) : x= y . ( x , y ) ∈{ ( 1 ,2 ) , ( 2 ,−2 ) ,(6 , 6)}.
c. P ( x , y ) : x2 + y 2=1. and Q ( x , y ) : x+ y=1. ( x , y ) ∈{ ( 1 ,−1 ) , (−3 , 4 ) , ( 0 ,−1 ) ,(1 , 0)} .
2. Let O denote the set of odd integers and let P ( x ) : x 2 +1 is even, and Q ( x ) : x 2 is even. be
open statements over the domain O . State ( ∀ x ∈ O ) P(x ) and ( ∃ y ∈O ) Q(x ) in words.

11
 3. State the negation of the following quantified statements.
1
a. For every rational number r , the number is rational.
r
b. There exists a rational number r such that r 2=2.
5 n−6
4. Let P ( n ) : is an integer. be an open sentence over the domain . Determine, with
3
explanations, whether the following statements are true or false:
a. ( ∀ n ∈ Z ) P(n) . b. ( ∃ n∈ Z ) P(n).
5. Determine the truth value of the following statements.
a. ( ∃ x ∈ R ) ( x 2−x =0) d. ( ∀ x ∈ N ) (x+ 1≥ 2) g. ( ∃ x ∈ R ) ( ∃ y ∈ R ) (x+ y+ 3=8)
b. ( ∀ x ∈ R ) ( √ x 2=x) e. ( ∃ x ∈Q ) (3 x 2−27=0) h. ( ∃ x ∈ R ) ( ∃ y ∈ R ) ( x 2+ y 2 =9)
c. ( ∀ x ∈ R ) (∃ y ∈ R ) (x + y=5) f. ( ∃ x ∈ R ) ( ∀ y ∈ R ) (x + y=5)
6. Consider the quantified statement
For every x ∈ A & y ∈ A , xy−2 is prime, where A={3 , 5 ,11} .
a. Express this quantified statement in symbols.
b. Is the quantified statement in (a) true or false? Explain.
c. Express the negation of the quantified statement in (a) in symbols.
d. Is the negation of the quantified in (a) true or false? Explain.
x
7. Consider the open statement P ( x , y ) : <1. where the domain of x is A={2 , 3 ,5 } and the
y
domain of y is B={2 , 4 , 6 }.
a. State the quantified statement ( ∀ x ∈ A ) (∃ y ∈ B ) P( x , y ) in words.
b. Show quantified statement in (a) is true.
8. Consider the open statement P ( x , y ) : x− y <0. where the domain of x is A={3 , 5 , 8} and
the domain of y is B={3 ,6 ,10 }.
a. State the quantified statement ( ∃ y ∈ B ) ( ∀ x ∈ A ) P( x , y ) in words.
b. Show quantified statement in (a) is true.

1. 3. Argument and Validity

Section objectives:
After completing this section, students will be able to:-
 Define argument (or logical deduction).
 Identify hypothesis and conclusion of a given argument.
 Determine the validity of an argument using a truth table.
 Determine the validity of an argument using rules of inferences.
Definition 1.7: An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of statements
p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn , called hypotheses or premises, yield another statement Q , called the conclusion. Such
a logical deduction is denoted by:
p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn ├ Q or p1
p2
f ( an )
pn
Q

12
Example 1.17: Consider the following argument:
If you study hard, then you will pass the exam. You did not pass the exam. Therefore, you did not study hard.
Let p: You study hard & q : You will pass the exam.
The argument form can be written as:

p q
q
p
When is an argument form accepted to be correct? In normal usage, we use an argument in order to
demonstrate that a certain conclusion follows from known premises. Therefore, we shall require that
under any assignment of truth values to the statements appearing, if the premises became all true, then
the conclusion must also become true. Hence, we state the following definition.
Definition 1.8: An argument form p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn ├ Q is said to be valid if Q is true whenever all the
premises p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn are true; otherwise it is invalid.

Example 1.18: Investigate the validity of the following argument:

a.
a ≠a i j c.
f ( a )≠ f ( a )
i j
b. If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not good.
Solution: First we construct a truth table for the statements appearing in the argument forms.
a.
p q p q p⟹q
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T
The premises p ⟹ q and q are true simultaneously in row 4 only. Since in this case p is also true, the
argument is valid.
b.
p q r q p⟹q q⟹r
T T T F T T
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F T F F T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T F
The 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 and 7 rows are those in which all the premises take value T . In the 5th, 6th and 7th rows
st nd th th th

however the conclusion takes value F . Hence, the argument form is invalid.
c. Let p: It rains, q : Crops are good, p: It did not rain, q : Crops were not good.
The argument form is p ⟹ q , p ├ q
Now we can use truth table to test validity as follows:
p q p q p⟹q
T T F F T

13
 T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T
The premises p ⟹ q and p are true simultaneously in rows 3 and 4th . In the 3rd row however the
rd

conclusion takes value F . Hence, the argument form is invalid.

Remark:
1. What is important in validity is the form of the argument rather than the meaning or content of the
statements involved.
2. The argument form p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn ├ Q is valid iff the statement
( p1 ∧ p2 ∧ p 3 ∧ … ∧ pn )⟹ Q is a tautology.
Rules of inferences: Below we list certain valid deductions called rules of inferences.
1. Modes Ponens
p
p⟹q
q
2. Modes Tollens
q
p⟹q
p
3. Principle of Syllogism
p⟹q
q⟹r
p⟹r
4. Principle of Adjunction
a. p
q
p ∧q
b. q
p ∨q
5. Principle of Detachment
p ∧q
p,q
6. Modes Tollendo Ponens
p
p ∨q
q
7. Modes Ponendo Tollens
( p ∧q)
p
q
8. Constructive Dilemma
( p ⟹ q ) ∧(r ⟹ s)
p ∨r
q∨s
9. Principle of Equivalence
p⟺q

14
 p
q
10. Principle of Conditionalization
p
q⟹ p

Formal proof of validity of an argument

Definition 1.9: A formal proof of a conclusion Q given hypotheses p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn is a sequence of
stapes, each of which applies some inference rule to hypotheses or previously proven statements
(antecedent) to yield a new true statement (the consequent).
A formal proof of validity is given by writing on the premises and the statements which follows from
them in a single column, and setting off in another column, to the right of each statement, its
justification. It is convenient to list all the premises first.
Example 1.19: Show that p ⟹ q , q ├ p is valid.
Solution:
1. q is true premise
2. p ⟹ q premise
3. q ⟹ p contrapositive of (2)
4. p Modes Ponens using (1) and (3)
Example 1.20: Show that the hypotheses
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.
If we go swimming, then it is sunny.
If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.
If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.
Lead to the conclusion: We will be home by sunset.
Let p: It is sunny this afternoon.
q : It is colder than yesterday.
r : We go swimming.
s: We take a canoe trip.
t : We will be home by sunset.
Then
1. p ∧q hypothesis
2. p simplification using (1)
3. r ⟹ p hypothesis
4. r Modus Tollens using (2) and (3)
5. r ⟹ s hypothesis
6. s Modus Ponens using (4) and (5)
7. s ⟹ t hypothesis
8. t Modus Ponens using (6) and (7)

Exercise 1.4
1. Use the truth table method to show that the following argument forms are valid.

15
 i. p ⟹ q , q ├ p iii. p ⟹ p , p , r ⟹ q ├ r iv . p ⟹ q , r ⟹ q ├ r ⟹ p.
ii. r ∨ s ,(s ⟹
p)⟹ r ├ p v. p ⟹ q , p ⟹ r , r ⟹ s ├ q ⟹ s.
2. For the following argument given a, b and c below:
i. Identify the premises. ii. Write argument forms. iii. Check the validity.
a. If he studies medicine, he will get a good job. If he gets a good job, he will get a good
wage. He did not get a good wage. Therefore, he did not study medicine.
b. If the team is late, then it cannot play the game. If the referee is here, then the team is
can play the game. The team is late. Therefore, the referee is not here.
c. If the professor offers chocolate for an answer, you answer the professor’s question. The
professor offers chocolate for an answer. Therefore, you answer the professor’s question

a.
3. Give formal proof to show that the following argument forms are valid.
p ⟹ q , q ├ p e. p ⟹ q , p ,r ⟹ q ├ r i. p ⟹ q , r ⟹ q ├ r ⟹ p
b. r ∧ s ,(s ⟹ p)⟹ r ├ p f. p ⟹ q , p ⟹ r , r ⟹ s ├ q ⟹ s.
c. p ∨q ,r ⟹ p ,r ├ q . g. p ∧q ,(q ∨r )⟹ p ├ r .
d. p ⟹(q ∨ r ), r , p ├ q . h. q ⟹ p , r ⟹ p , q ├ r .
4. Prove the following are valid arguments by giving formal proof.
a. If the rain does not come, the crops are ruined and the people will starve. The crops are not ruined
or the people will not starve. Therefore, the rain comes.
b. If the team is late, then it cannot play the game. If the referee is here then the team can play the
game. The team is late. Therefore, the referee is not here.

1.4. Set theory

In this section, we study some part of set theory especially description of sets, Venn diagrams and
operations of sets.
Section objectives:
After completing this section, students will be able to:-
 Explain the concept of set.
 Describe sets in different ways.
 Identify operations of sets.
 Illustrate sets using Venn diagrams.
1.4.1. The concept of a set
The term set is an undefined term, just as a point and a line are undefined terms in geometry. However,
the concept of a set permeates every aspect of mathematics. Set theory underlies the language and
concepts of modern mathematics. The term set refers to a well-defined collection of objects that share a
certain property or certain properties. The term “well-defined” here means that the set is described in
such a way that one can decide whether or not a given object belongs in the set. If A is a set, then the
objects of the collection A are called the elements or members of the set A . If x is an element of the set
A , we write x ∈ A . If x is not an element of the set A , we write x ∉ A .
As a convention, we use capital letters to denote the names of sets and lowercase letters for elements of a set.
Note that for each objects x and each set A , exactly one of x A or x A but not both must be true.
1.4.2. Description of sets
Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different ways.
1. Verbal Method
In this method, an ordinary English statement with minimum mathematical symbolization of the
property of the elements is used to describe a set. Actually, the statement could be in any language.

16
Example 1.21: a. The set of counting numbers less than ten.
b. The set of letters in the word “Addis Ababa.”
c. The set of all countries in Africa.
2. Roster/Complete Listing Method
If the elements of a set can all be listed, we list them all between a pair of braces without repetition
separating by commas, and without concern about the order of their appearance. Such a method of
describing a set is called the roster/complete listing method.
Examples 1.22:
a. The set of vowels in English alphabet may also be described as {a , e , i, o ,u }.
b. The set of positive factors of 24 is also described as {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 6 , 8 ,12 , 24 }.
Example 1.23:
a. Let A={a , b , {c }}. Elements of A are a , b and {c }.
Notice that c and { c } are different objects. Here { c } ∈ A but c ∉ A .
b. Let B= { { a } }. The only element of B is {a }. But a ∉ B .
c. Let C={a , b ,{a , b },{a , {a }}}. Then C has four elements.
The readers are invited to write down all the elements of C.
3. Partial Listing Method
In many occasions, the number of elements of a set may be too large to list them all; and in other occasions
there may not be an end to the list. In such cases we look for a common property of the elements and
describe the set by partially listing the elements. More precisely, if the common property is simple that it
can easily be identified from a list of the first few elements, then with in a pair of braces, we list these few
elements followed (or preceded) by exactly three dotes and possibly by one last element. The following are
such instances of describing sets by partial listing method.
Example 1.24:
a. The set of all counting numbers is N={1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , … }.
b. The set of non-positive integers is {… ,−4 ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 }.
c. The set of multiples of 5 is {… ,−15 ,−10 ,−5 , 0 5 ,10 , 15 , … }.
d. The set of odd integers less than 100 is {… ,−3 ,−1, 1 ,3 ,5 , … 99 }.
4. Set-builder Method
When all the elements satisfy a common property P, we express the situation as an open
proposition P(x ) and describe the set using a method called the Set-builder Method as follows:
A={x∨P(x )}∨ A={ x : P(x )}
We read it as “ A is equal to the set of all x ’s such that P(x ) is true.” Here the bar “∨‟ and the colon “
” mean “such that.” Notice that the letter x is only a place holder and can be replaced throughout by
other letters. So, for a property P, the set { x∨P(x )}, {t∨P(t)} and { y∨P( y )} are all the same set.

a. A={x∨x is a vowel ∈the English alphabet }

Example 1.25: The following sets are described using the set-builder method.

b. C={n∨n is a natural number ∧2n – 15is negative } e . D={ y∨ y 2 – y – 6=0}.

d. B={t∨t is an even integer }.

c. E={x∨x is aninteger ∧x – 1<0 ⟹ x 2 – 4>0 }.

Exercise: Express each of the above by using either the complete or the partial listing method.
Definition 1.10: The set which has no element is called the empty (or null) set and is denoted by ϕ
or {} .
Example 1.26: The set of x ∈ R such that x 2+ 1=0 is an empty set.
Relationships between two sets

17
Definition 1.11: Set B is said to be a subset of set A (or is contained in A ), denoted by B⊆ A , if every
element of B is an element of A , i.e.,
( ∀ x ) (x ∈ B ⟹ x ∈ A ).
It follows from the definition that set B is not a subset of set A if at least one element of B is not an
element of A . i.e., B⊈ A ⟺ ( ∃ x )( x ∈ B ⟹ x ∉ A ) . In such cases we write B⊈ A or A ⊉ B.
Remarks: For any set A , ϕ ⊆ A and A ⊆ A .
Example 1.27:
a. If A={a , b }, B={a , b , c } and C={a , b , d }, then A ⊆ B and A ⊆ C .
b. If S={x∨x is a multiple of 6 } andT ={x∨ x is even integer }, then S ⊆ T since every
multiple of 6 is even. However, 2 ∈T while 2 ∉ S. Thus T ⊈ S .
c. If A={a , {b }}, then {a }⊆ A and { {b } } ⊆ A . On the other hand, since b ∉ A , {b }⊈ A , and
{a , b }⊈ A .
Definition 1.12: Sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain exactly the same elements. In this case,
we write A=B . That is,
( ∀ x ) (x ∈ B ⟺ x ∈ A ).
Example 1.28:
a. The sets {1 , 2 ,3 }, {2 ,1 , 3 }, {1 , 3 , 2} are all equal.
b. {x∨ x is a counting number }={x∨x is a positive integer }
Definition 1.13: Set A is said to be a proper subset of set B if every element of A is also an element of
B, but B has at least one element that is not in A . In this case, we write A ⊂ B. We also say B is a proper
super set of A, and write B⊃ A . It is clear that
A ⊂ B ⟺[ ( ∀ x ) (x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈ B) ∧( A ≠ B)] .
Remark: Some authors do not use the symbol . Instead they use the symbol for both subset and
proper subset. In this material, we prefer to use the notations commonly used in high school
mathematics, and we continue using and differently, namely for subset and proper subset,
respectively.
Definition 1.14: Let A be a set. The power set of A , dented by P( A), is the set whose elements are all
subsets of A . That is, P ( A )={B : B ⊆ A }.
Example 1.29: Let A={x , y , z }. As noted before, ϕ and A are subset of A . Moreover,
{ x } , { y } , { z } , { x , y } , { x , z } and { y , z } are also subsets of A . Therefore,
P ( A )={ϕ , { x } , { y } , { z } , { x , y } , { x , z } , { y , z } , A }.
Frequently it is necessary to limit the topic of discussion to elements of a certain fixed set and regard
all sets under consideration as a subset of this fixed set. We call this set the universal set or the
universe and denoted by U .
Exercise 1.5
1. Which of the following are sets?
a. 1,2,3 b. {1,2},3 c. {{1},2},3 d. {1,{2},3} e. {1,2,a, b}
2. Which of the following sets can be described in complete listing, partial listing and/or set-builder
methods? Describe each set by at least one of the three methods.
a. The set of the first 10 letters in the English alphabet. d. The set of all countries in the world.
b. The set of students of Addis Ababa University in the 2018/2019 academic year.
c. The set of positive multiples of 5. e. The set of all horses with six legs.

a. A={x ∈ Z :−4 < x ≤ 4 } c. B= { x ∈ Z : x 2 <5 }

3. Write each of the following sets by listing its elements within braces.
e. C={ x ∈ N : x 3< 5 }

18
 b. D= { x ∈ R : x 2−x=0 } d. E={x ∈ R : x +1=0 }.
2

c. −16 ∈ A e. ϕ ∈ A g. 12 ⊂ A i. {2 , 8 , 14 } A
4. Let A be the set of positive even integers less than 15. Find the truth value of each of the following.

b. {2 , 3 , 4 }⊆ A d. {2 , 4 }∈ A f. ϕ ⊂ A h. {2 , 4 , 6 }⊆ A
a. 15 ∈ A

5. Find the truth value of each of the following and justify your conclusion.
a. ϕ ⊆ ϕ c.{1 , 2 }⊆ {1 , 2 }e.ϕ ∈ A for any set A g. {ϕ }⊆ A , for any set A
b. { 5 , 7 }⊆ {5 , 6 , 7 , 8 } d. ϕ ∈{{ϕ }} f. For any set A , A ⊂ A h. {ϕ }=ϕ

a. {ab } b. {1 , 1.5 } c. {a , b } d. {a , 0.5 , x }

6. For each of the following set, find its power set.

7. How many subsets and proper subsets do the sets that contain exactly 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,8 , 10 and 20 elements have?
8. If n is a whole number, use your observation in Problems 6 and 7 to discover a formula for the number of
subsets of a set with n elements. How many of these are proper subsets of the set?
9. Is there a set A with exactly the following indicated property?
a. Only one subset c. Only one proper subset e. Exactly 3 proper subsets g. Exactly 15 proper subsets
b. Exactly 6 proper subsets d. Exactly 30 subsets f. Exactly 14 proper subsets h. Exactly 4 subsets
10. How many elements does A contain if it has:
a. 64 subsets? b. 31 proper subsets? c. No proper subset? d. 255 proper subsets?

a. ϕ ∈ P(ϕ) b. For any set A , ϕ ⊆ P( A) c. For any set A , A ∈ P ( A ) d.

11. Find the truth value of each of the following.

For any set A , A ⊂ P( A)

12. For any three sets A , B and C , prove that:
a. If A ⊆ B and B⊆C , then A ⊆ C . b. If A ⊂ B and B⊂C , then A ⊂ C
2.4.3. Set Operations and Venn diagrams
Given two subsets A and B of a universal set U , new sets can be formed using A and B in many ways,
such as taking common elements or non-common elements, and putting everything together. Such
processes of forming new sets are called set operations. In this section, three most important
operations, namely union, intersection and complement are discussed.
Definition 1.15: The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all elements that are
either in A or in B (or in both sets). That is,
A ∪ B={ x :( x ∈ A)∨(x ∈ B)}.
As easily seen the union operator “ ” in the theory of set is the counterpart of the logical operator “ ”.
Definition 1.16: The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements that
are in A and B. That is,
A ∩ B={ x :(x ∈ A)∧(x ∈ B)}.
As suggested by definition 1.15, the intersection operator “ ” in the theory of sets is the counterpart of
the logical operator “ ”.
Note: - Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets if A ∩ B=ϕ.
Example 1.30:
a. Let A={0 , 1 ,3 , 5 , 6 } and B={1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 }. Then,
A ∪ B={0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 } and A ∩ B={1 ,3 , 6 }.
b. Let A = The set of positive even integers, and B = The set of positive multiples of 3. Then,
A ∪ B={ x : x is a positive intger that is either even∨a multiple of 3 }
¿ {2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 ,12 , 14 , 15 ,16 , …}

19
 A ∩ B={ x∨x is a positive integer that is both even∧multiple of 3 }
¿ {6 ,12 , 18 ,24 , … } ¿ {x∨x is a positive multiple of 6. }
Definition 1.17: The difference between two sets A and B, denoted by A−B , is the of all elements in A
and not in B; this set is also called the relative complement of B with respect to A . Symbolically,
A−B={x : x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B }.
Example 1.31: If ¿ {1 , 3 ,5 }, B={1, 2 }, then A−B={3 , 5 } and B− A={2 }.
Note: The above example shows that, in general, A−B are B− A disjoint.
Definition 1.18: Let A be a subset of a universal set U . The absolute complement (or simply
complement) of A , denoted by A ' (or Ac or A ¿, is defined to be the set of all elements of U that are not
' '
in A . That is, A ={ x : x ∈U ∧ x ∉ A } or x ∈ A ⟺ x ∉ A ⟺( x ∈ A).
Notice that taking the absolute complement of A is the same as finding the relative complement of A
with respect to the universal set U . That is, A' =U − A .
Example 1.32:
a. If U ={0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 }, and if A={3 , 4 } , then A' ={3 , 4 }.
b. Let U ={1 , 2, 3 , … , 12}, A={x∨x is a positive factor of 12 } & B={ x∨x is an odd integer ∈U } .
Then, A={5 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,10 , 11}, B={2 , 4 , 6 , 8 ,10 , 12 },
( A ∪ B)=¿, A ∪ B={2, 4 , 5 ,6 ,… , 12 },
A ∩ B={8 ,10 }, and ( A ¿)={1 ,3 , 5 ,7 ,8 ,9 , 10 , 11}.
c. Let U ={a , b , c , d ,e , f , g ,h }, A={a , e , g , h} and
B={b , c ,e , f , h }. Then
A={b , c , d , f }, B={a , d , g }, B – A={b , c , f },
A – B={a , g }, and ( A ∪ B )' ={d }.
Find ( A ∩ B)' , A ∩ B' , A ∪ B' . Which of these are equal?

1. ( A)= A . 3. A=U – A . 5. A – B=A B ' .

Theorem 1.1: For any two sets A and B, each of the following holds.

2. ( A B)=A B ' . 4. ( A B)=A B ' . 6. A ⊆ B ⟺ B ' ⊆ A ' .

Now we define the symmetric difference of two sets.
Definition 1.19: The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A Δ B , is the set
A Δ B= ( A−B ) ∪(B− A) .
Example 1.33: Let U ={1 , 2, 3 , … , 10} be the universal set, A={2 , 4 ,6 , 8 , 9 , 10 } and B={3 ,5 , 7 , 9 }.
Then B− A={3 , 5 , 7 } and A−B={2 , 4 ,6 ,8 , 10 }. Thus A ΔB={2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 10} .
Theorem 1.2: For any three sets A , B and C , each of the following holds.
a. A ∪ B=B ∪ A . ( is commutative)
b. A ∩ B=B ∩ A . ( is commutative)
c. ( A ∪ B)∪ C= A ∪( B ∪ C). ( is associative)
d. ( A ∩ B)∩C= A ∩(B ∩C ). ( is associative)
e. A ∪(B ∩C)=( A ∪ B)∩(A ∪ C). ( is distributive over )
f. A ∩(B ∪C)=( A ∩ B)∪(A ∩C). ( is distributive over )
Let us prove property “e” formally.
x ∈ A ∪ ( B ∩C ) ⟺(x ∈ A)∨(x ∈ B∩ C) (definition of )
⟺ x ∈ A ∨( x ∈ B ∧ x ∈C) (definition of )

20
⟺(x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B)∧(x ∈ A ∨ x ∈C) ( is distributive over
)
⟺(x ∈ A ∪ B)∧ ¿) (definition of )
⟺ x ∈( A ∪ B)∩( A ∪C)(
definition of )
Therefore, we have A ∪ ( B∩ C )=( A ∪ B)∩(A ∪ C).
The readers are invited to prove the rest part of theorem (1.2).
Venn diagrams
While working with sets, it is helpful to use diagrams, called Venn diagrams, to illustrate the
relationships involved. A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representative of the sets involved
in the discussion. Usually sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of which is enclosed in a
rectangle, which represents the universal set U .

In some occasions, we list the elements of set A inside the closed curve representing A .
Example 1.34:
a. If U ={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 } and A={2 , 4 ,6 }, then a Venn diagram representation of these two
sets looks like the following.

b. Let U ={x∨x is a positive integer less than 13 }

A={x∨x ∈U ∧x is even } B={ x∨x ∈ U∧x is a multiple of 3 }.
A Venn diagram representation of these sets is given below.

Example 1.35: Let U = The set of one digits numbers

A = The set of one digits even numbers, B = The set of positive prime numbers less than 10
We illustrate the sets using a Venn diagram as follows.

21
 A B U

0 4 3 1
2
6 5 9
8
7

Now we illustrate intersections and unions of sets by Venn diagram.

Cases Shaded is A ∪ B Shaded A ∩ B
Only some common
A B
elements A B

B B
A⊆B

A A

B
No common element A
B
A

A B=

Exercise 1.6
1. If B⊆ A , A ∩ B' ={1 , 4 ,5 } and A ∪ B={1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,6 } , find B.
2. Let A={2 , 4 ,6 , 7 , 8 , 9 }, B={1, 3 , 5 , 6 ,10 } and C=¿{ x :3 x +6=0 or 2 x+ 6=0 }. Find
a. A ∪ B. b. Is ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C= A ∪ (B ∪ C )?
3. Suppose U =¿ The set of one digit numbers and
A=¿{ x : x is an even natural number less than or equal to 9}
Describe each of the sets by complete listing method:
a. A ' b. A ∩ A ' c. A ∪ A ' d. ( A ')' e. ϕ−U f. ϕ ' g.
U'
4. Use Venn diagram to illustrate the following statements:
a. ( A ∪ B )' =A ' ∩ B' b . ( A ∩ B )' =A ' ∪ B ' c. If A ⊈ B, then A ¿ ≠ ϕ '
d . A ∪ A =U
5. Let A={ 5 ,7 ,8 , 9 } , B= {5 , 6 , 9 } and C={6 ,7 ,8 }. Then show that( A ¿ ) ¿ ≠ A ( B ¿ ¿ .

a. ϕ ∩{ϕ } b. {ϕ , {ϕ }}– {{ϕ }} c. {ϕ , {ϕ }}– {ϕ } d.

6. Perform each of the following operations.

7.
{{{ϕ }}}– ϕ
Let U ={2 , 3 ,6 ,8 , 9 , 11, 13 ,15 },
A=¿{ x ∈ U∨x is a positive prime factor of 66}, B=¿ { x ∈ U∨¿ x is composite number}

22
 and C={x ∈U ∨x – 5∈ U }. Then find each of the following.

8. Let A ∪ B={a , b , c , d , e , x , y , z } and A ∩ B={b , e , y }.

A ∩ B ,( A ∪ B)∩C , (A – B)∪ C , (A – B) – C , A – ( B – C ), (A – C) – (B – A ), A ∩ B ∩C

a. If B – A={x , z }, then A=¿ ¿

b. If A – B=ϕ, then B=¿ ¿
c. If B={b , e , y , z }, then A – B=¿ ¿
9. Let U ={1 , 2, … , 10 }, A={3 , 5 ,6 ,8 , 10 }, B={1 ,2 , 4 ,5 , 8 , 9 },

a. ( A ∪ B)∪ C= A ∪( B ∪ C).
C={1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,8 } and D={2 ,3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 9} . Verify each of the following.

b. A ∩(B ∪ C ∪ D)=( A ∩ B)∪( A ∩C )∪ ( A ∩ D)

d. C – D=C ∩ D

c. ( A ∩ B ∩C ∩ D)= A ∪ B∪ C ∪ D e. A ∩(B ∩C)=( A – B)∪( A – C)

b. C ∆ D c. ( A ∆ C ) ∆ D d.
10. Depending on question No. 9 find.
a. A ∆ B
( A ∪ B)( A ∆ B ¿

a. A ∆ B=B ∆ A b. A ∆ B=( A ∪ B) – ( A ∩ B) c. A ∆ ϕ=A d. A ∆ A=ϕ .

11. For any two subsets A and B of a universal set U , prove that:

12. Draw an appropriate Venn diagram to depict each of the following sets.
a. U = The set of high school students in Addis Ababa.
A = The set of female high school students in Addis Ababa.
B = The set of high school anti-AIDS club member students in Addis Ababa.
C = The set of high school Nature Club member students in Addis Ababa
b. U = The set of integers. A = The set of even integers. B = The set of odd integers.
C = The set of multiples of 3. D = The set of prime numbers.

Chapter Two
Functions
Our everyday lives are filled with situations in which we encounter relationships between two sets. For
example,
 To each automobile, there corresponds a license plate number
 To each circle, there corresponds a circumference
 To each number, there corresponds its square
In order to apply mathematics to a variety of disciplines, we must make the idea of a “relationship”
between two sets mathematically precise.
On completion of this chapter students will be able to:
 understand the concept of real numbers
 use properties of real numbers to solve problems
 determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
 solve linear equations and inequalities
 solve quadratic equations and inequalities
 understand the notion of relation and function
 determine the domain and range of relations and functions
 find the inverse of a relation

23
  define polynomial and rational functions
 perform the fundamental operations on polynomials
 find the inverse of an invertible function
 apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
 apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
 sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
 define exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
 sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
 use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions to solve problems
In this chapter, before discussing the idea of relations and functions we first review the system of real
numbers, linear and quadratic equations and inequalities.
2.1. The real number systems
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 understand the concept of real numbers
 use properties of real numbers to solve problems
 determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
In this section we will define what the real numbers are and what are their properties? To answer, we
start with some simpler number systems.
 The integers and the rational numbers
The simplest numbers of all are the natural numbers,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1≤i, j≤n
With them we can count: our books, our friends, and our money. If we adjoin their negatives and zero,
we obtain the integers; f
When we try to measure length, weight, or voltage, the integers are inadequate. They are spaced too far
apart to give sufficient precision. Thus, we are led to consider quotients (ratios) of integers, numbers
such as:

f and f −1

Note that we included f ={(y,x):(x,y)∈f} and f={(2,4),(3,6),(1,7)}, though we would normally write them as 8 and – 17, since they are
−1

equal to the latter by the ordinary meaning of division. We did not include f ={(4,2) (6,3) (7,1)} or f=¿¿, since it is
−1

impossible to make sense out of these symbols. In fact, let us agree once and for all to banish division
by zero from this section. Numbers which can be written in the form (5,4)¿¿, where f ={(4,2),(6,3),(4,5)} and x
−1
are integers
with y , are called rational numbers.
Do the rational numbers serve to measure all lengths? No. This surprising fact was discovered by the
ancient Greeks long ago. They showed that while y=f(x) measures the hypotenuse of a right triangle with
sides of length 1, it cannot be written as a quotient of two integers(see exercise…). Thus, Thus, y is
3
an irrational (not rational) number. So are y=f ( x )=x and a host of other numbers.
 The real numbers

24
Consider the set of all numbers (rational and irrational) that can measure lengths, together with their
negatives and zero. We call these numbers the real numbers.
−1
The set of real numbers denoted by f can be described as the union of the set of rational and irrational
numbers. i.e x = {x : x is a rational number or an irrational number}.
The real numbers may be viewed as labels for points along a horizontal line. There they measure the
distance to the right or left (the directed distance) from a fixed point called the origin and labeled 0.
Each point on the number line corresponds a unique real number and vice-versa.

Most students will remember that the number system can be enlarged still more to the so-called
complex numbers. These are numbers of the form y , where y and y=x are real numbers.
3

 The four arithmetic operations

Give two real numbers x and y , we may add or multiply them to obtain two new real numbers x= y
3

3 3
and √ x= y (also written simply as f −1(x)=√ x ). The real numbers along with the operations of addition (+) and
−1
multiplication ( f , obey the 11 properties listed below. Most of these properties are straightforward and
may seem trivial. Nevertheless, we shall see that these 11 basic properties are quite powerful in that
they are the basis for simplifying algebraic expressions.
The commutative Properties
1. For addition:
x
f −1 ( x )
2. For multiplication:
y = f ( x )=
x +2

The associative properties

3. For addition: x y
4. For multiplication:
The distributive property

5. y or
y=
x
x +2

Identities
6. For addition: There is a unique number called the additive identity, represented by 0,
which has the property that x for all real numbers y .
7. For multiplication: There is a unique real number called the multiplicative identity,
y
represented by 1, which has the property that x=
y +2 for all real numbers y .
Inverses
2x 2x
8. For addition: Each real number x(y+2)=y ⇔ xy+2x=y ⇔2x=y(1−x) ⇔y=
1− x has a unique additive inverse, represented by f −1 ( x)=
1−x ,
−1 1
f ( x )≠
which has the property that f ( x)
1
9. For multiplication: Each real number , except 0, has a unique multiplicative inverse,
−1
= [ f (x)]
f(x)

represented by f={(x,x ):x∈S}, which has the property that S={−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3}.

2

Closure properties
10. For addition: The sum of two real numbers is a real number.
11. For multiplication: The product of two real numbers is a real number.
Subtraction and division are defined by:
Z and f , where A={1,2,3}.

25
 ¿ ¿
In the product A , A and f:A→B are called factors, in the sum f , f ={(y,x)∈B×A:f(x)=y} and f are called terms.
¿

Example 2.1: The set of irrational numbers is not closed under addition and multiplication, because
¿
f and Range ( f ) , which are rational numbers.
 The order relation on the set of real numbers
The nonzero real numbers separate nicely into two disjoint sets – the positive real numbers and the
negative real numbers. This fact allows us to introduce the order relation < (read “is less than”) by
A is positive
¿
We agree that f and f will mean the same thing. The order relation B (read”is less than or
equal to”) is a first cousin of <. It is defined by
A is positive or zero
The order relation < has the following properties:
The order property
¿
1. Trichotomy: If f and f are numbers, exactly one of the following holds:
B or A or f −1=f ¿
2. Transitivity: A={x∈ℜ:0≤x≤1} and B={x∈ℜ:5≤x≤8}f:A→B f(x)=5+(8−5)x
3. Addition: A
4. Multiplication: When B is positive, f : ℜ → ℜ ,
When f(x)=4,x∈ℜ is negative, f : ℜ → ℜ
 Intervals
Let a and b be two real numbers such that af(x)=6x−1, x∈ℜb, then the intervals which are subsets of R with end
points a and b are denoted and defined as below:
i) f : ℜ→ℜ open interval from a to b.
2
ii) f ( x )=x +7 , x ∈ ℜ closed interval from a to b.
iii) f : ℜ→ℜ open-closed interval from a to b.
3
iv) f ( x )= x , x ∈ ℜ closed-open interval from a to b.
Exercise 2.1
1. Simplify as much as possible:

a) f : ℜ {7 ¿→ ℜ¿ b) x−7
f ( x)=
2x+1
c) f : ℜ → ℜ
, x ∈ℜ{7¿¿
d)
f (x)=1 5x+49, x∈ℜ
2. Which of the following statements are true and which of them are false?
a) The sum of any two rational numbers is rational.
b) The sum of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
c) The product of any two rational numbers is rational.
d) The product of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
3. Find the value of each of the following, if undefined, say so.
f(x)=|x , x∈ℜ d) f(x)=√x , x∈ℜ
2 2
a) f :ℜ→ℜ b. c) f:ℜ→ℜ e) f:ℜ→ℜ f) f(x)=x +4, x∈ℜ
−1
4. Show that division by 0 is meaningless as follows: suppose f ( x ) . If f(x)=7x−6 , then f ( x )=
4− x
3x ,
2
which is a contradiction. Now find a reason why f(x)= −(x+2) −1 is also meaningless.
2 x −9 5 x+3
5. Prove each if f ( x )= 4 , f ( x )= 1−2 x

26
 2 x 3
f ( x )= f ( x )=1−
a) 1+ x b) x
3
6. Which of the following are always correct if f (x)=√ x+1 ?
a) p b) x c) p d) x
2.2 Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 solve linear equations and inequalities
 solve quadratic equations and inequalities identify the notions of the common sets of numbers
 Linear Equations and inequalities
An equation is a symbolic statement of equality. That is, rather than writing “twice a number is four
2
less than the number,” we write p=80−x . . Our goal is to find the solution to a given equation. By
solution we mean the value or values of the variable that make the algebraic statement true.
Definition 2.1: (Linear Equation)
A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form x , where p and R=xp=x(80−x2)=80x−x3 are
n n−1
constants, and y=anx +an−1x +⋯+a1x+a0, an≠0..

Equations that have the same solutions are called equivalent equations. For example, a i and
n are equivalent equations because the solution set of both equations is {2}. Our goal here is to
take an equation and with the help of a few properties, gradually, change the given equation into an
equivalent equation of the form a n , where p(x)=a3x+a2x+a1x+a0, a3≠0. is the variable for which we are solving. These
32

properties are:
1. The addition property
If p(x)=2x +1 , then q ( x)=√ 3 x +2x−π . That is, adding the same quantity to both sides of an equation will
2 4

produce an equivalent equation.

2. The multiplication property
If f ( x)=2 x , then p . That is, multiplying both sides of an equation by the same nonzero
3

quantity will produce an equivalent equation.

Example 2.2: Solve for n : a) n b) n
Solution:
a) n −1 Simplify the right hand side
|x|
| y| Applying the addition property (add p( x ) to both sides)
d( x)

Thus,
d ( x)≠0 .
b) d ( x ) (The given equation)
p( x ) (Removing parentheses by distribution)
q ( x ) (Collecting like terms: ‘variables to the left and numbers to the right’)
R( x )

27
 ⏟p(x) =d(x)⏟ . q(x)
⏟ + ⏟R(x)
dividend divisor quotient remainder (Dividing both sides by 10)
Therefore, the solution set (S.S) is {1}.

1. Find the solution set of

R ( x )=0
Solution:
R ( x ) (The given equation)
This gives us:

d( x)
x 4 −1
x4+ 2 x Using addition property
x2 −2 x + 4
x 2 +2 x
|x 4 +0 x 3 + 0 x 2 +0 x +1
−( x 4 +2 x 3 )
− 2 x3+ 0 x2
−(−2 x 3 −4 x 2 )
4 x2+ 0 x
−( 4 x 2 + 8 x )
−8 x −1

⏟x4−1=(x⏟
2
+2x).(x⏟
2
⏟
−2x+4)+(−8x−1)
Hence, . That is, the solution set is {3}.
dividend divisor quotient remainder

2. A computer discount store held an end of summer sale on two types of computers. They
collected Birr 41,800 on the sale of 58 computers. If one type sold for Birr 600 and the other
type sold for Birr 850, how many of each type were sold?
Solution: If we let d(x) to be the number of Birr 600 computers sold, then x−r = the number of
computers that are sold for Birr 850 (since 58 were sold all together).
Our equation involves the amount of money collected on the sale of each type of computer that is, the
value of computers sold). Thus we have:
p( x )=( x−r )q ( x )+ R , which yields R
Hence, there were 30 computers sold at Birr 600 and 28 computers sold at 850.
Remark: The solution set of some equation can be the set of all rational numbers. This is the case
when the equation is satisfied by every rational number.
Example 2.3: Find the solution set of x =r
Solution: P(r )=(r−r )q(r)+R=0⋅q(r )+R (The given equation)
p ( r )= R (Removing parentheses by distribution)
p( x ) (Combining like terms)
This is always true whatever the value of x is. In fact, subtracting 3x from both sides of the last
equation we get 6=6 which is always true. This means the given equation is satisfied if you take any
number for x as you wish. Thus, S.S = x−r .
Remark: There are also some equations which cannot be satisfied by any number. For example, the
equation x+10 = x says ‘If you increase a number x by 10, the result is x itself (unchanged)’.
Obviously, there is no such a number. The solution set of such equation is empty set. If you try to
solve such equation, you end up with a false statement (false equality). For example, an attempt to
solve x+10 = x leads to the following:
10+x  x = x  x (Subtracting x from both sides of the equation)
10 = 0, which is false.
Hence, the solution set of x+10 = x is  (empty set).
Example 2.4: Find the solution set of p ( r )

28
Solution: P ( x )= x 3 − x 2 +3 x−1 (The given equation)
x −2 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
p ( 2 )=9 (Combining like terms)
x −r (Adding 3x to both sides)
9 = 2, which is false.
This means the solution set of the given equation is empty, .
Example 2.5: A man has a daughter and a son. The man is five times older than his daughter.
Moreover, his age is twice of the sum of the ages of his daughter and son. His daughter is 3 years
younger than his son. How old is the man and his children?
Solution: The unknowns in the problem are age of the man, age of his daughter, and age of his son.
So, let m = Age of the man; d = Age of the daughter; and s = Age of the son. Then, ‘The man is 5 times
older than his daughter’ means m=5d . Moreover, ‘Age of the man is twice the sum of the ages of his
daughter and son’ means m=2(d+s) . ‘His daughter is 3 years younger than his son’ means d = s 3.
Now, from the last (3rd ) equation you can get s = d +3. Substitute this in the 2nd equation to get
m=2(d +d+3) = 2(2d+3). Thais is, m=4d+6. Next substitute this in the 1st equation to get
4d+6 = 5d or 6 = 5d4d=d. Hence, d= 6. From this, s = d +3 = 6+3 = 9, and m=5d =56= 30.
Therefore, the age of the man is 30, age of his daughter is 6 and age of his son is 9.
Definition 2.2: (Linear Inequalities)
A linear inequality is an inequality that can be put in the form p ( x ) , where x−r and p(x) are constants with
x−r . (The p(x) symbol can be replaced with p(r)=0 or f )
To solve inequalities, we will need the following properties of inequalities.

For a , if b , then
1) a < b 2) f (a)f (b)<0 when f 3) a when b
Thus, to produce an equivalent inequality, we may add (subtract) the same quantity to (from) both
sides of an inequality, or multiply (divide) both sides by the same positive quantity. On the other hand,
we must reverse the inequality symbol to produce an equivalent inequality if we multiply (divide) both
sides by the same negative quantity.
Example 2.6:
1. Solve the linear inequality p ( x ) .
Solution: p ( x )= x2 +1 Simplify each side
i
−i Now apply the inequality property
¿ 1 Divide both sides by – 5
p( x ) Note that the inequality symbol is reversed
Thus, the solution set is n > 0 .
Example 2.7: Find the solution set of the inequality 3x 5(x+2)  0.
Solution: 3x 5(x 2)  0 (The given inequality)
3x 5x + 10  0 (Removing the parentheses by distribution)

29
 2x + 10  0 (Combining like terms)
2x  10 (Subtracting 10 from both sides)

x  p(x)
(Dividing both sides by 2 reverse the inequality)
That is, x  5. Therefore, S.S = {x: x  5}, the set of all real numbers less 5.
The solution of an inequality is sometimes required to be only in a given domain (set). If so, a solution
set should contain only those solutions that belong to the specified domain.
n n−1
Example 2.8: Find the solution set of p( x)=an x +an−1 x +⋯+a1 x+a0 in the set of natural numbers, ℕ.
Solution: n ≥1 (The given inequality)
a n≠ 0 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
p(x)=an (x−r1 ) (x−r2 )⋯(x−r n ) (Combining like terms; i.e., r i and 13+2= 11)
n ≥1 (Collecting like terms)
n (Next, division of both sides of this by 2 reverses the
inequality)

k; i.e., k
Thus, the solution of the given inequality in ℕ is {1, 2, 3}. (Recall: ℕ = {1, 2, 3, … })
Some inequalities may have no solution in the specified domain as in the following example.
3 2
Example 2.9: Find the solution set of p( x)=x −6 x −16 x in the set of whole numbers, W.
Solution: q ( x )=3 x 2 −10 x +8 (The given inequality)
4 3 2
f ( x)=2 x +8 x +10 x (Collecting like terms)
p( x )
p(x)= x3−6x2−16x=x( x2−6x−16)
=x(x−8)(x+2)
or p( x )
=x(x−8)(x−(−2))

However, there is no negative whole number. Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality in W
is , empty set. (Recall: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, … } )

Find the solution set of the inequality

q( x) in ℚ.
Example 2.10:
Solution: The inequality involves fractional numbers. Thus, like for the case of linear equations, clear
the denominators by multiplying both sides of the inequality by the LCM of the denominators. The
denominators in this equation are 6 and 2; and their LCM is 6. Thus, multiply every term in both sides
of the given inequality by 6. That is,
q ( x )=3 x 2 −10 x +8 =( 3 x− 4 ) ( x −2)
4
=3 ( x − )( x−2 )
3 (The inequality is not reversed because 60)
q ( x ) (Simplifying/clear denominators)
4
3

f ( x ) (Collecting like terms)

30
 f (x)=2x4 +8x3 +10x2 =2x2( x2+4x+5)
=2x2(x−(−2+i))(x−(−2−i)) (Next, division of both sides by 5)

−2+i
or −2−i . Therefore, S.S = { x ℚ | x  3 }.
 Quadratic Equations and Inequalities
A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation in which the highest degree of the variable is 2. We
define the standard form of a quadratic a quadratic equation as p ( x ) , where −1 .
As with linear equations, the solutions of quadratic equations are values of the variable that make the
3 4 2 3 4 2
equation a true statement. The solutions of p(x)=(x−(−1)) (x−2) (x−5) =(x+1) (x−2) (x−5) are also called the roots of the
polynomial equation kp ( x ) .

In solving the equation k

3 4 2
, if the polynomial f(x)=k(x+1) (x−2) (x−5) can be factored, the we can
use the zero product rule (which is stated below) to reduce the problem to that of solving two linear
equations. For example, to solve the equation f ( x )=32 , we van factor the left hand side to get
f ( 1)= k ( 1+1)3 ( 1−2 )4 ( 1−5 )2
. Hence, we can conclude thatf(x)= 4 (x+1) (x−2) (x−5) or x −2x+5=0 , which yields 1+2 i or 1−2 i .
2 1 3 4 2
32=k ( 8 )( 1)( 16 ) ⇒ k =14

The Zero-Product Rule: If p ( x ) , then a+ bi or a

Another method is to apply the Square Root Theorem.

The Square Root Theorem: If b , then p( x ) .

Example 2.11: Solve the following
a −bi c) 1− √ 3 i
4 3 2
a) b) r(x)=x +2x −9x +26x−20.
Solution: a) r( x) Put into standard form
1− √ 3 i Factor the left hand side
1 +√ 3 i Hence we have
x−(1−√ 3 i ) or x−(1+ √3 i ) Solving each linear equation, we get
r ( x ) or r ( x )
b) We note that there is no first-degree term, so our approach will be to apply the Square Root Theorem.
[ x−(1−√ 3 i )] Isolate [x−(1+√3 i )]= on the left-hand side before applying the
square root theorem
x 2 −2 x+4
r( x) Applying the square root theorem we get
r( x)
c) Since it is in the form of a squared quantity equal to a number, we will apply the Square Root
2
Theorem to get x −2 x +4 .
Part (c) of the above example illustrates that if we can construct a perfect square binomial from a
2 2 2
quadratic equation (i.e., get the equation in the form r( x)=( x −2x+4)(x +4x−5)=( x −2x+4)( x+5)( x−1)., then we can apply the Square Root
Theorem and solve for r(x) to get 1− √3 i .

31
The method of constructing a perfect square is called completing the square. It is based on the fact that
in multiplying out the perfect square 1+ √ 3 i , with −5 a constant, we get
p( x )
2 −B±√B2−4AC
Notice the relationship between the constant term, p(x)=Ax +Bx+C , and the coefficient of the middle term, x=
2A
.
:
The constant term is the square of half the coefficient of the middle term.
Example 2.12: Solve by completing the square: r .
Solution: p( x ) Divide both sides by 2, the coefficient of x−r
f (x)=an xn+an−1 xn−1+⋯+a1 x+a0 Isolate the constant term on the right-hand side
n≥1 , an ≠0 Take half the middle term coefficient, square it
nth , we add 4 to both sides of the
equation
p
q Factor the left hand side
f ( x )=0 Solve for p using the Square Root Theorem
q .
Unlike the factoring method, all quadratic equations can be solved by completing the square. If we
were to complete the square for the general quadratic equation ±1 , we would
arrive at the formula given below.

The Quadratic Formula: If p and a0 , then

q
Example 2.13: Solve the following using the quadratic formula: an .
3
Solution: Writing the equation in standard form we get, 2 . By the quadratic formula we
have:

a 3 x 3 +a 2 x2 +a1 x +a 0=0
( 32 ) +a ( 32 ) + a ( 32 )+ a =0 .
3 2
a3
Thus, the solution set is 2 1 0

27 a 3 9 a2 3 a1
+ + + a0 =0 27a3+18a2+12a1=−8a0. . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
A quadratic inequality is in standard form if it is in the form 8 4 2 . (We can replace 27a3=−18a2−12a1−8a0. . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)

with a 0 or a 3 .)
If we keep in mind that p(x)=2x +3x −23x−12. means
3 2 p
q is positive, then solving an inequality such as p
means we are interested in finding the values of −12 that will make q + p ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12 positive. Or, since
q , we are looking for values of ±1, ±2 that make
p
q positive. For
1 3
±1, ± , ±2, ±3, ± , ±4, ±6, ±12
2 2 to be positive, the factors must be either both positive or both negative. To determine
when this happens, we first find the values of p(x) for which p( 1)=−30 is equal to 0; we call these
the cut points of p(−1)=12 . The cut points are p(1) and p(−1) .

32
Thus, our approach in solving quadratic inequalities will be primarily algebraic. After putting the
inequality in standard form, we will determine the sign of each factor of the expression for various
values of p(x) . Then, we determine the solution by examining the sign of the product. This process is
called a sign analysis.
Returning to the problem −1 , we draw a number line and examine the sign of each factor
as P(− )=0 takes on various values on the number line, especially around the cut points.
1
2

Sign of ( x+ 2 )
1
p( x ) ++ + + + + + + + + + + +
p(x)=2x3+3x2−23x−12=(x+12 )(2x2+2x−24)

Sign of + + + + + + +
1
=2(x+12 )(x+4)(x−3) − 2

− 4
3
The above figure illustrates that the factor is negative when d ( x )≠0 and positive when f ( x )=
x+5 . It
x−1 x5+2x3−x+1
f ( x )= 2 f (x)=
is also shown that x −4 is negative when x+5x and positive when . Thus the product of the two
. Therefore, the solution set is x
3x−5
f (x)=
factors is positive when {x:d(x)≠0} and x 2−x−12 .
Remark: 1. The cut points of the inequalities will break up the number line into intervals.
2. The sign of the product does not change within an interval, i.e., if the expression is
positive (or negative) for one value within the interval, it is positive (or negative) for all
values within the interval.
2
Example 2.14: Solve the quadratic inequality x −x−12=0 .
Solution: Since we cannot factor f . , we use the quadratic formula to find that its roots are
2
x −x−12=(x−4)( x+3). This gives the cut points for the polynomial Dom(f)={x:x≠−3,4}. We use the sign analysis (see the
figure below) with the test points given. Note: f ( x ) .
n ( x)
=0⇔n ( x)=0 ∧ q( x)≠0
Sign of d( x) + 0 – 0 +
f ( x) 3 x−5=0 x=
5
3
5
3 f ( x)
Substituting the test values – 10, 1, and 100 for x in the expression x , we find that
is negative only when is in the interval .
Exercise 2.2
1. Solve the linear equations

a) d)

b) e)
c)
2. Solve the linear inequalities

a) b) c)
3. A truck carries a load of 50 boxes; some are 20 kg boxes and the rest are 25 kg boxes. If the
total weight of all boxes is 1175 kg, how many of each type are there?

33
 4. The product of two numbers is 5. If their sum , find the numbers.
5. Solve
a) c) e)

b) d)
6. Solve the quadratic inequalities:
a) b) c) d) e) p( a )
2
7. A student was given the inequality:
p( x )= x −5x+8 by x+4 . The first step the student took in solving this
3 2
inequality was to transform it into p(x)=2x −7x +x+4 by x−4 . Explain what the student did wrong.
2.3. Review of relations and functions
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
 define Cartesian product of two sets
 understand the notion of relation and function
 know the difference between relation and function
 determine the domain and range of relations and functions
 find the inverse of a relation
4 5 2
The student is familiar with the phrase ordered pair. In the ordered pair p(x)=1−x by x−1 and p(x)= x −2x −3 by x+1 ;
32
and p(x)=2x3−1 x2+10x+8 are the first coordinates while r(x)=4x −x −36 x+9 and r ( 4 )=0 are the second coordinates.
1

 Cartesian Product
Given sets r ( x ) and p(x)=x −3x −19x +87x−90 . Then, the set p ( x )
4 3 2
is the
Cartesian product of p(x) and p(x) , and it is denoted by p(0 )=6 .
Definition 2.3: Suppose 2−3i and p(x)=2x −5x +14x+39, are sets. The Cartesian product of p(x)=x −4x −7x+10 and p(x)=2x −5x −28x+15, denoted by p(x)=6x +x −4x+1 , is the set
32 32 32 3 2

3
f(x)= 2
which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate is an element of x −25 and second coordinate is an element
x−3
g(x)= 2
of x 4x−12 , i.e.
( x −3 )2 x 2−16
f ( x )= f ( x )=
x 3−3 x 2 + 2 x and x2 +4 .
1− x x 2 +1
f ( x )=
Example 2.15: For x−3 and f ( x )= x , we have
1
f ( x )= +2
a) x , and
x2
f ( x )=
b) . x 2− 4

From this example, we can see that f ( x)= x−3 and x are not equal. Recall that two sets are equal if
3
x −8 x−3

one is a subset of the other and vice versa. To check equality of Cartesian products we need to define
equality of ordered pairs.
Definition 2.4: (Equality of ordered Pairs)

Two ordered pairs

y=f(x)=
x2−x+6 8
=x+1+
x−2 x−2 and y=x+1 are equal if and only if y=f ( x ) and n .

Example 2.16: Let x and x

n
. Then,
nth .

34
 Definition 2.5: (Relation)
If x and x are sets, any subset of n is called a relation from A into B.
xn= ⏟
x⋅x⋅⋯⋅x
Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. Then, R A×B and hence for each n factors each equal to x
, we
have either x
n
or x . If n , we say “a is R-related (or simply related) to b”, and
n
write 2 =2×2×2×2×2=32. If x
5
, we say that “a is not related to b”.
In particular if R is a relation from a set A to itself, then we say that R is a relation on A.
Example 2.17:
1. Let n and n . Let x0=1(x≠0) be the relation “less than” from x
1
x−n= n ( x≠0 )
to 00. Then,
1 n
= x
x− n
.
n m n+m n n n
2. Let x ⋅x =x and ( xy) =x y .
n m nm x n n−m
a) The following are relations from (x ) =x into xm
=x
;
( )
n
x xn
= ( y≠0 )
i) y yn
1

ii) a 2

iii) 9 2

b) The following are relations from 9 to (9 ) =9 =9;

1 12 1
2 2 2

i) 9 2

ii) a 2

iii) a
1

Definition 2.6: Let a be a relation from 9 =3 into a . Then,

1
2 3

1
1

a) the domain of a2 , denoted by 8 3

, is the set of first coordinates of the elements of
(8 ) =8 =8 , i.e
13 3
3 3

8 3

b) the range of 23=8 , denoted by , is the set of second coordinates of elements of (−27 )3=−3

, i.e
1

a 3

Remark: If a is a relation form the set a to the set a , then the set n is called the codomain of the
1
n

relation a =b . The range of relation is always a subset of the codomain.

n

Example 2.18:
1. The set b = a is a relation from the set n to the set a ≥0 .
n
1
n th
The domain of a =|b| is b =a , the range of a is n and the codomain of a is a
1 1
n
n n
.
2. The set of ordered pairs n
th
is a relation between the sets n and
a , where ( 16 ) =4 is the domain and 4 =16 is the range.
1
2
2

Remark:
1

1. If (−125 ) =−5 for a relation (−5) =−125 , we say ( ) is related to (or paired with) ( 3) =81 . Note that 27 =3 may also
4
3 3
1
1 4 1 1 1 1
= 3
81 3
1
3
be paired with an element different from 3 =27 . In any case, (−16 ) is called the image of a while n is
1
4 n

called the pre-image of a . n

35
 2. If the domain and/or range of a relation is infinite, we cannot list each element assignment, so
instead we use set builder notation to describe the relation. The situation we will encounter
most frequently is that of a relation defined by an equation or formula. For example,
m
is a relation for which the range value is 3 less than twice the domain value. Hence,
n and
m
n are examples of ordered pairs that are of the assignment.
Example 2.19:
m
th
and let a be the relation on a =(a ) defined by n
1 m 1 m

1. Let a n n n n
is a factor
th
of m . Find the domain and range of
m
− 1
a n = m ( a≠0 )
an .
Solution: We have
2

27 3
.
1 3
− −
Then, 36 and ( −32 ) .
2 5

is cube root ofa . Find

1

2. Let 27 =( 27 )
3
2 1 2 − 1 1 −5 1 1 1 1
2 36 2
= = (−32) = = = =−
=3 =9 and . Let
3 3
3
8
3 3
((−32) ) (−2 )
1
2 6 (−32 ) 5
1
5
36

b) a
th
a) nth c) n
Solution: We have a n
and √ a and 64 are in
1

an whereas
and a
n th
125 is not in n . Thus, √ a ,n .
Remark:
1. A relation nth on a set a is called
i) a universal relation if a
ii) identity relation if n
iii) void or empty relation if √a =¿ {|a|, if nis even¿¿¿¿
nn

x
2. If √ 53=5 is a relation from √(−3) =3 to f(x)=x , then the inverse relation of n , denoted by f (x)=n , is a relation
3 4 4 n

from y=f(x)=b to b>0 and is defined as:

x

b ≠1 .
x x
Observe that f ( x )=2 and g ( x )=3 . For instance, if
(1
2 ) is a relation on a set f ( x )=3 , then x
x
h ( x )= x

1 4
Example 2.20: Let x=4, be a relation defined on 2 by 5 .
1 1 1 4
f (−2)=3−2= 2 = ( 12 )=3 =√ 3 √√
5 5
f( 45 )=35 = 34 = 81
c) f
4 2

Find a) f(4)=3 =3⋅3⋅3⋅3=81 b) 3 9 d)

Solution: The smallest natural number is 1.
√3 √5 81 f ( x )
x
f ( √ 2 )=3 √ 2 =?
x
b
x
3√ 2

36
Therefore,√ 2 , 1 . 414< √2<1 . 415 , 31 . 414 <3 √2 <3 1. 415 and
1 . 414
3 .
Functions
Mathematically, it is important for us to distinguish among the relations that assign a unique range
element to each domain element and those that do not.
Definition 2.7: (Function)
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one element of the range.

Example 2.21: Determine whether the following relations are functions.

1 . 415
a) 3 b) {(2,4),(3,4),(6,-4)}
Solution:
a) Since the domain element 3 is assigned to two different values in the range, 5 and 7, it is not a function.
√2
b) Each element in the domain, 4.7276950<3 <4. 7328918 , is assigned no more than one value in the range, 2 is
assigned only 4, 3 is assigned only 4, and 6 is assigned only – 4. Therefore, it is a function.
Remark: Map or mapping, transformation and correspondence are synonyms for the word function. If
√ 2 is a function and 31.4142<3√ 2<3 1. 4143 , we say x is mapped to y.
√2
Definition 2.8: A relation 4.72873 9<3 <4.729 53 from A into B is called a function from A into B, denoted by
3√ 2 √2
or 3 ≈4.7288044
if and only if
(i) x
(ii) No element of A is mapped by √ 2 to more than one element in B, i.e. if 3 x and
√2
3 , then y=b
x

Remark: 1. If to the element x of b>0 corresponds b≠1 under the function x , then we write
−3 1
y= 2x and x is called the image of x under y and x is called a pre-image of −3 under 2 = 8 .

2. The symbol −2 is read as “ of x” but not “−1 times x”.

2−2= 14

2−1= 12
3. In order to show that a relation from A into B is a function, we first show that the domain
C1 C2

of
R1 15 20
R2 10 16
is A and next we show that well defined or single-valued, i.e. if [
A= a
c
b
d ] in A, then
[ ] in B for all [ ].
a b c a b c d
B= b c d E=
c d e b c d e

Example 2.22:
[ ] and [ ] . Which of the following are functions from F=[b c d e] to
1 2 1

[ ].
2 3 2 1 2 3
C= D=

1. Let
3 4 3 B= 2 3 4
4 5 4 3 4 5

[12 23 34 ] defined by [ ]
1 3
2 4
a) 3 5

b) [34 45 ] defined by A=
[5
0
4
2 ]
c)
B=
[ac db ] defined by A =
[1
3
2
−1 ]
d)
B=
[α−βα −12] defined by [ 0
0
0
0 ]

37
 [ ] defined by [ ]
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
e) 0 0 0
0
0
0
0

Solution: a) [ ] is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element of { .
0000 1, if i> j

0000 x ij= 0, if i= j
−1, if i<j

b) [ ] is not a function because there is no element of B which correspond to 4 ( [

1 2 3
A= 2 3 4
3 4 5
J=
15 20
10 16 ]A).

c) [ ] is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element

12 28
F=
20 14

of B. In the given function, the images of all element of A are the same.
d) [10 16][20 14] [10+20 16+14] [30 30] is not a function because there are two elements of [ ] which are corresponding to 2.
15 20 12 28 15+12 20+28 27 48
J + F= + = = A= a b
c d

In other words, the image of 2 is not unique.

e)
B=
[wy xz ] is a function because to each element of [ ] there corresponds exactly one element of C= 2 0 4
−1 1 1

D= [10 −21 03]

As with relations, we can describe a function with an equation. For example, y=2x+1 is a function,
[ ][ ][ ]
A + B= a b + w x = a + w b + x
c d y z c+ y d+z

since each x will produce only one .

2. Let
[
C+ D= 2 0 4 + 1 1 0 = 3 1 4
−1 1 1 0 −2 3 −1 −1 4 ][ ][ ]. Then, [ ] maps: J=
15 20
10 16

1 to 1 -1 to 1
2 to 4 -2 to 4
3 to 9 -3 to 9
More generally any real number x is mapped to its square. As the square of a number is unique,
M=
[1814 2220]
maps every real number to a unique number. Thus, [2(10) 2(16)] 20 32 is a function from [ ] into [0 1 ].
2J= =
[]
2(15) 2(20) 30 40 1 2
M=
2 1
1

2
(18)

(14)
1
(22)
[ ]
2 9 11
1 7 10
2
(20)
= A=
1 2

We will find it useful to use the following vocabulary: The independent variable refers to the variable
representing possible values in the domain, and the dependent variable refers to the variable
representing possible values in the range. Thus, in our usual ordered pair notation
B=
[ 21 01 ], x is the
independent variable and [c d ] is the dependent variable.
a b
C=

 Domain, Codomain and range of a function

For the function
2(A+B)=2
[1+20+1 2+01+1]=2[31 22]=[2(3)2(1) 2(2)2(2)]=[62 44]
The set [ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] is called the domain of [−2 2 ]
2(1) 2( ) 2( ) 2(0) 24 40 64 4 0
A=
2 A +2 B = + = + =
(i) 2(0) 2(1) 2(1) 2(1) 02 22 24

The set [ ] is called the codomain of 2[8−(−2) 0−2] 210 −2 5−1

(ii)
X= = =
B= 6 −4
8 0
[ ][ ] 1 6−4 −4−0 1 2 −4 1−2

of all image of elements of [ ][ ] [ ] is called the range of [a a a ]

Peanuts Hot Dogs Sodas
120 250 305 2.0 1828.75 a11 a12 a13
South Stand 120 250 305 2 . 00 A= 207 140 419 3.0 = 1986.25

(iii) The set

North Stand 207 140 419 3 . 00
West Stand 29 120 190 2 . 75 29 120 190 2.75 940.50 21 22 23

Example 2.23:
[ ] and [ ][
R1 C 1 R1 C 2 a11 b 11+a 12 b 21+a 13 b 31 a 11 b12+a12 b22+a13 b32
]. Let [ 00 ] be the correspondence which assigns to
1
b11 b12
B= b21 b22 AB= = A=
1. Let b31 b32 R 21 C1 R2 C 2 a21 b11+a22 b 21+a23 b31 a21 b12 +a22 b22 +a23 b32 0

each element in [0 0 ], its square. Thus, we have

B=
1 0 AB=
[00 10 ][ 10 00 ]=[ 00 00 ] . Therefore, BA=[10 00][00 10]=[00 10] is a
function and AB≠ BA , A ≠0 and codomain of B≠0 is AB≠BA .

38
2. Let A ≠0 . Let B≠0 and AB=0 represent the elements in the sets 2 and
A≠I A≠−I 2
,
respectively. Let [ ] be a function defined by [ ].
−1 −1 1 2
A= A=
3 3 3 4

The variable [ ] can take values 2, 4, 6, 7, 9. Thus, we have

1 2
B=
1 c

A =
[ 12
3
4 ].
This implies that
B=
[ −1
0
2
1 ] and codomain
of
C=
[24 10 ]is [ ]
J= 15 20
10 16

] defined by I =[ 0 1 ]
1 0
[ac bd ] be the subset of [ . Is [ ] a function?
1 2 −1 1 0 0
A= B= 0 1 3 2 I 3= 0 1 0

3. Let 4 2 −2 0 0 1

Solution: First we note that [ ] [ ] [ ] . Then, [ ] [ ] [ ] satisfies condition (i) in the definition of a
1 0 0 0 0 0 200 00 0 000
D= , E= and F= D= 0 4 0 , E= 0 3 0 and F= 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 -2 0 0 5 0 0 −2 0 0 0

[ 3 ] [ ] and [ ] but [ ] . Thus [ ] is not well

3 0 2
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
3
0
2
2
1
7
0 −1 1
0 0 0
0
function. Now, , 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 0

defined. Hence, [ ] is not a function from [ ] to [ ] .

0 0 0 3 0 0
0 0 0
0 4 0 1 2 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 −2 4 3 0 2 0

Let [ ] be the subset of [ [ ] . Is [ ] a function?

1 0 0 2 1 3 1 1

4.
0 2 0
0 0 3 ] defined by A=
1 −1 −1
1 2 3
B= 1
3
5
−3
−3
7
At = −1 2
−1 3

Solution: First we show that [ ] satisfies condition (i) in the definition. Let [ ] be any element of
2 1 3
Bt= 1 5 −3 0 1 3
A= −1 0 2
3 −3 7 −3 −2 0

[ ] . This implies that A = A t . Thus,

0 −1 −3

[ ]. Then, [ ] . Hence,
0 1 3
2 1 3
B= 1 5 −3 A = −1 0 2 At = 1 0 −2
3 −3 7 −3 −2 0 3 2 0

[ ] . However, [ ] and so B= Bt . Now, [ ] and [

2 1 3 2 1 3
B= 1
3
5
−3
−3
7 ]. Bt = 1
3
5
−3
−3
7
A= 1
3
−1
2
B= 3
0
−2
1

[ ] and [ ] ( ) [ ] are in [ ] . Hence we find that ( ) [ ] [ ] and

3 12 6 3 12 6 1 4 2 14 2
1 1 4 2 1 42
A= 1 1 −1 A= 1 1 −1 R 1 → R 1 1 1 −1 (Scaling R 1 ) R2→R2+(−1)R1, R3→R3+(−1)R1 0−3 −3 (Replacing R2 and R3) 1
R2 → − R2 0 1 1 (Scaling R2) R3 → R3+2R2 0 1 1 (Replacing R3 )

Thus,
3 3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 0−2 1 0 −2 1 0 03

[ ] . This implies that [ ] () [ ] is not well defined, i.e, [ ] does not satisfy
1 4 2 142 142 140
1
0 1 1 B= 0 1 1 R3 → R3 0 1 1 (Scalin g R3) R2→R2+(−1)R3, R1→R1+(−2)R3 010 (Replacing R1and R2)
3
0 0 3 003 001 001

condition (ii). Hence, [ ] is not a function from [ ] to [ ].

100
A= 4 3
R1 →R1+(−4)R2 0 1 0 (Replacing R1). 1 0 0
I 3= 0 1 0
001 0 0 1 2 1

5. Determine whether the following equations determine [ ] as a function of [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ], if so, find the
0 1 1 1 −1 0 4 0 0 1 2 0
B= 1 0 1 A= 0 5 0 , B= 0 0 0 ,C= 1 0 5 2 , D= 0 5 1
1 1 0 0012
0 0 1 000 000

domain.

[ ]
0 0 2 3
A= 0 2 0 1
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 3 0 1 1 5

a)
P= 0 1 0 , Q= 0 1 4 , R=[1 0 0 2
0 0 1 2], S= 0 0 1
0 1 1 5
0 2 0 1 R1 ↔ R 3 0 2 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
b) c) 0 1 1 5 0 0 2 3

Solution:
[ ] gives [ ] as a function of
0 1 1 5

[ ], we need to know whether each x-

0115
R2 → R2 +(−2) R1 0 0 −2 −9 011 5
() 1
R 2 → − R2 0 0 1
9 9

a) To determine whether
2 2 R3 → R3 +(−2)R2 0 0 1
0 0 2 3 0023
2
0 0 0 −6

R3
, we can see that once [ ] is
0115
1 9

value uniquely determines a y-value. Looking at the equation

R3 ↔ R3+(− )R3 0 0 1
6 2
0001

[ ]. Therefore,
0110
9
R1 →R1+(−5) R3,R2 →R2+(− )R3 0 0 1 0

chosen we multiply it by – 3 and then add 5. Thus, for each x there is a unique
2
0001

[ ] is a function.
0 1 0 0
R1 → R1 +(−1) R2 , 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

[ ]
0 1 0 0
Ā= 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
b) Looking at the equation carefully, we can see that each x-value uniquely
determines a y-value (one x-value can not produce two different y-values). Therefore,

[10 21 07], B=[00 00 10 20], C=[00 00 10 20 01 43]

1000 110005
A=
is a function.

39
 As for its domain, we ask ourselves. Are there any values of [ ] [ ] [ ] that must be excluded?
123
1 213 1203
2 1 −2
A= , B= −3 2 1 0 , C= 2 1 2 2
30 0
3 211 1103
321

[ ][ ][ ][ ]
100 100 110
1002
A= 0 1 0 , B= 0 1 4 , C= , D= 0 0 0
0012
is a fractional expression, we must exclude any value of [ ] that makes the
1 1 2
001 000 000
Since
A= 2 2 5 .
3 3 2

denominator equal to zero. We must have

[ ]
1 1 0
~
A= 0 0 1 .
0 0 0

[] [ ]
112 1 1 0
A= 0 1 1 . 0 1 0 .
[ ]
1 0 0
At = 1 1 0 .
000 0 0 0
Therefore, the domain consists of all real numbers except for . Thus, 2 1 0
.
[ ] [ ], if we choose
[ 53 24 ]
1000 110005
A= [ ], B= 0 0 1 2 , C= 0 0 1 2 0 4
52
[ ][ ][ ]
120
017
A= P=
1 2 3
2 1 −2
1 2 1 3 1 2 0 3
, Q= −3 2 1 0 , R= 2 1 2 2 det(A)=| |=(5)(4)−(3)(2)=14.
c) For the equation we get , which gives . In other 34
3 0 0
0000 000013 3 2 1
3 2 1 1 1 1 0 3

[ ] [ ]
1 0 2

words, there are two [ ]values associated with

2 4 0 2 4 0 1 1
−1 2 3 2 3 −1
det(A)=|3 −1 2 |=2| |−4| |+0| | a) A= b) B= 1 1 3
A= 3 −1 2 −1 2
. Therefore, is not a function.
1 1 2 1 2 1
2 1 1
2 1 1 =2(−1−2)−4(3−4)+0(3+2)=−6+4+0=−2. 2 0 1

M (A)=2,M (A)=1, M (A)=−1, M (A)=1

6. Find the domain of the function 1 21 12 2 .
Solution: Since [−1 1] is defined and real when the expression under the radical is non-negative,
[Cij(A)]= 2 1

M (B)=|1 3|=1,M (B)=|0 2|=0, M (B)=|0 2|=−2, M (B)=|1 3|=−5

we need 01 01 13 21 to satisfy the inequality
1 21 31 12

M 22 (B)=|1 2|=−3, M 32 (B)=|1 2|=1, M 13(B)=|1 1|=−2, M 23 (B)=|1 0|=0, M 23 (B)=|1 0|=1
2 1 1 3 2 0 2 0 1 1
This is a quadratic inequality, which can be solved by analyzing signs:

[ ]
1 0 2

[ C ij ( B)] = [
1 5 −2
0 −3 0
]
a ) A= [ ]
1 1
−1 2
b) B= 1 1 3
2 0 1
Sign of −2 −1 1

Since we want
[ −1
2 1
1 ] to be non-negative, the sign analysis shows us that the
domain is [ ] or [ ] .
1 5 −2 1 1 0
0 −3 0 A= 0 2 1
−2 −1 1 1 2 0

Exercise 2.3
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] defined by [ ] [ ] [ ].
1 2 3 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 3 4 3 −6 3 0 0 2 0 0
A= 0 0 0 , B= 0 2 0 , C= −2 −2 1 , D= −1 −1 −3 A= 0 2 9 , B= 3 4 0 , D= 0 3 0

1. Let R be a relation on the set 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 3 2 1 5 0 0 5

[ ]
1 0 2
43−6 300 200 A= 2 −1 1

i) List the elements of ii) Is

det(A)=|02 9 |=(4)(2)(3)=24, det(B)=|340|=(3)(4)(5)=60, det(D)=|030|=(2)(3)(5)=30
00 3 215 005 1 1 3

[ ] defined by [ ] divides
1 0 2 3 1 0 1 0 1
A= 2 −1 1 A= 1 0 1 det(B)=|3 1 0 |=2
2. Let R be a relation on the set 1

31 0
1 3 0 1 −1 0 1 −1
.
i) List the elements of
det(B)=|4 0 4 |=−8
0 1 −1

R2 → R2 +2 R1
ii) Find
3 1 0
det(B)=|7 2 1 |=−2
iii) Find the elements of 0 1 −1

iv) Find
A=
[1
3
2
−1 ]
3. Let
B=
[2
1
0
4 ]. Define a relation on det(AB)=det(A)det(B) by
AB=
[45 −48 ], det( AB)=−56, det(A )=|13 −12 |=−7, and det(B)=|21 04|=8. Write down the
domain, codomain and range of det(A)det(B)=(−7)(8=−56=det(AB). Find [ ].
A=
1 0 2 −1
2 −3 2 0

4.
[
Find the domain and range of the relation 2
1 0
−3 ].
1 0
[ ]. Which of the following are functions from [ ] [ ] [ ] to
1 0 −2
| |=−3≠0. [ 12 0
] ][ ]?
03 1 02
1 301

[][
3211
A= , B= 5 −3 −1 1 30 02 1 02
A= −1 2 0 , B= −1 2 0 1 , C= 5 1 −1 3 3 1 −2
1 0 −2
−1 0 2 0

5. Let 2 −3
and
−3 5 000 A= , B= −1 1 4 , C=
23 4 1 −1 0
−2 0 1 6 12
4 112
00 1 00
11 1 01
203
3010

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 2
[ ]
1 2 3 0 1
3 2 1 4 1 1 1 0
A= , and B= 1 1 3
a)
A= 2 1 3 2 4 , B= , C=

c)
2 1 0 2 1 0 −1 2
−1 2 1 3 1 2 0 1
0 2 1 0 2 0

b) [ C ij ( A ) ]=
[02 1
1 ] d)
[ ] [ ] Adj( A )= C ij ( A ) t =
2
1
0
1

6. Determine the domain and range of the given relation. Is the relation a function?

40
 [ ] [ ]
1 5 −2 1 0 −2
[ C ij ( B )] = −3 Adj( B )= [ C ij ( B ) ] t = 5 −3 −1
a)
0 0
−2 −1 1
d) −2 0 1

[ ] [ ] [21 31 ][−11 ][ ] [ ][ 31 ]=BA

2 3 1 2 −3 −2
A=[ 21 31 ] , B=[−11 −23 ] , C= 1 2 0 , D= −1 2 1 AB=
3
=
1 0
=
−1 3 2
b) 0 0 1 0 0 1
e) −2 0 1 1 −2 1

[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ]
2 3 1 2 −3 −2 1 0 0 2 −3 −2 2 3 1
CD= 1 2 0 −1 2 1 =0 1 0 = −1 2 1 1 2 0 =DC
c) 0 0
f) {(5,0),(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5)}
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

7. Find the domain and range of the following functions.

[ ]
6 0 0

[ ]
1 0 0
A= 0 2 0 [ C ij ( A ) ]= 0 3 0 ,
a) 0 0 3
c) 0 0 2

[ ] [ ]
1 0 0

[ ]
6 0 0 1 1
6 0 0 0
1
0
Adj( A )=[ C ij ( A ) ] = 0 3 0 t A−1 =
det ( A )
Adj( A )= 0
6
0
3
0
0 =
2
2
1
0 0
b) 0 0 2
d) 3

8. Given
A=
[ 1
1
−1
0 . ]
Find a)
A−1 =
[−10 11 ], b)
( A−1) t= 0 −1 [1 1 ] c)
2 A=
[22 −20 ]
2.4 Real Valued functions and their properties
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
 perform the four fundamental operations on polynomials
 compose functions to get a new function
 determine the domain of the sum, difference, product and quotient of two functions
 define equality of two functions
[] [ ] is called a
1 1 a11 a12 .... a1n
1 t −1 −1 t
be a function from set (2 A) =2 A to set [ ]. If ( ) [ ] is a subset of real number system ( A ) =(A ) , then
1
(2 A )−1= 2 2 = A−1
a21 a22 ... a2n
At = 1 1 At = 0 −1 .
−1 −1

Let
−1 A=
1 2 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
− 0
2 −1 0 1 1 an1 an2 ⋯ ann

real valued function, and in particular if [ ] is also a subset of

I n=
1 0 .... 0
0 1 ... 0
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 1
A= [13 −12 ], B=[00 20 03],
100

then
A=
[ 13 −1
2 ] is called a real
function.
[1 −12 |10 01] R → R +(−3)R [10 −15 |−31 01] defined by [ ] [ ],
2 1
1 0
[ A|I2]= 3 [ ] is a real function.
1 1 −1 1 0 5 5 2 1
R2 → R | 3 1 R1 → R1 + R 2 |

Example 2.24: 1. The function

1 0 5 5
2 2 1 5 2 0 1 − 0 1 3 1 [ I 2| A−1 ]= |
5 5 − 0 1 3
−
1
5 5 5 5

[ ] is also a real valued function.

1 0 0

[ ] defined as
2 1
A −1 =
5 5 B= 0 2 0
2. The function −
3
5
1
5 0 0 3

 Operations on functions
Functions are not numbers. But just as two numbers [ ] [ ] and [ ] can be added to produce a new number
1 0 0
100 100 1
1 0 01 0 0 100 1 0 0
1 1 R3 → R3 0 1 0 | 2
[B|I3]= 0 2 0|0 1 0 R2 → 2 R2 0 1 0|0 2 0 3
001 1
0 0 30 0 1 003 0 0
001 3

[ ] and [ ] [ ] can be added to produce a new function [ ]. This is just one of

1 0 0
1 0 −2

[ ] , so two functions
1 0 −2
[14 −22 ],
1 0 0 1
0 0
[ I 3|B−1 ] =
1 0
0 1
0
0|
0
1
2
0 B−1= 2
A= 1 −2 , B= −1 1 4 A= B= 0 1 2
1 23
0 0 1
0 0
1
3
0 0
3 203 0 1 3

the several operations on functions that we will describe in this section.

[ ]
550

Consider functions [ ] [ ] [ ] and [ ] with formulas

41
123
A= , B= 1 3 4 , C=
23
144
112 1
020 0
0 2 1 −2
032 1
0.4 0.2
0.2 0.4
0.4 0.4
500
750 , [h
l
] . We can make a new function
[ ][ ] [ ] by having it assign to (
0.4 0.2

0.4 0 .4
l
h
550
0.2 0 .4 = 500
750
1 2
,
3 3 ) the value Ax =b, , that is,
[ ] [] [ ].
a 11 a12 .. . . a1 n x1 b1
a21 a22 .. . a2 n x2 b2
A= , x = , and b=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
am 1 am 2 ⋯ amn xn bm

41
 Definition 2.9: Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions
[ ] [ ] and [ ] [ ] be two functions. We define the following four functions:
1 −1 1
a11 a12 .... a 1n b1
[ A|b ]= a21 a22 ... a 2n b2 A|b = |
Let 1 2 4
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
am1 am2 ⋯ amn b m

1.
[ ]
A|b =
[ ] 1
0
−1 1
|
The sum of the two functions
1 1

[ ]
0.3 0 . 2 550
[ A|b ]= 0 . 2 0 . 4 |500
2. 0.4 The difference of the two functions
0 . 3 750

[ ] [ ]
0. 3 0.2 550
A= and b= 500
3. The product of the two functions
0 .2 0.4
0.4 0.3 750

[ ]
0 . 1 0 .2 250
[ A|b ]= 0 0 .1 | 50
4. 0 0 0 The quotient of the two functions (provided [1 −1 −21 |−12 ]
[ A|b ]= 1 2

Since an [0 −3 −3|−3] value must be an inout into both

1 2 1 2
(− 13 ) and [ ], the domain of ∈ 1 2 1|2
0 1 11 is the set of all [ ]
0 4 38
[ A|b ]= 2 0 −1 |2
3 2 05

[ ] and [ ]. This is usually written as (−

) . 2
3 2 05
3 2 0 5
2 0 −1|2
common to the domain of
0 4 3 |8
0 4 38 2 0 −1 2 3

Similar statements hold for the domains of the difference and product of two functions. In the case of the
quotient, we must impose the additional restriction that all elements in the domain of [ ] for which
3 2 0 5
0 4 3 8
|
4 4
0 − −1 −
3 3

1
3 are excluded.
Example 2.25:
[ ] and
5
3 2 0
8 4
0 4 3 | 0 =
1. Let . Find each of the following and its domain
4
0 0 0
3 3

[ ]
1 1 1
~
A= 0 1 2
4
[ ] [⏞ [
A |b ] = 0
]
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0≠ [ A|b ]= 0 4 |2 2 |1
0 0 1
a) b) c) d)
2 1
3 0 2 7 5 0 0 1 1

Solution:
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
[ A|b ]= 0 2 2 |4 ⏞
A |b = 0 1 1 |2
a) 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0

[ ] [ ]
1 1 2 1 2 3 1
~
A = 0 1 1 [ A|b ]= 0 2 |−2
b)
2
0 0 0 0 −2 −2 3

[⏞
A |b ] =
[ ]
1 2 3 1 a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯+ a 1 n x n =b1
a21 x 1 + a22 x 2 +⋯+ a2 n x n= b2
0 1 1 |−1
c) 0 0 0 1
… …… …… … …… …… …
an 1 x1 + an 2 x 2 +⋯+ a nn x n =b n

d)
Ax = b
We have C 1 C 2 C 3 ⋯ C 5
R 1 a1 1 a 12 a 13 . . . . a1 n
R 2 a 21 a 22 a 23 . . . . a2 n
R 3 a 31 a 32 a 33 . . . a3 n
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
Rm am 1 a m 2 a m 3 ⋯ a mn

n
[ AB ] ij= ∑ aik b kj =ai 1 b 1 j +ai 2 b2 j + ai 3 b3 j + .. .+ain bnj
k =1

2. Let {
a ij= 1 , if i = j
0 , otherwise and i≠ j , with respective domains [ A=
a 11
a21
⋮
am1
a12
a22
⋮
am2
.. . .
.. .
⋮
⋯
a1n
a2n
⋮
amn
] and
At =
[
a11
a12
⋮
a1 n
a 21
a 22
⋮
a2n
.. . .
.. .
⋮
⋯
am 1
am 2
⋮
anm
]. Find

formulas for
A= a
d [ c
b ] and
det( A)=|a c|=ab−cd
db and give their domains.
Solution:
Formula Domain
[ ]
a11 a12 a13
det(A)=|A|=(−1)1+1 a11|A11|+(−1)1+2 a12|A12|+(−1)1+3 a13|A13|
A = a 21 a22 a23
a a a a a a
a 31 a32 a33 =a11| 22 23|−a12| 21 23|+ a13| 21 22|
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

C ij ( A )=
n
{ det ( Aij ) , if i + j is even
-det ( A ) , if i + j is odd
n
det ( A)=∑ ak1Ck1(A)=a11C11(A)+a21C21(A)+. .+an1Cn1(A)
k= 1

det ( A )= ∑ aij 1 Cij ( A )= ai 1 C i 1 ( A )+a i 2 C i 2 ( A )+.. .+a in Cin ( A ) n

j =1 det(A)=∑ aij1 Cij(A)=a1j C1j (A)+a2j C2j(A)+...+ anj Cnj (A)

i= 1
i+1
=(−1) ai 1|A i 1|+(−1)i + 2 ai 2|A i 2|+. ..+(−1 )i+ n ain|Ain| =(−1)1+j a1j|A1j|+(−1)2+j a2j|A2j|+...+(−1)n+j anj|Anj|

[ ][ ] [ ]
a 11 a12 a 13 b 11 0 0 d 11 0 0
A= 0 a22 a 23 , B= b21 b 22 0 , D= 0 d 22 0 a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯+a 1n x n =b1

0 0 a 33 b31 b 32 b33 0 0 d 33
a21 x 1 +a22 x 2 +⋯+a2 n x n=b2
……………………………
an 1 x1 +an 2 x 2 +⋯+a nn x n =b n

42
 a11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 +⋯+ a 1 n x n =b1
a21 x 1 + a22 x 2 + ⋯+ a2 n x n= b2 a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯+a 1n x n =b1
a21 x 1 +a22 x 2 +⋯+a2 n x n=b2
… …… …… … …… …… … ……………………………
an 1 x1 + an 2 x 2 +⋯+ a nn x n =b n an 1 x1 +an 2 x 2 +⋯+a nn x n =b n

There is yet another way of producing a new function from two given functions.
Definition 2.10: (Composition of functions)
a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯+a 1n x n =b1 a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯+a 1n x n =b1 a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯+a 1n x n =b1
a21 x 1 +a22 x 2 +⋯+a2 n x n=b2 a21 x 1 +a22 x 2 +⋯+a2 n x n=b2 a21 x 1 +a22 x 2 +⋯+a2 n x n=b2

Given two functions and , the composition of the two functions is denoted by and is defined
…………………………… …………………………… ……………………………
an 1 x1 +an 2 x 2 +⋯+a nn x n =b n an 1 x1 +an 2 x 2 +⋯+a nn x n =b n an 1 x1 +an 2 x 2 +⋯+a nn x n =b n
a11 x 1 +a 12 x 2 +⋯+ a 1 n x n =b1
a21 x 1 + a22 x 2 +⋯+ a2 n x n= b2

by: .
… …… …… … …… …… …
an 1 x1 + an 2 x 2 +⋯+ a nn x n =b n

[ ] composed with [ ] of [ ]. [ ]The domain of [ ] consists of those [ ]s in the

x 1 + x 2 + ⋯+ x n =b 1
x 1 + x 2 ++ x n= b2
a11 a12 ⋯ a1(j−1) b1 a1(j+1) ⋯ a1n a 11 a12 ⋯ a1n

[ ]
a 11 a12 ⋯ a1n a 11 a12 ⋯ a1n a a ⋯a b a ⋯a a 11 a12 ⋯ a1n
a11 a 12 ⋯ a1 n
Dj= 21 2 2(j−1) 2 2(j+1) 2n a21 a22 ⋯ a2n
D= D=
a21 a 22 ⋯ a2 n
D= a21 a22 ⋯ a2n D= a 21 a22 ⋯ a2n D= a 21 a22 ⋯ a2n

is read as
D=
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮
…
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮
⋮ ⋮⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮
an1 an2 ⋯ ann an1 an2 ⋯ a nn an1 an2 ⋯ an(j−1) bn an(j+1) ⋯ an am 1 am 2 ⋯ amn an1 an2 ⋯ a nn
a n 1 x 1 + an 2 x 2 + ⋯+ ann x n= bn

whose range values are in the domain of [ ] [ ], i.e. those [ ] [ ]s for which 3−5 1 −5 311 is in the domain of [ ] [ ].
a11 x1+a12 x2+⋯+a1n xn=b1 4−2 10 −2 410 4 −2 10 4 −2 10
a21 x1+a22 x2+⋯+a2n xn=b2 D=| |=(−20)−( 6)=−14, D =| |=(−50)−(2 )=−28, D =| |=(4 )−(30)=14 an d 4 −2 and 10 an d
domain of ……………………………
an1 x1 +an2 x2+⋯+ann xn=bn 3 −5 11 3 −5 11 1 2 3 −5 11

Example 2.26:
1. Suppose [ 3 −5 ] [ 10
11 ] ( )( ( x , x )=(
D D ) ( 14
4 −2 D1 D2 D1 D2
and
and
( x 1 , x 2 )= ,
D D
=
28
14
,−
14
14
=(2 , −1) ) . The function
, =
28
,− )=(2 , −1)
14
14 is 1 2

[ ]
2 −1 0

found by taking elements in the domain of and evaluating as follows:

A= −1 2 −1
0 −1 1

[ ]
2 −1 0
A = −1 2 −1
0 −1 1

we get ( ) ( ) , but 5 is not in the domain of ( D D ) (14 14 ) and so we cannot [ ] D D 28 14 D D 28 14

0
b= 0 (x1, x2)= 1 , 2 = ,− =(2 ,−1) (x1,x2)= 1 , 2 = ,− =(2,−1)
If we attempt to find 1 D D 14 14

find ( D D D ) ( 1 1 1 ) . Hence, D , D 1 , D 2 and D 3 . The figure below illustrates this situation.

D D D 123 1 2 3
(x ,x ,x )= , , = , , =(1, 2, 3)
1 2 3

g f
2
a 3 z
Domain
b q
of f
c
5

Domain of g Range of g Range of f

[ ] and
2 −1 0

2. Given
A = −1
0
2
−1
−1
1 ( )( ( x 1 ,x 2 )=
D1 D2 28 14
, = ,− =(2, −1)
D D 14 14 ) , find
b) Ax=b [ ] [ ]
2 −1 0 0 −1 0 2 0 0 2 −1 0 a 11 a12 ⋯ a1 n a 11 a12 ⋯ a1 n
a 21 a22 ⋯ a2 n a 21 a22 ⋯ a2 n
D=|−1 2 −1|=1, D1=|0 2 −1|=1, D2=|−1 0 −1|=2, D3=|−1 2 0|=3
a) c) d)
D= D=
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮
0 −1 1 1 −1 1 0 1 1 0 −1 1 an 1 an 2 ⋯ a nn an 1 an 2 ⋯ a nn

Solution:
[ ] …… First evaluate [ ]
a 11 a12 ⋯ a1 n a 11 a12 ⋯ a1 n
a 21 a22 ⋯ a2 n a 21 a22 ⋯ a2 n

a)
D= D=
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮
an 1 an 2 ⋯ a nn an 1 an 2 ⋯ a nn

[ ]
0
b= 0
1

[ ]
0
b = 0
1

[ ] [ ] …….First evaluate [ ]
x1 b1 a 11 a12 ⋯ a1 n
x2 b2 D= a 21 a22 ⋯ a2 n

b)
x= , and b=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮
xn bn an 1 an 2 ⋯ a nn

[ ] []
4 −2
3 −5
and
10
11

[ ]
4
3 [ ] −2
−5
and
10
11

[ ] [ ]
2 1 2 1

[ 23 −1
], A −1 =
7
[ ] 7
[ ] 1 2 −1
A−1 =
7 7
[121 ]
c) ……. But
A= and b= A= , and b=
2 3 2 12 3 2 3 2
− −
7 7 7 7

[ ] []
2 1

[ ]
A=
2 −1
3 2
, A−1 =
−
7
3
7
2
and b=
1
12
7 7

[ ][
2 1

[ x1
x2 ] = A −1 b =
−
7
3
7
7
2
7
1
12 ]=[ 23 ]

⟨ G , ∘⟩
d) p ⇒q ,¬q|−¬ p ……. But p ⇒q ,¬q ⇒r|− p

43
 ⋯
⋯,−3, −2,−1, 0, 1, 2, 3,⋯
3 −7 21 19 16
, , , ,
4 8 5 −2 2

−17 16
3. Given 1 and 2 , find
− 17 5
a) 1 and its domain b) 0 and its domain

−9
Solution: a) 0 . Thus,
m
n .

b)
m . Since n must first be an input into n≠0 and
so must be in the domain of √ 2 , we see that √ 2 .
3
4. Let √ 3, √ 5, √ 7, π and ℜ . Find ℜ and a+ b √−1 and its domain.
Solution: We have a .

b .
The domain of x is y .
We now explore the meaning of equality of two functions. Let x + y and x⋅y be two
functions. Then, xy and ¿ ) are subsets of a+b=b+a . Suppose ab=ba . Let a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c be any element of a(bc)=(ab)c . Then,
a (b+c )=ab+ac and thus (b+c)a=ba+ca . Since a+0=a=0+a is a function and a a⋅1=a=1⋅a , we must
a Conversely,
have assume that a for all −a . Let a+(−a)=0=(−a)+a . Then,
a . Thus, 1
a , which implies that a⋅( 1a )=1=( 1a )a
. Similarly, we can show that x−y=x+(−y) . It
now follows that x÷ y=x⋅ 1y
. Thus two functions y≠ 0 and ab are equal if and only if
a for all b . In general we have the following definition.
Definition 2.11: (Equality of functions)
Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
i) The functions have the same domain;
ii) Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.

Example 2.27:
1. Let a+ b and a be defined by b and
√ 2+(−√ 2)=0 . Now, for all √2√8=√16=4 , x < y ⇔ y−x . Thus, x < y .

44
 2. Let
y>x , and ¿ . The function x≤y⇔y−x and x are not equal
because y
Exercise 2.4

1. For x< y and

x= y , find each value:
a) x> y c) x< y e) y<z

b)
⇒ d) x<z f) ¿ y⇔x+z< y+z

2. If z and
x<y⇔xz<yz , find a formula for each of the following and state its domain.

a) z c)
x<y⇔xz> yz
b) ¿ d) (a, b)= { x: a<x<b }
3. Let [a, b]= { x: a≤x≤b } and (a, b]= { x: a<x≤b } .
a) Find [a, b)= { x: a≤x<b } and its domain.
b) Find 4−3(8−12)−6 and its domain
5 1 2
c) Are 6 −( 4 + 3 ) and 2[3−2(4−8)] the same functions? Explain.
. Find 0⋅0 so that
1 3 7
2
− 4
+ 8 8
4. Let 1
2
+ 3
4
− 7
8 0 .
8 0 0
5. Let 0 Find 0 so that 8 .
a
6. If
0
8 is a real function defined by
a≠0 . Show that 0
=b
.
7. Find two functions a=0⋅b=0 and so that the given function a > 0
0
0 , where
2 2
a) b> 0 c) a<b⇔a <b
1 1
b) a< b ⇔ a > b d)
a≤b
8. Let
a−4≤b−4 and −a≤−b . Find
e) 2 x=x−4
2 2 2
a) a ≤ ab c) a ≤ a b
b) ax +b=0 d) a f) b
2.5 Types of functions
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
 define one to oneness and ontoness of a function
 check invertibility of a function
 find the inverse of an invertible function

45
In this section we shall study some important types of functions.
 One to One functions
Definition 2.12: A function a ≠0 is called one to one, often written 1 – 1, if and only if for all
, implies x=a . In words, no two elements of x are mapped to one element
of a=b .
Example 2.28:
1. If we consider the sets a+ c=b+ c and a =b and if ac=bc x 820x=10x+30(50−x),
and 820 x=10 x +30( 50− x ) , then both 820 x = 10 x + 150 − 30 x and 820 x=150 −20x are
1500 25
functions from 20 x into 840x=1500 . Observe that
x= =
840 14 is not a 1 – 1 function because but
. However, is a 1 – 1 function.
2. Let and . Consider the functions
i) defined as
ii) defined as
Then, is not 1 – 1, but is a 1 – 1 function.
 Onto functions
Definition 2.13: Let x be a function from a set 58−x into a set 60 x+850(58−x)=41,80 . Then x=30 is called an onto function(or
maps onto if every element of is image of some element in , i.e, ℜ

Example 2.29:
1. Let and . The function defined as , , ax+b <0 is
not onto because there is no element in a , whose image under b is 4. The function a ≠0 given
by ¿ is onto because each element of ¿, ≤ is the image of at least one element of
¿ .
Note that if a,b,c ∈ℜ is a non-empty set, the function a< b defined by a+c<b+c for all ac<bc ,
is a 1 – 1 function from c>0 onto ac>bc, . c<0 is called the identity map on 5x+8(20−x)≥2(x−5).

2. Consider the relation 5x+8(20−x)≥2(x−5) from 5x+160−8x≥2x−10 into 160−3x≥2x−10 defined by −5 x≥−170 for all x≤34 . Now, domain of
{x∈ℜ:x≤34}=(−∞,34] is . Also, if , then , i.e. . Hence, is well defined and a
function. However, and , which implies that is not 1 – 1. For all
, is a non-negative integer. This shows that a negative integer has no pre-image.
Hence, is not onto. Note that is onto .
3. Consider the relation from into defined by for all . As in the
previous example, we can show that is a function. Let and suppose that

46
 . Then and thus . Hence,
2
is 1 – 1. Since for all Ax +Bx+c=0 , A≠0 is
2
an even integer; we see that an odd integer has no pre-image. Therefore, Ax +Bx+C=0 is not onto.
 1 – 1 Correspondence

Definition 2.14: A function Ax 2+Bx+C=0 is said to be a 1 – 1 correspondence if Ax2+Bx+C=0 is both 1 – 1 and onto.
Example 2.30:
1. Let Ax + Bx + C and x + x−6 =0 . Suppose (x−2)(x+3)=0 given by
2 2
x−2=0
for all x+3=0 . One can easily see that every element of x=2 has a pre-image in x=−3 and hence a⋅b=0 is
onto. Moreover, if a =0 , then b=0 , i.e. x =d . Hence, x=±√d is 1 – 1. Therefore, 4x +10 x=6 is
2 2

2
a 1 – 1 correspondence between 5x −6=8 and(x−2) =6 .
2

2
2. Let 4x +10x=6 be a finite set. If 4 x +10 x−6=0 is onto, then it is one to one.
2

Solution: Let 2(2 x−1)( x+3)=0 . Then 2 x −1=0 . Since x+3=0 is onto we have
.Thus, x =−3 , which implies that 5x −6=8 , x
x= 1
2 , 5 x =14 ,
2 2
2
x 2 = 14
5 are all

distinct. Hence,
x=± 5 √
14
√
implies x=2± 6 for all ( x+ p ) =d ) . Therefore, x is 1 – 1.
2

 Inverse of a function
2
Since a function is a relation, the inverse of a function x=−p±√d is denoted by (x+p) and is defined by:
p
2 2 2
For instance, if ( x+ p ) =x +2 px + p , then p2 . Note that the inverse of a
function is not always a function. To see this consider the function 2 p 2x −8x+4=6 . Then,
2

2 x 2−8 x +4=6 , which is not a function.

As we have seen above not all functions have an inverse, so it is important to determine whether or not
a function has an inverse before we try to find the inverse. If the function does not have an inverse,
then we need to realize that it does not have an inverse so that we do not waste our time trying to find
something that does not exist.
A one to one function is special because only one to one functions have inverse. If a function is one to
one, to find the inverse we will follow the steps below:
2
and x −4x+2=3 in the equation x −4 x=1
2
1. Interchange x2
2
2. Solving the resulting equation for ( (−4)) =4, we will obtaining the inverse function.
1
2

Note that the domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function and the range of the
inverse function is the domain of the original function.

Example 2.31:
1. Givenx 2−4 x+4=1+4 . Find (x−2)2=5 and its domain.
Solution: We begin by interchanging x and x=2±√5 , and we solve for Ax +Bx+C=0, A≠0.
2

√
Ax2+Bx+C=0
−B± B2−4AC
Interchange A≠0 and x=
2A

Take the cube root of both sides

x2−8=−6x

47
 This is the inverse of the function
x2+6x−8=0
−6±√ 62−4(1)(−8) −6±√ 68 −6±2√ 17
. The domain of {−3−√17, −3+√17} is the set of all real numbers.
x= = = =−3±√ 17
Thus, 2(1) 2 2

2
2. Let Ax +Bx+C<0 . Find ¿ .
Solution: Again we begin by interchanging ¿, ≤, and ¿ , and then we solve for u>0 .

u Interchange 2x2+5x−3>0 and x

2 x2 Solving for 5 x

−3
2
Thus,
2x +5x−3=(2x−1)( x+3).
Remark:
x , and
(2x−1)(x+3) .
Exercise 2.5
1. Consider the function ( 2 x−1)( x +3) from x into (2 x−1)(x+3). Is (2 x−1)(x+3) one to
one? Is it onto?
1
2. Let 2 . List all one to one functions from −3 onto x .
2
3. Let 2 x +5 x−3>0 . Let x be the inverse relation, i.e. x +3 .
a) Show by an example that −−−−−− need not be a function.
b) Show that 2x−1 is a function from − − − − − − − − − − into −6 5−4 −3 2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 if and only if x+3 is 1 – 1.
c) Show that x<−3 is a function from x>−3 into 2x−1 if and only if x< 2 is 1 – 1 and onto.
1

1 1
d) Show that if x> 2 is a function from x<−3 into x> 2 , then (−∞,−3)∪( 2 ,∞) .
1

4. Let x −2 x−2< 0 and x −2 x −2 . Show that 1± √ 3 defined by

2 2

x 2 −2 x−2 is a 1 – 1 function from 1+√3≈2.7∧1√3≈−0.7 onto x2−2x−2 .

5. Which of the following functions are one to one?
a) x=−10 defined by 1− √ 3
b) x =1 defined by 1 + √ 3
c) x=100 defined by x
2
d) x −2 x−2 defined by x 2 −2 x−2

e) x defined by
(1−√ 3 , 1+ √3 )
6. Which of the following functions are onto?
2 5− x
a) 2−3(x−4)=2(x−1) defined by
+ 4=
x +3 x +3

48
 6 12 1
b) 3x−[2+3(2−x)]=5−(3−x) defined by
= +
x2 −3 x x x −3

c)
3
4
(2 x−3)= 23 x+5 defined by
4 x+ 23 ≤2 x−(3 x+1 )
1 5 x− 2 x +3
d) 5 x−2>3 x−(x− 5 ) defined by
≥
3 4
9
7. Find 2 if
2
d) +2x−4=0
x 2
2
a) 2 x −7 x=15 g) 3 x −6 x +5=0
1 1 3 2
h) +2x−24>0
x
x−3= + =4
b) x +3 e) x−5 x +2

c) 2x2−x−2≥0 f) x 2 −5 x≤24

2.6 Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs

After completing this section, the student should be able to:
 define polynomial and rational functions
 apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
 use the division algorithm to find quotient and remainder
 apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
 sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
The functions described in this section frequently occur as mathematical models of real-life situations.
2
For instance, in business the demand function gives the price per item, x ≤16 , in terms of the number of
3
items sold, x2−3x−3<0. Suppose a company finds that the price x−2 >4 (in Birr) for its model GC-5 calculator is
related to the number of calculators sold, 3>4(x−2)(in millions), and is given by the demand function
(2,3),(−2, 4)
The manufacturer’s revenue is determined by multiplying the number of items sold ( (a,b)) by the price
per item (2,−2 ). Thus, the revenue function is
a
These demand and revenue functions are examples of polynomial functions. The major aim of this
section is to better understand the significance of applied functions (such as this demand function). In
order to do this, we need to analyze the domain, range, and behavior of such functions.
 Polynomial functions
Definition 2.15: A polynomial function is a function of the form
3 , 4
Each b is assumed to be a real number, and A={3 ,4} is a non-negative integer, B={ 4 , 5 , 9} is called the leading coefficient.
Such a polynomial is said to be of degree n.

Remark:
1. The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.
2. (Types of polynomials)
- A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
- A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function.
- A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
i.e {(3,4),(3,5),(3,9),( 4,4),(4 ,5),(4 ,9)}

49
Example 2.32: A , B and A ×B are examples of polynomial
functions.
 Properties of polynomial functions
1. The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The word smooth means that the graph
does not have any sharp corners as turning points.
2. If A is a polynomial of degree B , then it has at most A zeros. Thus, a quadratic polynomial
has at most 2 zeros.
3. The graph of a polynomial function of degree B can have at most A×B turning points. Thus,
the graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can have at most 4 turning points.

4. The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as A gets very large, B gets
very large.
 Zeros of a polynomial
The zeros of a polynomial function provide valuable information that can be helpful in sketching its
graph. One can find the zeros by factorizing the polynomial. However, we have no general method for
factorizing polynomials of degree greater than 2. In this subsection, we turn our attention to methods
that will allow us to find zeros of higher degree polynomials. To do this, we first need to discuss about
the division algorithm.
Division Algorithm

Let A×B=¿¿ and b∈B¿¿ be polynomials with A={2, 4}, and with the degree of A={−1, 3} less than or equal to the
degree of A×B={(2,−1),(2,3),(4,−1),(4,3)}. Then there are polynomials B×A={(−1,2),(−1,4),(3,2),(3,4)} and A×B such that

B× A , where either ( a , b ) or the degree of (c ,d) is less than degree of a=c .

Example 2.33: Divide

b=d .
Solution: Using long division we have

A={1,2,3} B={a , b , c }
This long division means .
With the aid of the division algorithm, we can derive two important theorems that will allow us to
recognize the zeros of polynomials.

50
If we apply the division algorithm where the divisor, A×B={(1,a) (1,b) (1,c) (2,a) (2,b)(2,c) (3,a) (3,b) (3,c)}, is linear (that is of the form A ), we get
B
Note that since the divisor is of the first degree, the remainder A×B , must be a constant. If we now
substitute(a,b)∈ A×B , into this equation, we get
( a , b )∈ R
Therefore, (a , b )∉ R .
The result we just proved is called the remainder theorem.
The Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial (a,b)∈R of degree at least 1 is divided by aRb , then the remainder is (a,b)∉R .

Example 2.34: The remainder when A={1 , 3 ,5 , 7} is divided by B={6,8} is R .

As a consequence of the remainder theorem, if A is a factor of B , then the remainder must be 0.
Conversely, if the remainder is 0, then R={(1,6),(1,8),( 3,6),(3,8),(5,6),(5,8),(7,8)}, is a factor of A={1 ,2,3 ,4,5 }. This is known as the Factor Theorem.
The Factor Theorem
B={a,b,c} is a factor of A if and only if B .
The next theorem, called location theorem, allows us to verify that a zero exists somewhere within an
interval of numbers, and can also be used to zoom in closer on a value.
Location theorem
R ={(1,a)}
Let 1 be a polynomial function and R2={(2,b),(3,b),(4,c),(5,a)} and R3={(1,a),( 2,b),(3,c)} be real numbers such that B . If A , then there is
R ={(a,3),(b,1)}
at least one zero of 4 between R5={(b,2),(c,4),(a,2),(b,3)} and R6={(b ,5)}.

The Factor and Remainder theorems establish the intimate relationship between the factors of a
polynomial R and its zeros. Recall that a polynomial of degree n can have at most n zeros.
Does every polynomial have a zero? Our answer depends on the number system in which we are
working. If we restrict ourselves to the set of real number system, then we are already familiar with the
fact that the polynomial A has no real zeros. However, this polynomial does have two
zeros in the complex number system. (The zeros are B and R ). Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), in
his doctoral dissertation, proved that within the complex number system, every polynomial of degree
Dom(R) has at least one zero. This fact is usually referred to as the Fundamental theorem of Algebra.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
If R is a polynomial of degree Dom(R)={a ∈A:(a , b )∈ R}whose coefficients are complex numbers, then R has at least one
zero in the complex number system.
Note that since all real numbers are complex numbers, a polynomial with real coefficients also satisfies
the Fundamental theorem of Algebra. As an immediate consequence of the Fundamental theorem of
Algebra, we have
The linear Factorization Theorem

If Range ( R ) , where R and Range(R)={b∈B:(a ,b)∈R}, then

R , where the A are complex numbers (possible real and not necessarily
distinct).

51
From the linear factorization theorem, it follows that every polynomial of degree B has exactly B
zeros in the complex number system, where a root of multiplicity R counted R={(4,7),(5,8),(6,10)} times.
Example 2.35: Express each of the polynomials in the form described by the Linear Factorization
Theorem. List each zero and its multiplicity.
a) A={1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 ,6}
b) B={6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,10}
c) R
Solution:
a) We may factorize {4 ,5,6} as follows:

R
The zeros of {7,8,10} are 0, 8, and – 2 each of multiplicity one.
b) We may factorize R as follows:

{6,7,8,9,10}
Thus, the zeros of R={(8,2),(6,−3),(5,7),(5,−3)} are
{5,6,8} and 2, each of multiplicity one.
c) We may factorize {2,−3,7} as follows:

{5 , 6 , 7 }
Thus, the zeros of f(x) are 0 with multiplicity two and {2,−3,7} and (a,b)∈ R each with multiplicity one.
Example 2.36:
1. Find a polynomial R with exactly the following zeros and multiplicity.
zeros multiplicity
a 3
2 4
5 2
Are there any other polynomials that give the same roots and multiplicity?
2. Find a polynomial f (x) having the zeros described in part (a) such that f(1) = 32.
Solution:
1. Based on the Factor Theorem, we may write the polynomial as:
b
which gives the required roots and multiplicities. Any polynomial of the form a , where b
is a non-zero constant will give the same roots and multiplicities.
2. Based on part (1), we know that b . Since we want a ,
we have

a
52
 Thus, b .
Our experience in using the quadratic formula on quadratic equations with real coefficients has shown
us that complex roots always appear in conjugate pairs. For example, the roots of R={(x, y):y=2x−3, x,y∈IR} are
(0,−3),( 0.5,−2) and (−2,−7) . In fact, this property extends to all polynomial equations with real coefficients.
Conjugate Roots Theorem
Let A={1 ,2,3,4,6} be a polynomial with real coefficients. If complex number R (where A and R=¿¿ are real numbers)
is a zero of b ¿ ¿ , then so is its conjugate R.
Example 2.37: Let R={(1,1),( 1,2),(1,3 ),(1,4),(1,6),(2,2),( 2,4),(2,6),(3,3),(3,6),(4,4),(6,6)} Given that Dom(R)={1,2 ,3,4,6} is a zero, find the other zero
of Range( R)={1,2,3,4,6}.
Solution: According to the Conjugate Roots Theorem, if A={1,2,3,4,5} is a zero, then its conjugate,
B={1,2,3,⋯,67} must also be a zero. Therefore, R =¿ ¿and y } are both factors of R , and
so their product must be a factor of Dom(R) . That is, Range( R ) 1= √1, 2= √8, 3=√ 27, 4=√ 64, 5=√125 1 , 8 ,27 is a
3, 3 3 3 3

factor of B . Dividing B by R={(1,1),(2,8),(3,27),(4,64)}, we obtain

Dom ( R )={1 , 2 , 3 , 4 }
Thus, the zeros of R={1 , 8 , 27,64} are R , A , R=A×A and 1.
The theorems we have discussed so far are called existence theorems because they ensure the existence
of zeros and linear factors of polynomials. These theorems do not tell us how to find the zeros or the
linear factors. The Linear Factorization Theorem guarantees that we can factor a polynomial of degree
at least one into linear factors, but it does not tell us how.
We know from experience that if R={(a, a ):a ∈A} happens to be a quadratic function, then we may find the zeros
of R =φ by using the quadratic formula to obtain the zeros

R
The rest of this subsection is devoted to developing some special methods for finding the zeros of a
polynomial function.
As we have seen, even though we have no general techniques for factorizing polynomials of degree
greater than 2, if we happen to know a root, say A , we can use long division to divide B by R
and obtain a quotient polynomial of lower degree. If we can get the quotient polynomial down to a
quadratic, then we are able to determine all the roots. But how do we find a root to start the process?
The following theorem can be most helpful.
The Rational Root Theorem

Suppose that R −1 , where B is an A degree polynomial

with integer coefficients. If

R−1={(y,x):( ,y)∈R} is a rational root of Dom(R)=Range(R−1) , where Range(R)=Dom(R−1) and R={(1,4),(9,15),(10,2)} have no common factor other
than A={1,2,3,⋯,20}, then R ={(4,1),(15,9),(2,10)} is a factor of
−1 R and ℵ is a factor of R={(a,b):a,b∈ℵ, a+2b=1 }.

To get a feeling as to why this theorem is true, suppose

R is a root of
Dom ( R ) .

53
Then,
Range( R ) which implies that

R −1 multiplying both sides by 8

b =1
If we look at equation (1), the left hand side is divisible by 3, and therefore the right hand side must
also be divisible by 3. Since 8 is not divisible by 3, ⇒ must be divisible by 3. From equation (2), a+2(1)=1 ⇒a=9
must be divisible by 2.
Example 2.38: Find all the zeros of the function b=2 ⇒ a+2(2)=11 ⇒ a=7

Solution: According to the Rational Root Theorem, if

b =3 ⇒ a + 2 ( 3 ) =1 ⇒ a =5
is a rational root of the given equation, then
b=4 ⇒ a+2(4)=1 ⇒a=3 must be a factor of b=5⇒ a+2(5)=1 ⇒a=1 and b=6 ⇒ a+2(6)=1 ⇒a=−1∉ℵ must be a factor of 2. Thus, we have
possible values of R={(9,1)(7,2)(5,3)(3,4)(1,5)}: Dom( R )={1 ,3 , 5 ,7 , 9}
−1
possible values of Range(R)={1,2 3,4 5}: R ={(1,9),(2,7),(3,5),( 4,3),(5,1)}

possible rational roots

R={(5,−2)(3,5)(3,7)}: {2 , 3 , 6 }
We may check these possible roots by substituting the value in f . Now ( x , y )∈ f and
f . Since f : A→B is negative and A f⃗ B is positive, by intermediate value theorem, Dom(f)=A has a
zero between f and 1. Since ( x , y )∈ f , then (x ,z)∈f is a factor of y=z . Using long division, we
obtain

A
Therefore, the zeros of p(x) are y (∈B) , f and 3.
 Rational Functions and their Graphs

A rational function is a function of the form

f ( x)=y where both n(x) and d(x) are polynomials
and y .

Example 2.39: The functions

y ,
y and
f are examples
of rational function.

Note that the domain of the rational function

f ( x ) is f

Example 2.40: Find the domain and zeros of the function

f .

54
Solution: The values of f for which f are excluded from the domain of f Since
x= y , we have f ( x )= f ( y ) . To find the zeros of x, y∈ A , we solve the

equation
A={1 , 2 ,3 , 4 }
Therefore, to find the zeros of B={1 ,6 ,8 , 11, 15}, we solve A , giving
B . Since f does not make the
denominator zero, it is the only zero of f (1)=1, f (2)=6, f (3)=8, f (4)=8.
The following terms and notations are useful in our next discussion. Given a number a,
 f approaches a from the right means x takes any value near and near to a but x  a. This is
denoted by: xa+ (read: ‘x approaches a from the right’).
For instance, x 1+ means x can be 1.001, 1.0001, 1.00001, 1.000001, etc.
 f(1)=1,f(2)=6,f(3)=15 approaches a from the left means x takes any value near and near to a but x  a.
This is denoted by: xa– (read: ‘x approaches a from the left’).
For instance, x1– means x can be 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.9999, etc.
 x (read: ‘x approaches or tends to infinity’) means the value of x gets indefinitely larger and
larger in magnitude (keep increasing without bound). For instance, x can be 106, 1010, 1012, etc.
 x – (read: ‘x approaches or tends to negative infinity’) means the value of x is negative and gets
indefinitely larger and larger negative in magnitude (keep decreasing without bound). For instance,
x can be –106, –1010, –1012, etc.
The same meanings apply also for the values of a function f if we wrote f(x) or f(x). The
following figure illustrates these notion and notations.
y y f(x),
f(x),
asxa
asx

x– xa– xa+ x y =f(x)

a x a

+
Fig. 2.1. Graphical illustration of the idea off(x)
xa –, , f(x), etc.
y asx– f(x) –, asxa+

We may also write f(x)b (read: ‘f(x) approaches b’) to mean the function values, f(x), becomes arbitrarily

closer and closer to b (i.e., approximately b) but not exactly equal to b. For instance, if
f , then f(x)0

as x; i.e.,
f(1)=6,f(2)=6,f(3)=6,f(4)=6 is approximately 0 when x is arbitrarily large.
The following steps are usually used to sketch (or draw) the graph of a rational function f(x).
1. Identify the domain and simplify it.
2. Find the intercepts of the graph whenever possible. Recall the following:
 y–intercept is the point on y-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the y-axis. At this
point x=0. Thus, y = f(0), or (0, f(0) ) is the y-intercept if 0Dom(f).
 x–intercept is the point on x-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the x-axis. At this
point y=0. Thus, x=a or (a, 0) is x-intercept if f(a)=0.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the graph. Here, remember the following.
 Vertical Asymptote: The vertical line x=a is called a vertical asymptote(VA) of f(x) if
i) adom(f), i.e., f is not defined at x=a; and

55
 ii) f(x) or f(x) – when xa+ or xa– . In this case, the graph of f is almost vertically
rising upward (if f(x)) or sinking downward (if f(x)) along with the vertical line x=a
when x approaches a either from the right or from the left.

Example 2.41: Consider

f
where a  0 and n is a positive integer.
Obviously aDom(f). Next, we investigate the trend of the values of f(x) near a. To do this, we consider two
cases, when n is even or odd:
Suppose n is even: In this case (x – a)n  0 for all x\{a}; and since (x – a)n 0 as xa+ or xa– . Hence,

f (1)=1,f (2)=6,f (2)=8,f (3)=8,f ( 4)=1 as xa or xa . Therefore, x=a is a VA of f(x). Moreover, y= 1/a
+ – n
or (0, 1/an ) is its y-
intercept since f(0)=1/a . However, it has no x-intercept since f(x) 0 for all x in its domain (See, Fig. 2.2 (A)).
n

Suppose n is odd: In this case (x – a)n 0 for all xa and 1/ (x – a)n  when xa+ as in the above case.
Thus, x=a is its VA. However, 1/(x–a)n – when xa– since (x – a)n< 0 for xa. Moreover, y= –1/an or (0, –
1/an ) is its y-intercept since f(0) = –1/an. However, it has no x-intercept also in this case. (See, Fig. 2.2 (B)).

Note that in both cases,

f as xor x –.
y 1 y 1
y n
y n
( x  a) ( x  a)
1/an

a x a x
1/an
x=a x=a
VA VA

Fig. 2.2 (A) Fig. 2.2 (B)

Remark: Let
f (1)=1, f (2)=8, f (3)=1 , f (4)=15 be a rational function. Then,
1. if f and B , then x=a is a VA of f .
2. if f , then x=a may or may not be a VA of f . In this case, simplify f(x) and look for VA of the
simplest form of f.
 Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal line y=b is called horizontal asymptote (HA) of f(x) if the
value of the function becomes closer and closer to b (i.e., f(x)b)as x or as x –.
In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a horizontal line along with (or near) the line y=b as

x and as x–. For instance, from the above example, the HA of
∈ is y=0 (the x-
axis) , for any positive integer n (See, Fig. 2.2).

Remark: A rational function

f
has a HA only when degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)).
In this case, (i) If degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)), then y = 0 (the x-axis) is the HA of f.

(ii) If degree(n(x)) =degree(d(x))=n, i.e.,

f ,

56
 then
B is the HA of f.
 Oblique Asymptote: The oblique line y=ax+b, a0, is called an oblique asymptote (OA) of f if the
value of the function, f(x), becomes closer and closer to ax+b(i.e., f(x) becomes approximately
ax+b) as either x or x –. In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a straight line along
with (or near) the oblique line y=ax+b as x and as x –.

Note: A rational function

f has an OA only when degree(n(x)) = degree(d(x)) + 1. In this
case, using long division, if the quotient of n(x) ÷d(x) is ax +b, then y=ax+b is the OA of f.

Example 2.42: Sketch the graphs of

A
Solution: (a) Since x1=0 at x=1, dom(f) = \{1}.
 Intercepts: y-intercept: x=0 y=f (0) = –2. Hence, (0, – 2) is y-intercept.
x-intercept: y=0 x+2=0 x= –2. Hence, (–2, 0) is x-intercept.
 Asymptotes:
 VA: Since x1=0 atx=1 and x+20 at x=1, x=1 is VA of f. In fact, if x1+ , then x+2 3
but the denominator x–1 is almost 0 (but positive). Consequently, f(x) as x1+.
Moreover, f(x) – as x1– (since , if x1– then x–1 is almost 0 but negative ) .
(So, the graph of f rises up to + at the right side of x=1, and sink down to  at the left side of x=1)
 HA: Note that if you divide x+2 by x–1, the quotient is 1 and remainder is 3. Thus,

B. . Thus, if x (or x –), then

y 0 so that f(x)1. Hence,
y=1 is the HA of f.
Using these information, you can sketch the graph of f as displayed below in Fig. 2.3 (A).
(b) Both the denominator and numerator are 0 at x=1. So, first factorize and simplify them:
x2+3x+2=(x+2)(x+1) and x2–1 = (x –1)( x+1) . Therefore,

f ={( x , y ): y =x 2 }, x –1

f . (So, dom(g) = \{1, –1} )

This implies that only x=1 is VA.

Hence, the graph of

f is exactly the same as that of
f except that g(x)
is not defined at x= –1. Therefore, the graph of g and its VA are the same as that of f except that there
should be a ‘hole’ at the point corresponding to x= –1 on the graph of g as shown on Fig. 2.3(B) below.

57
 x2 x2
y y , x  1
x 1 x 1

y=1 (HA) y=1

1
2 2
2 2
x=1 ‘hole’ x=1
VA atx=1

f ( x) 
x 2 x 2  3x  2 x  2
g ( x)   , x  1
x  1 x2  1 x 1
Exercise 2.6
1. Perform the requested divisions. Find the quotient and remainder and verify the Remainder
Theorem by computing ℜ.
a) Divide ℜ
b) Divide ( x , y )
c) Divide y
d) Divide f : A → B
2. Given that A , factor f as completely as possible.
3. Given that B and , find the remaining zeros of {f(x):x∈A}.
4. Given that 3 is a double zero of A , find all the zeros of f .
5. a) Write the general polynomial A={1,2,3} whose only zeros are 1, 2 and 3, with multiplicity 3, 2
and 1 respectively. What is its degree?
f : A →B .
b) Find B={1 ,2 , 3 ,⋯, 10} described in part (a) if
6. If A is a root of f (1)=1 , f (2)=4 , f (3)=9 find the remaining zeros of p(x).
7. Determine the rational zeros of the polynomials
a) f
b) Dom( f )={1 , 2 ,3}
c) Range( f )={1 , 4 ,9}
8. Find the domain and the real zeros of the given function.

a)
f b)
{1,2,3,⋯,10} c) A={2,4,6,7,9}, B=IN d)
x
9. Sketch the graph of

58
 a)
y b)
A c)
B d)
f : A→B
10. Determine the behavior of when x is near 3.
f(x)=15x+17, x∈A
11. The graph of any rational function in which the degree of the numerator is exactly one more
than the degree of the denominator will have an oblique (or slant) asymptote.
a) Use long division to show that

f(2)=15(2)+17=47,f(4)=77,f(6)=107,f(7)=122,f(9)=152
b) Show that this means that the line Dom(f )={2,4,6,7,9}, Range(f )={47,7 ,107,12 ,152} is a slant asymptote for the graph and sketch
the graph of f .
2.7 Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, and
trigonometric functions and their graphs
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
 define exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions
 understand the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions
 sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
 use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions to solve problems
 Exponents and radicals

Definition 2.16: For a natural number IN . and a real number f , the power Q×Z , read “ the {( q ) } power of f ” or “
p
f= ,p : p, q ∈Z,q≠0

Dom(f)=Q raised to f ”, is defined as follows:

( 23 , 2 ) ∈ f
In the symbol( 6
,4 )∈ f
4
is called the base and f (3)=2≠4=f (6 ) is called the exponent.
2 4 2 4
=
, 3 6

For example, f .
Based of the definition of f , Q must be a natural number. It does not make sense for Z to be
negative or zero. However, we can extend the definition of exponents to include 0 and negative
exponents.
Definition 2.17: (Zero and Negative Exponents)
Definition of zero Exponent Definition of Negative Exponent

f Z×Z
Note: f={(mn,m+n):m,n∈Z} is undefined.

As a result of the above definition, we have

f . We have the following rules of exponents for
integer exponents:
Rules for Integer Exponents

1. f 3. x 5. Z

59
 2.
x=x⋅1 4.
(x,x+1)=(x⋅1,x+1)∈f
Next we extend the definition of exponents even further to include rational number exponents. To do
this, we assume that we want the rules for integer exponents also to apply to rational exponents and
then use the rules to show us to define a rational exponent. For example, how do we define x∈Dom(f)?
Consider Z⊆Dom( f ).

If we apply rule 2 and square Dom( f )⊆Z , we get . Thus, Dom( f )=Z
is a number that, when squared,
yields 9. There are two possible answers: 3 and – 3, since squaring either number will yield 9. To avoid
ambiguity, we define 4=4⋅1=2⋅2 (called the principal square root of (4⋅1,4+1)) as the non-negative quantity that, when
squared, yield (2⋅2,2+2). Thus, f .

We will arrive at the definition of 4⋅1=2⋅2 in the same way as we did for f(4⋅1)=5≠4=f(2⋅ ). For example, if we cube f , we get
f . Thus, f is the number that, when cubed, yields 8. Since Z we have Z . Similarly,
y . Thus, we define x (called the cube root of y=−3x+5) as the quantity that, when cubed yields y=
2x
3 x−5 .

Definition 2.18: (Rational Exponent y2=x )

If y=−3x+5 is an odd positive integer, then y if and only if x
If y=−3x+5 is an even positive integer and x , then y if and only if y=−3x+5
2x 2x 2x
y= y= y=
We call 3x−5 the principal 3 x−5 root of x . Hence, 3x−5 is the real number (nonnegative when x is even)
5
3x−5≠0 ⇔ x≠ 5
that, when raised to the 3 power, yields 3 . Therefore,
Dom( f )= since 5
{x : x≠ }
3

y 2 = x since x =9

y 2=9 since
y=±3
y− since x=9
y 2 =x is not a real number
2
√
Thus far, we have defined y= 3 x−x , where y is a natural number. With the help of the second rule for
exponent, we can define the expression x , where 3x−x≥0⇔x(3−x)≥0 and 3x−x are natural numbers and ⃗
2 2
−−−|+++|−−−
0 3 is reduced to
lowest terms.
2
Definition 2.19: (Rational Exponent 3x−x =x(3−x))

If {x : 0≤x≤3} is a real number, then

[ 0 ,3 ] (i.e. the A={1,2,3,4,5,6} root of a raised to the R={(a,b):a+b≤9} power)
We can also define negative rational exponents:

60
 R
Example 2.43: Evaluate the following

a) R=R
−1
b) A={1,2,3,4 ,5 ,6,7} c) R=¿¿
Solution: We have

a) a −b }

b)
R
c)
Dom( R ) ∧ Range (R )
Radical notation is an alternative way of writing an expression with rational exponents. We define for
−1 −1
real number R−1 , the Dom(R )∧ Range(R ) root of A={1,2,3,4,5,6} as follows:

Definition 2.20 ( A root of R={(x, y):y=x+1}): R = R−1 , where {(x,y):|x|+y≥2} is a positive integer.

The number A={1 , 2 ,3} is also called the principal B={3, 5 ,6 ,8} root of A . If the B root of f={(1,3),(2,3),(3,3)} exists, we have:
For f={(1,8),(2,5)} a real number and f={(1,3),(2,5),(1,6)} a positive integer,

f={(1,6),(2,5),(3,3)}
11 11
{(− , ),(−1,1),( 3 , 8 )}.
For example, {(−4,−3),(2 ,−5),(4 , 6),(2 , 0)} and 2 6
 Exponential Functions
3
In the previous sections we examined functions of the form {(8,−2),(6,− 2 ),(−1,5)}, where {(0,5)(1,5)(2,5)(3,5)(4,5)(5, )} is a constant. How is
this function different from {(−√3 ,3 ),(−1, 1),(0 , 0 ),(1 , 1),(√3,3 )}.

Definition 2.21: A function of the form f ( x)=1+8 x−2 x 2 , where f(x)=√ x −6x+8 and
2 f ( x)=
1
x 2−5 x+6 , is called an exponential
function.

Example 2.44: The functions f(x)=¿ {3 x+4,−1≤x<2¿¿¿¿, f(x)=¿ {3 x−5, x<1¿¿¿¿ and f (−3) are examples of exponential
functions.
As usual the first question raised when we encounter a new function is its domain. Since rational exponents are
well defined, we know that any rational number will be in the domain of an exponential function. For example,
let f ( 1 ) . Then as f (6) takes on the rational values f –2, A and B , we have
B ℜ
f A
Note that even though we do not know the exact values of ℜ and f:A→B , we do know exactly what
they mean. However, what about f :ℜ→ℜ for irrational values of f (x)=x2+3x+7? For instance, x∈ ℜ

61
We have not defined the meaning of irrational exponents. In fact, a precise formal definition of f:ℜ→ℜ
where f(x)=|x| is irrational requires the ideas of calculus. However, we can get an idea of what a should
be by using successive rational approximations to b . For example, we have
a+ b
Thus, it would seem reasonable to expect that f . Since 1.414 and 1.415 are rational
numbers, g and f +g are well defined, even though we cannot compute their values by hand. Using
a calculator, we get f . If we use better approximations to g, we get
. Using a calculator again, we get g ( x )= √ x . Computing f +g
x −3
f ( x )=
2

directly on a calculator gives x . This numerical evidence suggests that as

x−3
2
+√x

x −3
2 , the values of f (x) approach a unique real number that we designate by g(x) , and so we
(f +g)(x)=f (x)+g(x )= +√x
approaches
will accept without proof, the fact that the domain of the exponential function is the set of real
numbers.

The exponential function (f+g)( x)=f(x)+ g(x), where (f−g)( x)=f(x)−g(x) and (f⋅g)(x)=f(x)g(x) , is defined for all real values of ( g)(x)=g(x) . In addition all
f f (x)

the rules for rational exponents hold for real number exponents as well.

Before we state some general facts about exponential functions , let’s see if we can determine what the
graph of an exponential function will look like.
Example 2.45:
1. Sketch the graph of the function g(x)≠0) and identify its domain and range.
Solution: To aid in our analysis, we set up a short table of values to give us a frame of
reference.
y
x− f x y
y = 2x
g (f +g)(x) 1 2
x f 2 4
2 (1,2)
g Dom(f +g)=Dom(f )∩Dom(g) 3 8 1
0 2 0 1 4 16 O 1 x

With these points in hand, we draw a smooth curve through the points obtaining the graph appearing
x
above. Observe that the domain of y 2 is IR , the graph has no x  intercepts, as
x   , the y values are increasing very rapidly, whereas as x   , the y values are getting
closer and closer to 0. Thus, x  axis is a horizontal asymptote, the y  intercept is 1 and the range of
y 2 x is the set of positive real numbers.
x
 1
y  f ( x )  
2. Sketch the graph of  2 .

62
Solution: It would be instructive to compute a table of values as we did in example 1 above (you are
x
 1 1
y  f ( x )    x 2  x
urged to do so). However, we will take a different approach. We note that  2 2
x x
. If f ( x ) 2 , then f (  x ) 2 . Thus by the graphing principle for f (  x ) , we can obtain the graph
x x
of y 2 by reflecting the graph of y 2 about the y  axis .
y

 x
y  12
(1,2) 2
1

1 O 1 x

Here again the x  axis is a horizontal asymptote, there is no x  intercept, 1 is y  intercept and the
range is the set of positive real numbers. However, the graph is now decreasing rather than increasing.
The following box summarizes the important facts about exponential functions and their graphs.
x
The Exponential function y  f ( x ) b
1. The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers
2. The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers
x
3. The graph of y b exhibits exponential growth if b  1 or exponential decay if
0  b  1.
4. The y  intercept is 1.
5. The x  intercept is a horizontal asymptote
6. The exponential function is 1 – 1. Algebraically if b b , then x  y
x y

Example 2.46: Sketch the graph of each of the following. Find the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
x x 1 x
a) y 3  1 b) y 3 c) y  9  3
Solution:
x x
a) To get the graph of y 3  1 . We start with the graph of y 3 , which is the basic
exponential growth graph, and shift it up 1 unit.

63
 From the graph we see that
y=3x+1
10 - Dom ( f ) 
- Range( f ) (1, )
- The y  intercept is 2
The line y 1 is a horizontal
2
y=1 -
1
asymptote
1 2

x 1 x
b) To get the graph of y 3 , we start with the graph of y 3 , and shift 1 unit to the left.
From the graph we see that
y=3x+1
- Dom ( f ) 
- Range( f ) (0, )
9
- The y  intercept is 3
- The line y 0 is a horizontal
asymptote
1

x x
c) To get the graph of y  9  3 , we start with the basic exponential decay y 9 . We then
x
reflect it with respect to the x  axis , which gives the graph of y  9 . Finally, we shift this
x
graph up 3 units to get the required graph of y  9  3 .
y y
y

(1,9) 9 1 3
1 y=3
1 x

1 2 y = 9 x +3
y=9x
1
1 y=9x 1
x
1 O 1 x (1,9) 9

x
From the graph of y  9  3 , we can see that Dom(h )  , Range( h ) (  ,3) , the line y 3 is a
x  12
horizontal asymptote, 2 is the y  intercept and is the x  intercept.
x
Remark: When the base b of the exponential function f ( x ) b equals to the number e , where
e 2.7182 , we call the exponential function the natural exponential function.
 Logarithmic Functions
x
In the previous subsection we noted that the exponential function f ( x ) b (where b  0 and b 1 ) is one to
x
one. Thus, the exponential function has an inverse function. What is the inverse of f ( x ) b ?

64
 x
To find the inverse of f ( x ) b , let’s review the process for finding an inverse function by comparing
3 x
the process for the polynomial function y  x and the exponential function y 3 . Keep in mind that
x is our independent variable and y is the dependent variable and so whenever possible we want a
function solved explicitly for y .
To find the inverse of
y x 3 To find the inverse of
y 3 x
y x 3 Interchange x and y y 3 x Interchange x and y
x y3 y x 3 y solve for
y
solve for
y 3 x y ??

There is no algebraic procedure we can use to solve x 3 for y . By introducing radical notations we
y

3 3
could express the inverse of y  x explicitly in the form y  x . In words, y  x and y  x
3 3

both mean exactly the same thing: y is the number whose cube is x . Similarly, if we want to express
x 3 y explicitly as a function of x , we need to invent a special notation for this. The key idea is to
y
take the equation x 3 and express it verbally.
x 3 y y is the exponent to which 3 must be raised to yield x
means
We introduce the following notation, which expresses this idea in a much more compact form.
y log b x y is the exponent to which b must
Definition 2.22: For b  0 and b 1 , we write to mean
be raised to yield x . In other words,
x b y  y log b x
y log b x
We read as “ y equals the logarithm of x to the base b ”.
y log b x y
Remember: is an alternative way of writing x b
y
When an expression is written in the form x b , it is said to be in exponential form. When an
y log b x
expression is written in the form , it is said to be in logarithmic form. The table below
illustrates the equivalence of the exponential and logarithmic forms.
Exponential form Logarithmic form
2
4 16 log4 16 2
2 4 16 log2 16 4
5  3  125
1
log5 125
1
 3
1
62  6 log6 6  12
7 0 1 log 7 1 0
Example 2.47:
1. Write each of the following in exponential form.
1
log 3 9  2 log16 2  14
a) b)
1
log 3 9  2 3 2  19
Solution: We have a) means .
1
log16 2  1
means 16 2
4
b) 4

65
 2. Write each of the following in logarithmic form.
2
3
a) 10 0.001 b) 27 9
3

3 log 10 0.001  3
Solution: We have a) 10 0.001 means
9 means log 27 9  3
2
2
b) 27 3

3. Evaluate each of the following.

log 3 81 log8 641
a) b)
Solution:
log 3 81 t log 3 81
a) To evaluate , we let , and then rewrite the equation in exponential form,
3t 81 . Now, if we can express both sides in terms of the same base, we can solve the
resulting exponential equation, as follows:
t log 3 81
Let Rewrite in exponential form
3t 81 Express both sides in terms of the same base
t 4
3 3 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t 4
log 3 81 4
Therefore, .
b) We apply the same procedure as in part (a).
t log8 641
Let Rewrite in exponential form
t
8  641
Express both sides in terms of the same base
8 t 8  2 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t  2
log 8 641  2
Therefore, .
As was pointed out at the beginning of this subsection, logarithm notation was invented to express the
log b x f ( x ) logb x
inverse of the exponential function. Thus, is a function of x . We usually write
f ( x ) log b ( x )
rather than writing and use parenthesis only when needed to clarify the input to the log
function. For example,
f ( x ) log 5 ( 4  x ) f (  1) log 5 ( 4  (  1)) log 5 5 1 f ( x ) 4  log 5 x
If , then , whereas if , then
f (  1) 4  log 5 (  1)
, which is undefined.
f ( x ) log5 x
Example 2.48: Given , find
f ( 25 )
1
a) f ( 25) b) c) f (0) d) f ( 125)
Solution:
f ( 25) log 5 25 2 2
a) (since 5 25 )
f ( 251 ) log 5 251  2 5  2  251
b) (since )

66
 f (0) log5 0
c) is not defined (what power of 5 will yield 0?). We say that 0 is not in the domain
of f .
f (  125) log 5 (  125)
d) is not defined (what power of 5 will yield -125?). We say that -125 is
not in the domain of f .
Acknowledging that the logarithmic and exponential functions are inverses, we can derive a great deal
of information about the logarithmic function and its graph from the exponential function and its
graph.
Example 2.49: Sketch the graph of the following functions. Find the domain and range of each.
y log 3 x y log 1 x
a) b) 2

y log 3 x x
y log 3 x
Solution: a) Since is the inverse of y 3 , we can obtain the graph of by
x
reflecting the graph of y 3 about the line y  x , as shown below.
y
y = 3x
y=x

y = log3x
1

1 x

y log 1 x y 12 
x
b) To get the graph of 2
, we reflect the graph of about the line y  x as shown
below. y

y  12  x y=x

1 x

y log 1 x
2
Taking note of the features of the two graphs we have the following important informations about the
graph of the log function:
y log b x
The Logarithmic Function
1. Its domain is the set of positive real numbers
2. Its range is the set of real numbers.

67
 3. Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b  1 and logarithmic decay if 0  b  1 .
4. The x  intercept is 1. There is no y  intercept.
5. The y  axis is a vertical asymptote.
Example 2.50:
f ( x ) 1  log 3 ( x  2)
1. Sketch the graph of . Find the domain, range, asymptote and intercepts.
y 1  log 3 ( x  2)
Solution: We can obtain the graph of by applying the graphing principle to
shift the basic logarithmic growth graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit up.
y
x= 2

y = 1+ log3(x2)
1

1 2 3 x

We have Dom( f ) {x : x  2} , Range( f )  and the graph has the line x 2 as a vertical
asymptote. To find the intercept, we set y 0 and solve for x . Setting y 0 and solving for
x , we will obtain x  3 . Thus, the x  intercept is 3 .
7 7

2. Find the inverse function for

x
y  g ( x ) log 3 ( x  2)
a) y  f ( x ) 3  4 b)
Solution: Following the procedure for finding an inverse function, we have
y 3 x  4 y y log 3 ( x  2) y
(a) Interchange x and (b) Interchange x and
x 3 y  4 solve explicitly for
y x log 3 ( y  2)
Write in logarithmic form
y
x  4 3 Write in logarithmic form y  2 3 x
solve explicitly for
y
y log 3 ( x  4) y 3 x  2
1
f ( x ) log 3 ( x  4) g  1 ( x ) 3 x  2
Thus, Thus,
The following table contains the basic properties of logarithm:
Properties of logarithm

Assume that
b, u and v are positive and b 1 . Then
log b (uv ) log b u  log b v
1.
In words, logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logs of the factors.
log b ( uv ) log b u  log b v
2.
In words, the log of a quotient is the log of the numerator minus the log of the
denominator.

68
 log b u r  r log b u
3.
In words, the log of a power is the exponent times the log.
log b (b x )  x log b b  x
4.
logb x
5. b x
Example 2.51:
1. Express in terms of simpler logarithms.

a)
log b ( x 3 y )
b)
log b ( x 3  y )
c)
log b z 3  
xy

Solution:
log b ( x 3 y ) log b x 3  log b y 3 log b x  log b y
a)
b) Examining the properties of logarithms, we can see that they deal with log of a product,
log 3 ( x 3  y )
quotient and power. Thus, which is the log of a sum cannot be simplified
using log properties.
c) We have

    1
1
xy
log b z 3 log b xy  log b ( z ) 3 log b xy 2
 3 log b z  (log b x  log b y )  3 log b z
= 2 .
log b 12  log b 2
2. Show that .
log b 12 log b 1  log b 2 0  log b 2  log b 2
Solution: We have .
The logarithmic function was introduced without stressing the particular base chosen. However, there
are two bases of special importance in science and mathematics, namely, b 10 and b e .
Definition 2.23: (Common Logarithm)
f ( x ) log 10 x log 10 x log x
is called the common logarithm function. We write .
The inverse of the natural exponential function is called the natural logarithmic function and has its
own special notation.
Definition 2.24: (Natural Logarithm)
f ( x ) loge x loge x ln x
is called the natural logarithmic function. We write .

Example 2.52:
1. Evaluate log1000
a log 10 1000 log 10 (10 3 ) 3
Solution: Let a log1000 . Then, .
x
2. Find the inverse function of f ( x ) e  1 .
Solution: Let y e x  1 Interchange x and y
x e y  1 Solve for y
x  1 e y Rewrite in logarithmic form
y ln( x  1)
1
Thus, f ( x ) ln( x  1) .
 Trigonometric functions and their graphs

69
For the functions we have encountered so far, namely polynomial, rational and exponential functions,
as the independent variable goes to infinity the graph of each of these three functions either goes to
infinity(very quickly) for exponential functions or approaches a finite horizontal asymptote. None of
these functions can model the regular periodic patterns that play an important role in the social,
biological, and physical sciences: business cycles, agricultural seasons, heart rhythms, and hormone
level fluctuations, and tides and planetary motions. The basic functions for studying regular periodic
behaviour are the trigonometric functions. The domain of the trigonometric functions is more naturally
the set of all geometric angles.
Angle Measurement
An angle is the figure formed by two half-lines or rays with a common end point. The common end
point is called the vertex of the angle.

A
In forming the angle, one side remains fixed and the other side rotates. The fixed side is called the
initial side and the side that rotates is called the terminal side. If the terminal side rotates in a counter
clockwise direction, we call the angle positive angle, and if the terminal side rotates in a clockwise
direction, we call the angle negative angle.

What B attribute of an angle

B are we trying to measure when
we measure the size of an angle? A moment of
thought will lead us to the conclusion that when we measure an angle we are trying to answer the
question: Through what part of a complete rotation has the terminal side rotated?
We will use degree () as the unit of measurement for angles. Recall that the measure of a full round
angle (full circle) is 360, straight angle is 180, and right angle is 90.
An alternative unit of measure for angles which will indicate their size is the radian measure. To see
the connection between the degree measure and radian measure of an angle, let us consider an angle 
and draw a circle of radius r with the vertex of  at its center O . Let s represent the length of the
arc of the circle intercepted by  (as shown below).

O

r

Basic geometry tells us that the central angle  will be the same fractional part of one complete
1
rotation as s will be of the circumference of the circle. For example, if  is 10 of a complete rotation,

70
 1
then s will be 10 of the circumference of the circle. In other words, we can set up the following
 s s
 
proportion: 1 complete rotation circumfere nce of circle 2r

Thus, we have the following conversion formula:

 in deg rees  in radians

180  
Example 2.53:
1. Convert each of the following radian measures to degrees.
 3
a) 6 b) 5

 
6
Solution: a) By the conversion formula, we have 180

 , which implies that  30  .
 3
 5

b) Again using the conversion formula, we get 180


 , which implies that  108 .
2. Convert to radian measures
 
a) 90 b) 270

Solution: a) Let  represent the radian measure of 90 . Using the conversion formula, we obtain:
 90 
 

 180 , which implies that 2.
 
b) Rather than using the conversion formula, we notice that 270 3(90 ) . In part (a) we found that
 3
90  270 
2 , and so we have 2 .
To define the trigonometric functions, we will view all angles in the context of a Cartesian coordinate
system: that is, given an angle  , we begin by putting  in standard position, meaning that the vertex
of  is placed at the origin and initial side of  is placed along the positive x  axis . Thus the
location of the terminal side of  will, of course, depend on the size of  .
Y Y
P(x,y)

r
ϴ

X X

We then locate a point (other than the origin) on the terminal

side of  and identify its coordinates ( x, y ) and its distance to the origin, dented by r . Then, r is
positive.

71
With  in standard position, we define the six trigonometric functions of  as follows:
Definition 2.25
Name of function Abbreviation Definition
y
sin  
Sine  sin  r
x
cos 
Cosine  cos r
y
tan 
Tangent  tan  x
r
csc 
Cosecant  csc  y
r
sec  
Secant  sec  x
x
cot  
Cotangent  cot  y
s

Recall that the radian measure of an angle is defined as r , where  is angle in radians
s is the length of the arc intercepted by  and r is the length of the radius. Since s and r are both
s
lengths, the quotient r is a pure number without any units attached. Thus, any angle can be interpreted
as a real number. Conversely, any real number can be interpreted as an angle. Thus, we can describe
the domains of the trigonometric functions in the frame work of the real number systems. If we let
y
sin  
f ( ) sin  , the domain consists of all real numbers  for which sin  is defined. Since r
and r is never equal to zero, the domain for sin  is the set of all real numbers. Similarly, the domain
x
f ( ) cos  
of r is also the set of all real numbers.
 The graph of y sin 
To analyze f ( ) sin  , we keep in mind that once we choose a real number  , we draw the angle, in
standard position, that corresponds to  . To simplify our analysis, we choose the point ( x, y ) on the
2 2
terminal side so that r 1 . That is, ( x, y ) is a point on the unit circle x  y 1 . Note that
y
sin   y
1 .
(0,1)
(x,y)

θ
(-1,0) (1,0)

(0,-1)

72
As the terminal side of  moves through the first quadrant, y increases from 0 (when  0 ) to
1(when
  2 ). Thus, as  increases from 0 to 2 , y sin  steadily increases from 0 to 1.

As  increases from 2 to  , y sin  decreases form 1 to 0. A similar analysis reveals that as 
3 3
increases from  to 2 , sin  decreases from 0 to – 1; and as  increases from 2 to 2 , sin 
increases from – 1 to 0.

Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( ) sin  in the interval [0,2 ] as show below.

y = sin x

Since the values of f ( ) sin  depend only on the position of the terminal side, adding or subtracting
multiples of 2 to  will leave the value of f ( ) sin  unchanged. Thus, the values of
f ( ) sin  will repeat every 2 units. The complete graph of f ( ) sin  appears below.

The graph of y sin x ,

which is called the basic sine
curve.
 The graph of y cos 
Applying the same type of analysis to f ( ) cos , we will able to get a good idea of what its graph
looks like. The figure below shows the angle corresponding to  as it increases through quadrant I, II,
III and IV.
x
cos   x
Keeping in mind that 1 , we have the following:

1. As  increases from 0 to , x cos decreases from 1 to 0.
2

2. As  increases from 2 to  , x cos decreases from 0 to – 1.
3
3. As  increases from  to 2 , x cos increases from – 1 to 0.
3
4. As  increases from 2 to 2 , x cos increases from 0 to 1.

73
 Based on this analysis, we
have the graph of f ( ) cos
as shown below:

 The graph of y tan 

y
tan 
Since x is undefined whenever x 0 , tan  is undefined whenever the terminal side of the
angle corresponding to  falls on the y  axis . This happens for
  2 , to which we can add or
subtract any multiple of  that will again bring the terminal side back to the y  axis . Thus, domain
of tan  is
{ :   2  n } , where n is an integer.

1. As  increases from 0 to 2 , x decreases from 1 to 0 and y increases from 0 to 1; therefore,
tan   xy
increases from 0 to  .

2. As  increases from 2 to  , x decreases from 0 to – 1 and y decreases from 1 to 0;
tan   xy
therefore, increases from   to 0.
3
3. As  increases from  to 2 , x increases from – 1 to 0 and y decreases from 0 to – 1;
tan   xy
therefore, increases from 0 to  .
3
4. As  increases from 2 to 2 , x increases from 0 to 1 and y increases from – 1 to 0;
tan   xy
therefore, increases from   to 0.
You may want to add some more specific values to this analysis. In any case, we get the following as
the graph of the tangent function.

Definition 2.26: (Periodic function)

A function
y  f (x ) is called periodic if there exists a number p such that f ( x  p )  f ( x ) for all x in
f
the domain of . The smallest such number
p is called the period of the function.

74
A periodic function keeps repeating the same set of y  values over and over again. The graph of a
periodic function shows the same basic segment of its graph being repeated. In the case of sine and
cosine functions, the period is 2 . The period of the tangent function is  .

Definition 2.27: (Amplitude of a periodic function)

The amplitude of a periodic function

f (x ) is
1
A [
2 maximum value of f (x )  minimum value of f (x )]
Thus, the amplitude of the basic sine and cosine function is 1.
The portion of the graph of a sine or cosine function over one period is called a complete cycle of the
graph. In other words, the minimal portion of a sine or cosine graph that keeps repeating itself is called
a complete cycle of the graph.
Definition 2.28: (Frequency of a periodic function)
The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine graph makes on an interval of length equal to 2 is called its
frequency.

The frequency of the basic sine curve y sin x and the basic cosine curve y cos x is 1, because each
graph makes 1 complete cycle in the interval [0,2 ] .

If a sine function has period of 2 (see the figure below), then the number of complete cycles its graph

will make in an interval of

Y
2
4

length 2 is 2 .

7π
4


Thus if a sine function has a period of 2 , its frequency is 4 and its graph will make 4 complete cycles
in an interval of length 2 .

Example 2.54: Sketch the graph of y sin 2 x and find its amplitude, period and frequency.
Solution: We can obtain this graph by applying our knowledge of the basic sine graph. For the basic
curve, we have
sin 0 0 sin 2 1 sin  0 sin 32  1 sin 2 0
These quadrantal values serve as guide points, which help us draw the graph. To obtain similar guide
points for y sin 2 x , we ask for what values of x is

75
 2 x 0 2 x  2 2 x  2 x  32 2 x 2
and we get
x 0 x  4 x  2 x  32 x 
Thus, y sin 2 x will have the values 0, 1, 0,  1 , 0 at
x 0, 4 , 2 , , and  , respectively. The graph
  3
4

of y sin 2 x will thus complete one cycle in the interval [0,  ] , and will repeat the same values in the
interval [ ,2 ] .

From this graph we see that y sin 2 x has an amplitude of 1, a period  , and a frequency of 2.
For convenience we summarize our discussion on the domains of the trigonometric functions in the
table.
1. f ( x ) sin x
Domain = All real numbers
Domain = All real numbers
2. f ( x ) cos x {x : x  2  n }
Domain =
f ( x ) tan x n }
3. Domain = { x : x
4. f ( x ) csc x {x : x  2  n }
Domain =
5. f ( x ) sec x {x : x n }
Domain =
6. f ( x ) cot x where n is an integer

We have the following trigonometric identities

2 2
1. sin x  cos x 1
2 2
2. tan x  1 sce x
2 2
3. 1  cot x csc x

Exercise 2.7
1. Find the domain of the given function.
1 1
f ( x)  x x x f ( x) 
b) g ( x )  3  1 c) h( x )  2  8
3x
a) 6 d) 2 2
2. Sketch the graph of the given function. Identify the domain, range, intercepts, and asymptotes.
x x x x 2
a) y 5 b) y 9  3 c) y 1  e d) y e
3. Solve the given exponential equation.

76
 x 1 2x x 163a  2  14
a) 2 8 b) 3 243 c) 8  2 d)
x
4. Let f ( x ) 2 . Show that f ( x  3) 8 f ( x ) .
1
x g ( x  2)  g ( x )
5. Let g ( x ) 5 . Show that 25 .
x f ( x+ 2 )−f (x)
6. Let f ( x ) 3 . Show that =4(3 x ).
2
7. Evaluate the given logarithmic expression (where it is defined).
log 3 (  9)
a) log 2 32 c) e) log 5 (log 3 243)
log 1 9 log6 16 log 5
b) 3
d) f) 2 2
2
8. If f ( x ) log 2 ( x  4) , find f (6) and the domain of f .
g ( x ) log 3 ( x 2  4 x  3)
9. If , find g ( 4 )and the domain of g .
log 1 x  log 6 x
10. Show that 6

11. Sketch the graph of the given function and identify the domain, range, intercepts and
asymptotes.
a) f ( x ) log 2 ( x  3) b) f ( x )  3  log 2 x c) f ( x )  log 3 (  x ) d) f ( x ) 3 log 5 x
( 3 x  1)
12. Find the inverse of f ( x ) e .
x
13. Let f ( x ) e . Find a function so that ( f  g )( x ) ( g  f )( x )  x .
14. Convert the given angle from radians to degrees

 5  4
a) 3 b) 2 c) 3
15. Convert the given angle from degrees to radians
  
a) 315 b)  40 c) 330
16. Sketch the graph of
a) f ( ) sec  c) f ( ) csc  e) f ( ) cot 
b) f ( x ) 1  cos x d)
f ( x ) sin( x  2 ) f) f ( x ) tan 2 x
17. Verify the following identities:
a) (sin x  cos x )(csc x  sec x ) tan x  cot x
2 2 2 2
b) sec x  csc x tan x  cot x
18. Given tan   2 and sin   0 , find cos .
1

Chapter Three
Matrices, Determinant and Systems of Linear Equation
Matrices, which are also known as rectangular arrays of numbers or functions, are the main tools of
linear algebra. Matrices are very important to express large amounts of data in an organized and
concise form. Furthermore, since matrices are single objects, we denote them by single letters and

77
 calculate with them directly. All these features have made matrices very popular for expressing
scientific and mathematical ideas. Moreover, application of matrices are found in most scientific
fields; such as economics, finance, probability theory and statistics, computer science, engineering,
physics, geometry, and other areas.
Main Objectives of this Chapter
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:-
• Understand the notion of matrices and determinants
• Use matrices and determinants to solve system of linear equations
• Apply matrices and determinants to solve real life problems
3.1 Definition of Matrix
Consider an automobile company that manufactures two types of vehicles, Trucks and Passenger
cars in two different colors, red and blue. The company’s sales for the month of January are 15
Trucks and 20 Passenger cars in red color, and 10 Trucks and 16 Passenger cars in blue color. This
data is presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Trucks Passenger Cars
Red 15 20
Blue 10 16

The information in the table can be given in the form of rectangular arrays of numbers as

g
In this arrangement, the horizontal and vertical lines of numbers are called rows (R1, R2) and
columns (C1, C2), respectively. The columns C1 and C2 represent the Trucks and Passenger cars,
respectively, which are sold in January. And the rows R1 and R2 represent the red and blue colored
vehicles, respectively. An arrangement of this type is called a matrix. Note that the above
matrixhas two rows and two columns. This shows us the usefulness of matrix to organize
information.
g( x)=0
Definition 3.1 (Definition of Matrix). If m and n are positive integers, then by a
matrix of size m by n, or an m x n matrix, we shall mean a rectangular array
consisting of mn numbers, or symbols, or expressions in a boxed display consisting of m rows and n colum

C1 C2 C3  C5
R1 a11 a12 a13 .... a1n
R2 a21 a22 a23 .... a2 n
R3 a31 a32 a33 ... a3n
  . . . 
Rm am1 am 2 am 3  amn

where (R1, R2, R3, ..., Rm) and (C1, C2, C3, ..., Cn) represent the m rows and n
columns, respectively.

Remark:
1. Note that the first suffix denotes the number of a row (or position) and the second suffix that of

78
 a column, so that aij appears at the intersection of the i-th row and the j-th column.
2. Matrix A of size m × n may also be expressed by: A = [aij]m×n, where aij represents the
(i, j)-th entry of the matrix [aij].
Example 3.1: The following are matrices of different size.

f(x)=3x2+2 is a 2x2 matrix, g(x)=5x−4 is a 3x3 matrix,

(f +g)( x) is a 2x4 matrix

(f −g)( x) is a 4x2 matrix,

( f . g )( x ) is a 4x1 column matrix, ( f
g )( x )
is a 1x4 row matrix.

Definition 3.2 (Submatrix): Let A be an m x n matrix. A submatrix of matrix A is

any matrix of size r x s with r ≤ m and s ≤ n, which is obtained by deleting any
collection of rows and/or columns of matrix A.

2
Example 3.2. For the given matrix
(f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x)=(3x +2)+(5x−4)=
i) 3x2+5x−2 is a submatrix of A, which is obtained by deleting the third row of A.
2
ii)
(f−g)(x=f(x)−g(x)=3x+2)−(5x−4)= is a submatrix of A, which is obtained by deleting the second column of A.

iii) 3x2−5x+6 is a submatrix of A, which is obtained by deleting the first column and first
row of A.
Definition 3.3 (Equality of Matrices). Two matrices of the same size, A = [aij]m×n
and B = [bij]m×n, are said to be equal (and write A = B) if and only if
aij = bij, for all ij.

Example 3.3.
a) Determine the values of a, b, c and d for which the matrices A and B are equal:

(f⋅g)(x)=(3 x2+2)(5 x−4)= 15x3−12x2+10x−8

Solution: By Definition 3.3, we have a11 = b11 implies a = 5, a12 = b12 implies
b = 4, a21 = b21 implies c = 0 and a22 = b22 implies d = 2.

79
 b) Find the values of α and β for which the given matrices A and B are equal.

()
f
g
f ( x)
( x)= =
g( x)
3 x 2+ 2
5 x −4
Solution: Similarly, we have a11 = b11 implies α − β = 1, a21 = b21 implies α = 3, and hence β =

Definition 3.4 (Zero Matrix). An m x n matrix A = [aij] is said to be the zero

matrix if aij = 0 for all ij.

2.
Example 3.4. The following are zero matrices.

4
Dom(f+g)=Dom(f−g)=Dom(fg)=Dom(f)∩Dom(g)=ℜ∩ =ℜ ()
f
g
5
Dom =[Dom(f )∩Dom(g)]{x:g(x)=0¿=ℜ¿{ ¿}¿
4 f (x)=√x+1 g(x)=√9−x
,
2

Exercise 3.1.
1. Write out the matrix of size 3 x 3 whose entries are given by xij = i + j.
2. Write out the matrix of size 4 × 4 whose entries are given by

[−1,∞)
3. For the matrix
[−3,3] , give all the submatrices of size 2 × 2.
3.2 Matrix Algebra
In this section, we discuss addition of matrices, scalar multiplication, and matrix multipli- cation.
3.2.1 Addition and Scalar Multiplication
Addition and scalar multiplication are the basic matrix operations. To see the usefulness of these
operations, let us observe the following simple application.
Consider again an automobile company that manufactures two types of vehicles, Trucks and
Passenger cars in two different colors, red and blue. If the sales for the months of January and
February, respectively, are given by
f 3
f +g , f−g, f⋅g,
g
and
f
then the total sales for two months can be given as follows. The total number of red Trucks sold in
two months is 15 + 12 = 27. Similarly, the total number of blue Trucks, red Passenger cars and
blue Passenger cars sold in the two months are given by 10 + 20 = 30, 20 + 28 = 48 and 16
+ 14 = 30, respectively.
The preceding computations are examples of matrix addition. We can write the sum of two
2 x 2 matrices indicating the sales of January and February as

80
 (f +g)( x)=f ( x)+g( x )=4√ x+1+ √9−x 2
Definition 3.5. Let A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]m×n be two matrices of the same
size. Then the sum of 10 20 by A +10
A and B, denoted B, +
is 20 14× n matrix30
the m defined by
the formula
A + B = [aij + bij].
The sum of two matrices of different sizes is undefined.

Example 3.5. For the given matrices A, B, C, D compute A + B and C + D.

[−1, 3] (f −g)(x)=f (x)−g(x)=4√x+1−√9−x2 [−1, 3] (f⋅g)( x)=f(x)⋅g(x)=√4 x+1⋅√9−x2

, , ,
Solution: Using Definition 3.5, we have

[−1 , 3 ]
And

( )
4
f
( x )=
f ( x)
=
√ x+ 1
g g( x ) √ 9− x 2
Theorem 3.1 (Laws of Matrix Addition ). Let A, B, C be matrices of the same size
m x n, 0 the m x n zero matrix. Then
Closure Law of Addition: A + B is an m x n matrix.
Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Commutative Law : A + B = B + A.
Identity Law : A + 0 = A.
Inverse Law : A + (−A) = 0.

Definition 3.6 (Scalar Multiplication). Let A = [aij] be an m x n matrix, and α a

scalar. Then the product of the scalar α with matrix A, denoted by αA, is defined by

αA = [αaij]m×n.

Example 3.6. Consider the automobile manufacturing company once again. Suppose the company’s
sales for the months of January and March, respectively, are given by

81
 3

[−1, 3) and
3 3 4 3
f (x)=(f (x)) =(√ x+1) =( x+1 ) 4

(a) If the sales of January is to be doubled in February, then the sales of February should be

[−1 , ∞)
(b) If the sales of March is to be declined by 50% in April, then the sales of April should be

f ( x)
Theorem 3.2 (Laws of Scalar Multiplication). Let A, B be matrices of the same size m x n, and α and β scalars
Closure Law of Scalar Multiplication: αA is an m x n matrix.
Associative Law: α(βA) = (αβ)A.
Distributive Law: α(A + B) = αA + αB.
Distributive Law: (α + β)A = αA + βA.
Monoidal Law: 1A = A.

Example 3.7. Let

g( x ) f ∘ g (f∘g)(x)=f[g(x)]
, ,
Σ Σ Σ Σ Σ
1 2 2 0 a
A= , B= , C=
be the given matrices. Then,

( f ∘ g )( x )
and

f} { ¿
Thus, we have 2(A + B) = 2A + 2B.
Example 3.8. Solve for X in the matrix equation 2X + A = B, where

g and
x } {¿
Solution: We begin by solving the equation for X to obtain
2X = B − A implies X = ½(B − A).

82
Thus, we have the solution

83
 3.2.2 Matrix Multiplication
An other important matrix operation is matrix multiplication. To see the usefulness of this
operation, consider the application below, in which matrices are helpful for organizing in-
formation.
A football stadium has three concession areas, located in South, North and West stands. The top-
selling items are: peanuts, hot dogs and soda. Sales for one day are given in the first matrix below,
and the prices (in dollar) of the three items are given in the second matrix (note that the price per
Peanuts, Hot dogs and Soda are given by $2.00, $3.00 and $2.75, respectively).

f ∘g
To calculate the total sales of the three top-selling items at the South stand, multiply each entry in
the first row of the matrix on the left by the corresponding entry in the price column matrix on the
right and add the results. Thus, we have
120(2.00) + 250(3.00) + 305(2.75) = 1828.75$ (South stand sales).
Similarly, the sales for the other two stands are given below:
207(2.00) + 140(3.00) + 419(2.75) = 1986.25$ (North stand sales).
29(2.00) + 120(3.00) + 190(2.75) = 940.5$ (West stand sales).
The preceding computations are examples of matrix multiplication. We can write the product of the 3 x 3
matrix indicating the number of items sold and the 3 x 1 matrix indicating the selling prices as shown below.

'
x
The product of these matrices is the 3 x 1 matrix giving the total sales for each of the three stands.
Definition 3.7 (Matrix Multiplication). Let. A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]n×p be two matrices. Then the
product of A and B, denoted by AB, is an m × p matrix whose (i, j)-th entry is defined by the formula
n  .
 AB ij  aik b kj ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ai 3b3 j  ...  ainbnj
k 1
In the other words, the (i, j)-th entry of the product AB is obtained by summing the products of the
elements in the i-th row of A with corresponding elements in the j-th column of B.

Remark. The product AB of two matrices A and B is defined only if the number of columns in A and the number of

Example 3.9. Let

g and
f be two matrices. Clearly, the product AB is
defined in this case, since the number of column of A and the number of rows of B are equal. Thus, we
have

84
 '
x
In this example, the matrices A and B, respectively, are 2 x 3 and 3 x 2 matrices, whereas the
product AB is a 2 x 2 matrix.

Example 3.10. Let

g( x ) f and be the given matrices. Then, we have

f ={(2, z),(3,q)} g={(a,2),(b,3),(c,5)} and

In this example, we observe that both the products AB and BA are defined. This is true in general
i.e., the products AB and BA are defined for any two square matrices A and B of the same size. For
the matrices A and B given above, we have (f ∘g)(x)=f (g(x)) . Hence, matrix multiplication is not
commutative.

Theorem 3.3. Matrix multiplication is associative, i.e., whenever the products are defined, we have A(BC) = (AB

From Theorem 3.3, we shall write ABC for either A(BC) or (AB)C. Also, for every positive
integer n, we shall write An for the product AAA...A (n terms).
Theorem 3.4. If all multiplications and additions make sense, the following hold for matrices, A, B, C and α, β s
A(αB + βC) = α(AB) + β(AC).
(αB + βC)A = α(BA) + β(CA) .

Exercise 3.2.
1. Find your own examples:
(i) 2 x 2 matrices A and B such that g , (f∘g)(a)=f(g(a) =f(2)=z, (f∘g)(b)=f(g(b) =f(3)=qwith f ( g ( c ) ) .
(ii) 2 x 2 matrices A and B such that f ( 5) , f ( x ) but (f ∘ g )(c) .

(iii) 2 x 2 matrix A such that A2 = I2 and yet f∘g={( a,z),( b,q)} and f(x)=5x −3x+2 .
2

2.Let
g(x)=4x+3 . Find all 2 x 2 matrices, B such that AB = 0.

3.Let
(f ∘g)(−2) (g∘f )(2)
and . Is it possible to choose c so that AB = BA? If
so, what should be the value of c?

4.Given the matrices

(f ∘g)(x) (g∘f )(x) (f ∘g)(−2)=f (g(−2))
, and and α a scalar
i. Compute the products A(BC), (AB)C, and verify that A(BC) = (AB)C.
ii. Compute the products α(AB), (αA)B, A(αB)), and verify that

85
 α(AB) = (αA)B = A(αB).

5. Consider the automobile producer whose agency’s sales for the month of January were given
by

g(−2)=4(−2)+3=−5
Suppose that the price of a Truck is $200 and that of a Passenger car is $100. Use matrix
multiplication to find the total values of the red and blue vehicles for the month of January.

3.3 Types of Matrices

There are certain types of matrices that are so important that they have acquired names of their
own. In this section we are going to discuss some of these matrices and their properties.
Definition 3.8 (Square Matrix). A matrix A is said to be square if it has the same number of rows and columns. I

Example 3.11. The following are square matrices.

2
=f (−5) (Square matrix of size 2) and
=5(−5) −3(−5)+2=142 (Square matrix of size 3)

. matrix A = [aij]n×n is called an identity matrix if

Definition 3.9 (Identity Matrix). A .square
  1, if i  j
aij 
0, otherwise
and it is denoted by In.

Example 3.12. The following are identity matrices.

2
(g∘f)(2)=g(f(2)) (Identity matrix of size 2) and
f (2)=5(2) −3(2)+2=16 (Identity matrix of size 3)
Definition 3.10 (Diagonal Matrix). A square matrix D = [dij]n×n is said to be diagonal if dij = 0
whenever i  j . Less formally, D is said to be diagonal when all the entries off the main diagonal
are 0.

Example 3.13. The following are diagonal matrices.

= g (16 ) are Diagonal matrix of size 2.

86
 =4 (16 )+3=67 are Diagonal matrix of size 3.
Note that the identity matrix is the special case of diagonal matrix where all the entries in the main
diagonal are 1.
Definition 3.11 (Scalar Matrix). A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal entries are equal is called a scalar matrix.

Example 3.14. The following are scalar matrices.

(f ∘g)(x)=f (g(x) ,
g(x)=4x+3 and
=f(4x+3)
(b) 0 2 0 (c) 0 1 0
0 3

Definition 3.12 (Triangular Matrix). A square matrix A = [aij]n×n is said to be

lower triangular if and only if aij = 0 whenever i < j. A is said to be upper
triangular if and only if aij = 0 whenever i > j.

Example 3.15.The following are upper and lower triangular matrices.

2
,
2
=5(4x+3) −3(4x+3)+2 =80x +108x+38 , and
(g∘f )(x)=g(f (x) upper triangular matrices

2 2 2
f ( x)=5x −3x+2 =g(5 x −3x+2)
, , and
=4(5x −3x+2)+3 Lower triangular matrices
Remark
(a)In the lower triangular matrix all the entries above the main diagonal are zero, whereas in the
upper triangular matrix all the entries below the main diagonal are zero.
(b)Any diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular.

87
Definition 3.13 (Transpose of Matrix). Let A = [aij] be an m x n matrix . Then by the transpose of
A we mean the n x m matrix, denoted by At, whose (i, j)-th entry is the (j, i)-th entry of A. More
precisely, if A = [aij]m×n, then At = [aji]n×m. That is,

 a11 a12 .... a1n   a11 a21 .... am1 

a 
a22 ... a2 n  a a22 ... am 2 
A  21
A   12
t
         
   
 am1 am 2  amn  , then  a1n a2 n  anm 

Note that the k-th row of matrix A becomes k-th column of At, and the k-th column of A becomes k-th
row of At.
Example 3.16. Compute the transposes of the following matrices.

x
f ( x)=
=20x2−12x+11 , x+1
Solution: First let us consider matrix A. Now, row 1 of matrix A becomes column 1 of At, and row
2 of A becomes column 2 of At. Thus, we have

88
 2
g(x)=
x−1 and
(f ∘g)(x)
Example 3.17. Distinguish whether the given matrix is symmetric or not.

Definition 3.14 (Symmetric Matrix) A square matrix A is said to be Symmetric if A = At.

2

(g∘f )(x) ( )
(f ∘g)(x)=f
2 x−1 2
=
x−1 2
x−1
+1
=
x+1

Solution: For the matrix

Dom(f∘g)={x: x≠±1} ,
(g∘f )(x)=g(f(x))=
x
x+1
−1
=−2x−2

. Thus, we have x , and hence

A is not symmetric.

For the matrix

f ( x) f , . Thus, we have Dom(g∘f)={x:x≠−1} , and hence B is
symmetric.
Theorem 3.5 (Properties of Matrix Transpose). When the relevant sums and products are defined, and α is a scala
(At)t = A.
(A + B)t = At + Bt.
(αA)t = α(At).
3. (AB)t = BtAt.

3 3 2
0 0
A is
not 
sym 11
metri 
c. 3


3
2 . Thus, we have B = B , and t
3 2
Exercise 3.3.

89
 g(x)=√3x :
6x
f ( x)=
1. For the given matrices x 2−9 , and
(a) Show that (At)t = A.
(b) Show that (A + B)t = At + Bt.
(c) Show that (4A)t = 4(At).
(d) Show that (AB)t = BtAt.

90
 3.4 Elementary row operations
Elementary row operations are useful to find the rank of a matrix (see Section 3.6), to compute the
determinants of matrices (see Section 3.7), and to find the inverse of a matrix (see Section 3.8).
Furthermore, elementary row operations are widely used in solving systems of linear equations (see
Section 3.9).
In this section, we introduce the elementary row operations and apply these operations to transform
the given matrix into different form.

Definition 3.15 (Elementary Row Operations)

Let A be an m × n matrix. The following are known as elementary row operations.
1. Interchanging two rows: Ri ↔ Rj.(Rule of Interchanging)

2. Multiplying a row by a nonzero scalar: Ri → αRi (α is a nonzero scalar).

(Rule of Scaling)

3. Adding a multiple of one row to another: Ri → Ri + αRj (α is a nonzero

scalar). (Rule of Replacement)

Example 3.18. Use elementary row operations to transform the given matrix A into, (a) an upper
triangular matrix, (b) an identity matrix.

(f ∘g)(12)
Solution: Consider the given matrix A:
(a) First let us transform the matrix A into an upper triangular. This can be done as follows:

( g∘ f )( x )
(f ∘g)(12)=f (g(12))=f ( √ 36 4
36)=f (6)= 27 = 3
6 √3 x 6 √3 x 2 √ 3 x
(f ∘ g )(x )=f (g ( x ))=f ( √ 3 x )= = =
( √ 3 x ) −9 3 x −9 x−3
2

Hence the matrix

f ∘g is an upper triangular, which is obtained from A by elementary
row operations.
(b)To transform the matrix A into a diagonal matrix, we simply change all the entries above the

91
 main diagonal into zeros and the entries in the main diagonal into 1. Let us denote the above
upper triangular matrix by B. Then we have

[ 0 ,3 )∪(3 ,∞ )
f : A →B
g:A→B f Thus, is the identity matrix
obtained from A.

Definition 3.16. Two matrices are said to be row equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by a sequence

Example 3.19. Let A, B, I3 be the matrices in Example 3.18. Then, A is row equivalent to both B
and the identity matrix I3. Also the matrix B is row equivalent to the identity matrix I3.
Exercise 3.4.

1. Given the matrix

g , use elementary row operations to find the lower triangular matrix
which are row equivalent to A.

2. Given the matrix

A×B , use elementary row operations to find an identity matrix
which is row equivalent to B.

3.5 Row Echelon Form and Reduced Row Echelon Form of a Matrix
In order to find the rank, or to compute the inverse of a matrix, or to solve a linear system, we
usually write the matrix either in its row echelon form or reduced row echelon form.

92
 Definition 3.17. An m x n matrix is said to be in echelon form (or row echelon
form) if the following conditions are satisfied:
All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the row above it. (A leading en
All entries in a column below a leading entry are zeros.
If a matrix in row echelon form satisfies the following additional conditions, then it is in reduced echelon fo
The leading entry in each nonzero row is 1.
Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
A matrix in row echelon form is said to be in reduced row echelon when every column that has a leading 1

Example 3.20. The given matrices A, B, C, D are in row echelon form

f =g
and the following are in reduced row echelon form.

x
Theorem 3.6 (Uniqueness of the Reduced Echelon Form). Each matrix is row equivalent to one
and only one reduced echelon matrix.

Definition 3.18. A pivot position in a matrix A is a location in A that corresponds to a leading 1 in the reduced

93
 To write a matrix in reduced echelon form:
Begin with the leftmost nonzero column. This is a pivot column. The pivot position is at the top.
Select a nonzero entry in the pivot column as a pivot. If necessary, interchange rows to move this entry into the p
Use row replacement operations to create zeros in all positions below the pivot.
Cover (or ignore) the row containing the pivot position and cover all rows,
if any, above it. Apply steps 1-3 to the submatrix that remains. Repeat the
process until there are no more nonzero rows to modify.
Beginning with the rightmost pivot column and working upward and to the left, create zeros above each pivot. If

Example 3.21. Find the reduced row echelon form of the matrix A.

Solution:
A
Step 1: Here, the left most nonzero column is the second column.
Step 2: By row interchanging rule, we can obtain the pivot position as follows;

( x ,f ( x))∈f =g
 
Step 3: 0 1 1 5
0023
Step 3: Now, the leading entry is 1, and to create zeros in all positions below the pivot, we use the
replacement rule:

( x ,f ( x))∈g
Step 4: Now we proceed to the second row. Here, the leading entry is −2. Using a scaling rule we
obtain a leading 1:

g
94
 And applying row replacement rule :
( x , f ( x)),
And scaling ( x ,g( x) ∈ g

f ( x)=g( x).
Step 5: Beginning with the rightmost pivot column, we create zeros above each pivot element. That
is, we start from the fourth column:

g( x )=f ( x )
And using row replacement (to create zeros above the pivot element in the third column),

x∈ A
Thus, the required matrix in reduced row echelon form is given by :

(x,y)∈f y=f ( x
Exercise 3.5 Σ
20
1. Determine which matrices are in reduced row echelon form.  
1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 5
2. Give the row echelon form and also the reduced row echelon form of the following matrices.
matrices which,

( x , y )∈ g
Exampl are in reduced
e 3.22. row echelon
Determi form.
ne the
3.6 Rank of matrix using elementary row operations ranks of
the
The ranks of matrices are useful in determining the number of solutions
followin

Definition 3.19 (Rank of Matrix). Rank of an m×n matrix A, denoted by rank(A),

is the number of nonzero rows of the reduced row echelon form of A.
for linear systems. g

95
f ⊆ g

96
Solution: Clearly, all the matrices are in reduced row echelon form. Hence, by Definition 3.19, we
have rank(A) = 3 (since the number of nonzero rows in matrix A is 3). Similarly, rank(B) = 2
(since the number of nonzero rows in matrix B is 2), rank(C) = 2 (since the number of nonzero
rows in matrix C is 2), and rank(D) = 1 (since the number of nonzero rows in matrix D is 1).

Example
3.23. Find rank(A), where
g⊆f
Solution: After a sequence of elementary row operations, we obtain the reduced echelon
form of A, which is given by

Thus, rank(A) = 2.
f =g
Remark. The matrix A and its transpose At have the same rank. That is
rank(A) = rank(At).

Example 3.24. Verify that the given matrix A and its transpose At have the same rank.

f:A→B and
g:A→B
Solution: Observe that the matrix A is in its row echelon form, and hence its rank is 2.
Now, we apply elementary row operations to reduce matrix At into its row echelon form, and we get

that
f(x)=g(x)
Thus, rank(At) = 2 = rank(A).

Exercise 3.6.
1. Determine the rank of the following matrices.

x∈ A

97
 +
f : Z →Z ∪{0}

98
 3.7 Determinant and its properties
The determinant is a function that takes a square matrix as an input and produces a scalar as an
output. It has many beneficial properties for studying, matrices and systems of equations.

 a c
A  
Definition 3.20 (Determinant of 2 × 2 matrix). The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix  d b ,
denoted by det(A) (or |A|), is defined by the formula
a c
det( A)  ab  cd
d b

+
Example 3.25. Find the determinant of a matrix
g:Z→Z ∪{0}.
Solution: Using Definition 3.20, the determinant of matrix A is given by

f ={(n , n2 ):n ∈ Z}
The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix can be defined using the determinants of 2 × 2 matrices.

 a11 a12
a13 
A   a21 a22
a23 
 a31 a32
a33 
Definition 3.22 (Determinant of 3 × 3 Matrix). Let be a 3 × 3 matrix, and
Aij (for i, j = 1, 2, 3) be the 2 × 2 submatrix of A obtained by deleting the ith-row and the jth-
column of A. Then determinant of A is denoted by det(A) (or |A|), and is defined as
det( A)  A ( 1)11 a11 A11  ( 1)1 2 a12 A12  ( 1)1 3 a13 A13
a22 a23 a a a a
a11  a12 21 23  a13 21 22
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

2
Example 3.26. Compute the determinant of a matrix
g={(n,|n| ): n∈Z}
Solution: Using Definition 3.21, the determinant is given by

n∈Z
So far we discussed the determinants of 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 matrices. Next we define the determinant of

99
an n × n matrix for each positive integer n .

100
Definition 3.22 (Minors and Cofactors).
Let A = (aij)n×n, and Aij be the submatrix of A obtained by deleting the ith-row and jth-column
of A for i, j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n. Then
a) The minor for A at location (i, j), denoted by Mij(A), is the determinant of the submatrix
Aij. That is, Mij(A) = det(Aij).
b) The cofactor, denoted by Cij(A), for A at location (i, j) is the signed determinant of the
submatrix Aij. That is, Cij(A) = (−1)i+j det(Aij).

Remark. In Definition 3.22, the cofactor Cij(A) at location (i, j) can be computed using the
following formula:
det( Aij ), if i  j is even
Cij ( A) 
 - det(A), if i  j is odd
a)

Example 3.27. Compute the matrix of cofactors for the given matrix.

2 2
f (n)=n =|n| =g(n)
1
1
1
Solution: (a) The minors of A are − 0

2


1
f = g
and the cofactors are
C11(A) = (−1)1+1M11(A) = (1)(2) = 2, C21(A) = (−1)2+1M21(A) = (−1)(1) = −1,
C12(A) = (−1)1+2M12(A) = (−1)(−1) = 1, C22(A) = (−1)2+2M12(A) = (1)(1) = 1.
Thus, the matrix of cofactors for A is
x 2−25
f (x)= , x∈ℜ{5¿¿
x−5
b) The minors of B are

g ( x )= x +5 , x ∈ ℜ

101
 f
and the cofactors are
C11(B) = (−1)1+1M11(B) = 1, C21(B) = (−1)2+1M21(B) = 0, C31(B) =(−1)3+1M31(B) = −2,
C12(B) = (−1)1+2M12(B) = 5, C22(B) = (−1)2+2M22(B) = −3, C32(B) = (−1)3+2M32(B) = −1, C13(B)
= (−1)1+3M13(B) = −2, C23(B) = (−1)2+3M23(B) = 0, and C33(B) = (−1)3+3M33(B) = 1.
Thus, the matrix of cofactors for B is

g
Definition 3.23 (Determinants of n × n Matrix). The determinant of a square matrix A = [aij] of
size n × n, denoted by det(A) (or |A|), is defined recursively as follows: if n = 1 then det(A) = a11;
otherwise, we suppose that determinants are defined for all square matrices of size less than n and
specify that
n
det( A)  ak1Ck1 ( A) a11C11 ( A)  a21C21 ( A)  ...  an1Cn1 ( A)
k 1 (3.1)
where Cij(A) is the (i, j)-th cofactor of A. The formula (3.1) is called a cofactor expansion
across the 1st column of A.
Example 3.28. Consider the matrices given in Example 3.27,

Dom( f )≠Dom( g).

The cofactors of matrices A and B, respectively, are given by

2
2
g( x)=
f(x)=x +x and x+3
Now, using Definition 3.23, we have
det(A) = a11C11 + a21C21 = (1)(2) + (−1)(−1) = 3, and
det(B) = b11C11 + b21C21 + b31C31 = (1)(1) + (1)(0) + (2)(−2) = −3.

Theorem 3.7. The determinant of an n × n matrix A can be computed by cofactor expansion across any row
or any column. The expansion across ith row is
n
det( A)  aij1Cij ( A) ai1Ci1 ( A)  ai 2Ci 2 ( A)  ...  ainCin ( A)
j 1

( 1)i 1 ai1 Ai1  ( 1)i  2 ai 2 Ai 2  ...  ( 1)i  n ain Ain

and the expansion across jth column is

102
Example 3.29. Compute the determinant of matrix A by expanding the cofactors across an appropriate

row or column
(f−g)(2)
Solution: Here, we observe that the 3rd column has more number of zero entries than any other
columns and rows. Thus, the determinant of A (by expanding the cofactors across the 3rd column)
is given by: det(A) = a13|A13| − a23|A23| + a33|A33| = 0 − 1 + 0 = −1

Properties of determinats: Let A be the square matrix of size n.

1. If an entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros, then det(A) = 0.
2. If two rows (or columns) are equal, then det(A) = 0.
3. If one row (or column) is a scalar multiple of another row (or column), then det(A) = 0.
4. If A, B and C, respectively, are the upper triangular, lower triangular, and diagonal matrices,
given by
 a11 a12 a13   b11 0 0  d11 0 0
A  0 a22 a23  , B  b21 b22 0  , D  0 d 22 0 
 0 0 a33   b31 b32 b33   0 0 d 33 

Then
det(A) = a11a22a33, det(B) = b11b22b33, and det(D) = d11d22d33.
That is, the determinants of the triangular and diagonal matrices are simply the products of the entries
in the main diagonal.

Example 3.30. Determine the determinants of the following matrices.

2
g ( 3)
Solution: We have, det(A) = 0 (since the entire second row of matrix A consists of zeros), det(B) =
0 (since the entire third column of matrix A consists of zeros), det(C) = 0 (since the first and third
rows of C are equal), and det(D) = 0 (since the second row of D is a scalar multiple of the first row).
Example 3.31. Compute the determinants of the following matrices.

( g ∘ f )(1 )
Solution: Using the properties of determinants, we have

( f
g )( 1 )

Theorem 3.8. For any square matrix A, det(A) = det(At) (Transposition doesn’t alter
determinants).

103
 Example 3.32. For the given matrix A, verify that det(A) = det(At).

(f ∘g)(1)

Solution: The transpose of matrix A is given by

(g∘g)(3) .
t
Now, we have the determinants of A and A are
det(A) = 2, and det(At) = 2.
Thus, det(A) = det(At).

Theorem 3.9 (Effects of elementary row operations).

I. If matrix B is obtained from a square matrix A by interchanging any two rows (i.e., Ri ↔
Rj), then det(B) = −det(A). (Interchanging)
II. If matrix B is obtained from a square matrix A by multiplying the ith row by a nonzero
scalar α (i.e., Ri → αRi), then det(B) = αdet(A). (Scaling)
III. If matrix B is obtained from a square matrix A by adding scalar multiple of
one row to the other (i.e., Ri → Ri + αRj), then det(B) = det(A). (Replacement)

3
Example 3.33. Let
f(x)=x +2 be the given matrix with det(A) = −2.
a) If a matrix B is obtained from A by interchanging the first and second rows (i.e., R1 ↔ R2),
then we have

2
g( x )=
x−1
Thus, det(B) = −det(A). Here, we observe that if the row interchanging has been made two
times, then det(B) = (−1)2det(A) = det(A). In general, if the row interchanging has been
made n times, then det(B) = (−1)ndet(A). Thus, det(B) = det(A) if n is even, and det(B) =
−det(A) if n is odd.
b) If a matrix B is obtained from A by multiplying the second row by 4 (i.e.,
R2
→ 4R2), then we have

(f +g)( x)
Thus, det(B) = 4det(A). If each row of matrix A is multiplied by 4, then we have
det(B) =.. 43det(A).

104
 More generally, if A is an n × n matrix, and B is obtained by multiplying each row of A by a
nonzero scalar c, then we have det(B) = det(cA) = cndet(A).

c) If a matrix B is obtaoined by replacing row 2 (i.e., ( ) ( x ) ), then

g
f

(f ∘g)(x ) . Thus, det(B) = det(A).

Theorem 3.10 (Product Rule).

If A and B are two matrices for which the product AB is defined, then
det(AB) = det(A)det(B).

Example 3.34. Let

(g∘f )(x) f (x)=x2
and be the given matrices. Then verify that
g ( x )= √ x det(AB) =
Solution: Here, we have det(A)det(B).
5 .3 .1
( f ∘ g )( x ) −
det(A)det(
B) =
4.

Thus, ( g∘ f )( x ) 4 (−7)(8)
= −56 =
det(AB).
Definition 3.24 (Definition of rank using Determinant). Let A be an m×n matrix.
Then rank(A) = r, where r is the largest number such that some r × r submatrix of
A has a nonzero determinant.

Example 3.35. Compute the the rank of matrix

(f ∘ g )(x ) using determinants.
Solution: Observe that, the largest possible size of any square submatrix of A is 2 × 2. We

have (say) a submatrix

(g∘f )(x) (which is obtained by deleting the last two columns of A) with

f (x)=5x−3 Therefore, rank(A) = 2.

Exercise 3.7.
1. Compute the determinants of the following matrices using elementary row operations.

105
 g( x )
2. Compute the determinants of the following matrices by expanding cofactors across any
appropriate row or column.
(f ∘ g )(x )=2 x+7
2 2 1
3. Compute the matrix of cofactors for the given matrices. 0
f ( x )=2 x+1. 1 0 2
4. Determine the ranks of the following matrices using determinants. 0
0

g( x )
0

1
3.8 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix
The inverses of matrices are useful to solve linear systems. In this section, we define the inverse of a
matrix, we discuss different methods to compute an inverse, and the properties of inverses.

Definition 3.25 (Adjoint of a Matrix). Let A be an n×n matrix. If [Cij(A)] denotes the
matrix of cofactors for A, then the adjugate (or adjoint) matrix of A, denoted by Adj(A),
is defined by the formula

Adj(A) = [Cij(A)]t

That is, adjoint of matrix A is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors for A.

Example 3.36. Compute the adjoints of the given matrices.

(f ∘g)(x )=3 x−1

Solution: The matrix of cofactors for A is:
f
Thus, the adjoint of matrix A is: x−1
f ( x )=
01
x +1
The matrix of cofactors for B is given by:
3 f ( x)+1
f (2x )=
f ( x)+3
106
Thus, the adjoint of matrix B is:

107
 Definition 3.26 (Inverse of a Matrix). Let A be an n× n square matrix. The inverse
of matrix A is an n × n matrix B such that
AB = In = BA,

where In is the n × n identity matrix. If such a Matrix B exists, then the matrix
A is said to be invertible (or nonsingular), and its inverse is denoted by A−1 (i.e.
B = A−1). A matrix that does not have an inverse is said to be noninvertible (or
singular).

Example 3.37. Consider the following matrices:

Then we have
g
h( x )=( f ∘ g )( x )
That is, the products AB and BA give us the identity matrix I2. Therefore, matrix B is the inverse of A
i.e., A−1 = B.

Similarly, we have

3
h( x )=( x +3 )
Thus, the matrix D is the inverse of C i.e., C−1 = D.

Theorem 3.11. Let A be an n × n matrix. If A is invertible (non singular) then

det(A) ≠ 0, and the inverse A−1 is given by the formula
1
A−1 = Adj(A).
det(A)

1
h( x )= +6
Example 3.38. Compute the inverse of the given matrix
x .
Solution: We have, det(A) = 6,

108
 h(x)=√ 5x−3
1
h( x )=
and x +6
Therefore, by Theorem 3.11, we have

1
f ( x)=4 x−3, g( x)=
x
Theorem 3.12 (Laws of Inverse). Let A, B, C be matrices of appropriate sizes so that the
following multiplications make sense, I is a suitably sized identity matrix, and α a nonzero scalar.
Then
i.If the matrix A is invertible, then it has one and only one inverse, A−1.

ii.If A is invertible matrix of size n× n, then so is A−1 and hence, (A−1)−1 = A.

iii. If any two of the three matrices A, B, AB are invertible, then so is the third,
and moreover, (AB)−1 = B−1A−1.
1
iv. If the matrix A is invertible, then so is αA. Moreover, (αA)−1 = α A−1.
v. If the matrix A is invertible, then so is At. Moreover (At)−1 = (A−1)t.
vi. Suppose A is invertible. If AB = AC or BA = CA, then B = C.

Example 3.39. Let

h(x)=x2−x be the given matrix. Then we have

f (5x+7) and
f (g(h(3)))
Now,

a)
f ( x+a) and
5f (x )+7 .

Thus, we have
f(1)⋅g(2)⋅h(3).
b)
f ( x)+a and
f : A →B
x , x2 ∈ A .
Thus, we have 1
Computation of Inverse Using Elementary Row Operations: Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Let A be an n × n invertible matrix and In be the identity matrix of size n × n.

109
 f(x1 )=f(x2 ) x 1=x 2 , tri
Then the inverse A−1 can be obtained using elementary row operations as follows.

Finding the Inverse of a Matrix by Gauss-Jordan Elimination

1.Write the n × 2n matrix that consists of A on the left and the n × n identity

matrix In on the right to obtain [A|In]. This process is called adjoining matrix
In to matrix A.
2.If possible, row reduce A to In using elementary row operations on the entire

matrix [A|In]. The result will be the matrix [In|A−1]. If this is not possible,
then A is noninvertible (or singular).
3.Check your work by multiplying to see that AA−1 = In = A−1A.

Example 3.40. Compute the inverses of the given matrices using Gauss-Jordan Elimination.

A
Solution: Let
B . Then we have

A={1 , 2 ,3 ,⋯, 6}
B={7,a,b,c ,d ,8,e}
f =¿ ¿
Therefore, the transformed matrix is :

And hence, the inverse of matrix A is given by :

(2,a),
110
 (3,b)
Similarly, for

(4 ,b),(5,c),(6,8)¿¿
g={(1,7),(2,a),(3,b),(4,c),(5,8),(6,d)}
Therefore, the transformed matrix is :
Exercise 3.8.
f . Thus,
g
1.For the given matrices A and B, compute the adjoint matrices.

A
2.Compute the inverse of the given matrix (if it exists).

111
 0

1
3
3. Compute the inverse (if it exists) of the given matrix using elementary row operations.
,
3.9 System of Linear Equations
Consider an oil refinery that produces gasoline, kerosene and jet fuel form light crude oil and heavy
crude oil. The refinery produces 0.3, 0.2 and 0.4 of gasoline, kerosene and jet fuel, respectively, per
barrel of light crude oil. And it produces 0.2, 0.4 and 0.3 of gasoline, kerosene and jet fuel,
respectively, per barrel of heavy crude oil. This is shown in Table 2. Note that 10% of each of the
crude oil is lost during the refining process.
Table 2

Gasoline Kerosene Jet fuel

Light crude oil 0.3 0.2 0.4
Heavy crude oil 0.2 0.4 0.3

112
Suppose that the refinery has contracted to two as the coefficient matrix
deliver 550 barrels of gasoline, 500 barrels of unk of the system, and the
kerosene, and 750 barrels of jet fuel. The now right side of the system
is a matrix
problem is to find the number of barrels of each ns.
With the column vector
crude oil that satisfies the demand. The
If l and h represent the number of barrels of
light and heavy crude oil, respectively, then the
matr
ix ofunknowns
g , the
above information can be
given problem can be expressed as a system of organized in matrix form
linear equations
0.3l + 0.2h = 550
0.2l + 0.4h = 500
0.4l + 0.3h = 750
is
kno
A={1,2
wn 
The given linear system has three equations and 550
Example 3.41. Consider the following system of two equations and two unknowns x, y
+ by = b1
ax .
cx + dy= b2
If we interpret (x, y) as coordinates in the xy-plane, then each of the two equations repre- sents a
straight line, and (x*, y*) is a solution if and only if the point P with coordinates x*, y* lies on both
lines. In this case, there are three possible cases: there exists only one solution if the lines intersect
(see Figure 1 a), there are infinitely many solutions if the lines coincide (see Figure 1 b) and the
system has no solution if the lines are parallel (see Figure 1 c).

(a) (b) (c)

x+y=1 2x−y=0 x+y=1 2x+2y=2 x+y=1 x+y=0

Figure 1: In this figure: (a) represents the case where the lines intersect (b) represents the case where
the lines coincide (c) represents the case where the lines are parallel

Let us briefly discuss the three different cases: In part (a) the linear system is given by
x+y=1
2x − y = 0.

113
 This system has only solution, namely (x, y) =
B={1,4,7,8}
.
In part (b) the linear system is given by
x+y=1
2x + 2y = 2.
This system has infinitely many solutions. In fact, the point (α, 1 −α) is a solution for each real
number α.
And finally, in part (c) the linear system is given by
x+y=1
x + y = 0,
which has no solutions, since the expressions in the left side of the two equations are the same, but
different values in the right side of the two equations.

Definition 3.27. A linear system (or system of linear equations) of m-equations in

n-unknowns x1, x2, x3, ..., xn is a set of equations of the form

a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn = b1

a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn = b2
(3.2)
................................................
am1x1 + am2x2 + ... + amnxn = bm,

where aij’s (for i = 1, 2, 3, ..., m and j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n), are given numbers, called
the coefficients of the system, and b1, b2, b3, ..., bm on the right side are also numbers.

A solution of (3.2) is a set of numbers x1, x2, x3, ..., xn that satisfies all the m-equations
simultaneously.
Matrix Form of a Linear System
From the definition of matrix multiplication, we see that the m-equations of (3.2) may be written as a
single vector equation
f : A →B (3.3)

Where,
f(1)=1, f(2)=4, f(3)=4, f(4)=8
are known as the coefficient matrix, the column vector of unknowns and the column vector
of numbers, respectively. We assume that the coefficients aij are not all zero, so that A is
not a zero matrix. Note that x has n components, whereas b has m components.

For the system of linear equations in (3.2), precisely one of the statements below is true:
1. It admits a unique Solution: There is one and only one vector x = (x1, x2, x3, ..., xn)
that satisfies all the m-equations simultaneously (the system is consistent).

114
 2. It has infinitely Many Solutions: There are infinitely many different values of x
that satisfy all the m-equations simultaneously (the system is said to be consistent).
3. Has no Solution: There is no vector x that satisfies all equations simultaneously, or the
solution set is empty (the system is said to be inconsistent).
3.9.1 Gaussian Elimination
Gaussian elimination, also known as row reduction, is used for solving a system of linear equations. It
is usually understood as a sequence of elementary row operations performed
on the corresponding matrix of coefficients.
Consider the linear system given in (3.2). The augmented matrix which represents the system is given
by

g: A→ B
Then, the idea here is, we solve the linear system whose augmented matrix is in row echelon form,
which is row equivalent to the original system. And, we have the following theorem on the row
equivalent linear systems.
Theorem 3.13. Row-equivalent linear systems have the same set of solutions.

Thus, if the augmented matrix is initially in row echelon form, then we simply solve it by using
back substitution. If it is not, then first rewrite it as a row equivalent system whose augmented
matrix is in its row echelon form, and then apply Theorem 3.13.
Example 3.42. Rewrite the following linear system as a row equivalent system, and then solve it.
x1 − x2 = 1
x1 + 2x2 = 4.
Solution: Here, the augmented matrix of the given system is

f (1)=4,f (2)=7, f (3)=1, f (4)=8

which has row echelon form (after a sequence of elementary operations)

f
Thus, the row equivalent system is x2 = 1.
x1 − x2 = 1
x2 = 1
Clearly, solving the above linear system o ginal system. The
(whose augmented matrix is in row echelon r only solution of
form) is much easier than solving the i the linear system

115
 (represented by an augmented matrix in row i  
550
echelon form) is (x1, x2) = (2, 1). s
And, hence by Theorem 3.13Theorem 3.13, W
a vector (x1, x2) = (2, 1) also solves the h
original linear system. e

g
r
e
,

Gaussian Elimination:
Write the augmented matrix for the linear system.
f
Use elementary row operations to rewrite the matrix in row echelon form. (c)Write the system of linear equations
lon form, and use back-substitution to find the solution.

Example 3.43. Consider an oil refinery’s

problem which is given as a system of linear
equations
0.3l + 0.2h = 550
0.2l + 0.4h = 500
0.4l + 0.3h = 750
where l and h represent the number of barrels
of light and heavy crude oil, respectively. The
augmented matrix of the given linear system
And the matrix in row echelon form is given by 750

A
Now, rewriting the given linear system as row equivalent system
we have
. 0.1l + 0.2h = 250
0.1h = 50.
The only solution of the above system (in row echelon form) is (l, h) = (1500, 500), which is
also a solution for the original system. Thus, an oil refinery needs 1500 barrels of light crude oil and
500 barrels of heavy crude oil in order to satisfy the demand.
Example 3.44. Solve the given linear system by using the method of Gaussian elimination.
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 2
x1 − x2 − 2x3 = −1.
Solution: The augmented matrix representing the given system is

116
 B
R2 ↔ R3 (Interchanging R2 and

A={1 ,2,3}
Now, by replacing R2 (i.e., R2 → R2 − R1), we obtain,

f R3):

and by Scaling R2 (i.e., R2 →

f R2), we have

B)
The last matrix is in its row echelon form, and hence the row
equivalent system is
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 2
x2 + x3 = 1.
In this case, the system has infinitely many solutions, and the
set of solutions is be given by
{(1 − α, α, 1 − α) : α B R}.
Example 3.45. Solve the following system of linear
equations using the method of Gaussian elimination.

4x2 + 3x3 = 8
2x1 − x3 = 2

3x1 + 2x2 = 5
Solution: The augmented matrix of the given system is

A
Applying the following elementary row operations:

R1 ↔ R3 (Interchanging R1 and R3):

Range(f)=B.
R →R +
3
B={1,4,5}R (Replacing R ):
3 1 3
f:A→B
117
 3 → R3
f(1)=1
+ R 2 (Replacing R3):
f(2)=5
R

The last matrix is in row echelon form, and hence the row equivalent system is given by
3x1 + 2x2 = 5
4x2 + 3x3 = 8

f(3)=1
We observe that the last equation in the linear system above is a contradiction to the fact that
A
.
Consequently, the given linear system has no solution.

Theorem 3.14. Consider the system of linear equations in (3.2). If A and b are the matrices of
coefficients and the column vector of numbers, respectively. Then the following statements are true.
i. If rank(A) = rank([A|b]) = number of unknowns, then the linear system has only one solution.
ii. If rank(A) = rank([A|b]) < number of unknowns, then the linear system has infinitely
many solutions.
iii. If rank(A) < rank([A|b]), then the linear system has no solution.
Example 3.46. Use matrix rank to determine the number of solutions for the system.

a) x1 + x2 + x3 = 1 b) x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 3 - 2 3 2

c) x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 1 2 x 2
2x2 + 4x3 = 2 2x2 + 2x3 = 4 x 3 − =
2x2 + 2x3 = −2 2 = 2 3
2x1 + 7x3 = 5 x2 + x3 = 2 - x
Solution:
a) We have a linear system x1
x1 + x2 + x3 = 1
+
2x2 + 4x3 = 2
2x1 + 7x3 = 5 x
2

118
 x3 = 1 2x2 + 4x3 = 2 2x1 + 7x3 = 5

and the augmented matrix given by:

f
After a sequence of elementary row operations, we obtain its row echelon form

g:A→B
From the transformed matrix, we can see that the matrix A in its row echelon form is

g={(1,4),(2,5),(3,1)}
Thus, we have rank(A) = rank([A|b]) = number of unknowns. Hence, the given linear system has
only one solution.
b) We have a linear system
x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 3
2x2 + 2x3 = 4
x2 + x3 = 2

In this case, the augmented matrix and its row echelon form, respectively, are given by

B and

A
The matrix A in its row echelon form is :
A
Here, the matrices A, and [A|b] have
˜ only two nonzero rows. Thus, rank(A) = rank([A|b]) <
number of unknowns. Therefore, by Theorem 3.14, the given system has infinitely many
solutions.
c) Here, we have a linear system
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 1
2x2 + 2x3 = −2
−2x2 − 2x3 = 3.
The augmented matrix and its row echelon form, respectively, are given by
˜

119
 iA : A → A and
i A ( x)=x
Here, the number of nonzero rows of the row echelon form of A and that of [A|b] are 2 and 3,
respectively. Therefore, the given linear system has no solution.
Exercise 3.9.
1. Solve the following linear systems using the method of Gaussian elimination.
a) −x1 + x2 = 4 b) x1 + x2 = −1 c) x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 d) x1 + 2x2
+ x3 = 0
-2x1 + x2 = 0 x1 − x2 = 0 4x1 + 5x2 + 6x3 = 3 2x1 + 3x2
-2x3 = 0
−2x1 + x2 = 3 7x1 + 8x2 + 9x3 = 6
3.9.2 Cramer’s rule
Cramer’s Rule is a method for solving linear systems where the number of equations and the number of
unknowns are equal. Cramer’s rule relies on determinants. Consider the following linear system of
n-equations in n-unknowns x1, x2, x3, ..., xn

x∈ A (3.4)

which has a matrix notation : A

Let us define the determinants

A i ,
A (3.5)
for j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n. Here, D is the determinant of the coefficient matrix A, and for each j
Dj represents the determinant of a matrix which is obtained from A after replacing the j-th column by
the column vector b.

Theorem 3.15 (Cramer’s rule).

(a)If a linear system(3.4) of n-equations in the same number of unknowns

x1, x2, x3, ..., xn, has a nonzero coefficient determinant D = |A|, then the
system has precisely one solution. This solution is given by

D1 D2 Dn
x1 = D , x2 = D , ..., xn =
D
where D and Dj for j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n are defined in (3.5).

(b)If the system(3.4) is homogeneous and D ≠ 0, then it has only the trivial
solution x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0, ..., xn = 0. If D = 0 the homogeneous
120
system also has nontrivial solutions.
 Example 3.47. Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system of linear equations.
4x1 − 2x2 = 10
3x1 − 5x2 = 11
Solution: Here, the coefficient matrix A and the column vector b, respectively, are

A .
3 −5 .10 −2. =
And the determinants D, D1, and D2 are
(−50) −
(−22) =

f −28,

Therefore, by Theorem 3.15, the unique solution of the given linear system is

Z
Example 3.48. Solve the following system of linear equations using Cramer’s rule
2x1 - x2 = 0
-x1 + 2x2 - x3 = 0
-x2 + x3 = 1
Solution: With the coefficient matrix vector

2
and column
f(n)=n 1

The determinants n ∈Z are computed as follows:

f
Thus, by Theorem 3.15, the only solution of the given linear system is

Z
Exercise 3.10.
1. Solve the following linear systems using Cramer’s rule (if possible).
a. 4x1 − 2x2 = 10 b. −x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = 1 c. x1
=7
3x1 − 5x2 = 11 2x1 + x3 = 0 2x2 = 8
3x1 − 4x2 + 4x3 = 2 .
3x3 = 24
3.9.3 Inverse method
The Inverse method is one of the important methods to solve a linear system with n equations in n

121
unknowns. Consider the following linear system with n-equations in n-unknowns x1, x2, x3, ..., xn;
a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn = b2 (3.7)
............................................
(3.6)
an1x1 + an2x2 + ... + annxn = bn.
'
The matrix notation of the linear system (3.6) is : n=n

2 ' 2
where
n =(n ) f (n)=f (n ) ,
' .


.

122
 Theorem 3.16 (Inverse Method). If A is an invertible matrix, then for each b Rn,
the linear system Ax = b has a unique solution, which is given by

x = A−1b.

Example 3.49. Solve the following system of linear equations using matrix inverse method.
2x1 − x2 = 1
3x1 + 2x2 = 12
The matrix of coefficients A, the inverse A−1, and the column vector b, respectively, are
Solution:

given by:
f
Thus, by Theorem 3.16, the only solution of the given linear system is

f (1)=1=f (−1)
Example 3.50. Use matrix inversion to solve the following linear system.
2x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 1
x1 + 2x2 = −2
x3 = 3
−1
Solution: The coefficient matrix A, the inverse A and the column vector b, respectively, are given

by :
1≠−1
Thus, by Theorem 3.16, the unique solution of the given linear system is

f
Exercise 3.11.
1. Solve the following linear systems using the method of matrix inversion (if possible).
a.

n ∈ Z
Review Exercise
1. For every square matrix A, show that A + At is symmetric.
2. Given matrices

123
 f ( n)
(i) Compute the products A(BC), (AB)C, and verify that A(BC) = (AB)C.
(ii) Compute the products α(AB), (αA)B, A(αB), and verify that α(AB) = (αA)B =
A(αB).
3. A fruit grower raises two crops, apples and peaches. The grower ships each of these crops to
three different outlets. In the matrix

f
aij represents the number of units of crop i that the grower ships to outlet j. The matrix
B = [$3.5 $6.00] represents the profit per unit. Find the product BA and state what each
entry of the matrix represents.
4. A corporation has three factories, each of which manufactures acoustic guitars and electric guitars.
In the matrix

f
aij represents the number of guitars of type i produced at factory j in one day. Find the
production levels when production increases by 20%.
5. Find the value of x for which the matrix is equal to its own inverse

{0 , 1 , 4 , 9 , ⋯}
6.
If
f , then
i. Show that A = A−1

ii. show that

Z
7. If
Z and
f (n)=2 n , then show that

n∈Z

8. Determine the values of α for which the matrix

f is invertible and
find A−1.
9. Show that if A is invertible, then so is Am for every positive integer m; moreover,
(Am)−1 = (A−1)m.
10.If A and B are n x n matrices with A is invertible, then show that
'
n , n ∈ Z
124
11. Solve the following systems of linear equations using Gaussian elimination
a. x1 −x2 + 2x3 = 4 b. x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 9 c. 2x1 +
x2 − x3 + 2x4 = −6
x1 + x3 = 6 −x1 + 3x2 = −4
3x1 + 4x2 + x4 = 1
2x1 − 3x2 + 5x3 = 4 2x1 − 5x2 + 5x3 = 17 x1 +
5x2 + 2x3 + 6x4 = −3
3x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 1 5x1
+ 2x2 − x3 − x4 = 1
12. Use Cramer’s rule (if possible) to solve the following linear systems.
a. x1 + 2x2 = 5 b. 4x1 − x2 − x3 = 1 c. 4x1 −
2x2 + 3x3 = −2
−x1 + x2 = 1 2x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 10 2x1 +
2x2 + 5x3 = 16
5x1 − 2x2 − 2x3 = −1 8x1
− 5x2 − 2x3 = 4
13. Use matrix inversion method (if possible) to solve the following linear systems.
a. 2x1 + 3x2 + x3 = −1 b. 2x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 4 c. 4x1
− 2x2 + 3x3 = 0
3x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 1 3x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 8
2x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 = 0
2x1 + 4x2 + x3 = −2 2x1 + 4x2 + x3 = 5
8x1 − 5x2 − 2x3 = 0

Chapter Four
Introduction to calculus
Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
 become familiar with the concept of limits.
 explain the intuitive meaning of limit of a function.
 evaluate limits of a function at given points.
 identify and evaluate one-sided limits.
 have an understanding of the basic limit theorems.
 acquire basic knowledge on infinite limits and limits at infinity to find asymptotes.
 get acquainted with the concept of continuity of a function.
 apply the intermediate value theorem to locate roots of equations.
 become familiar with the derivative of a function.
 find the slope and equation of a tangent line to a curve.
 get basic knowledge on the techniques of differentiation.
 evaluate the derivative of polynomial, rational and composite functions.
 find the derivatives of the exponential and logarithmic functions.

125
  develop an appreciation of higher derivatives of functions.
 apply the concepts of the derivative to find rates of change of variable quantities.
 evaluate maximum and minimum values of functions.
 use the concepts of the derivative to sketch the graph of a function.
 get acquainted with related rate problems.
 define an anti-derivative of a continuous function.
 find indefinite integrals of some elementary functions.
 evaluate the integrals of functions using the techniques of substitution, integration by parts and
integration by partial fractions.
 solve integrals involving trigonometric functions.
 find the definite integral of continuous functions.
 apply the concepts of definite integrals to find areas of regions bounded by continuous
functions.

4.1. Limits and continuity

At the end of this section you should be able to
 become familiar with the concept of limits.
 explain the intuitive meaning of limit of a function.
 evaluate limits of elementary functions at given points.
 identify right-hand limit from left-hand limit.
 evaluate one-sided limits.
 become aware of the relationship between one-sided limits and the existence of limit of a
function.
 find limit of a function in terms of its one-sided limits.
 describe the basic limit theorems.
 find limits of functions given in terms of combinations of function.
 evaluate limit of powers of functions.
 evaluate the limit of composite functions.
 apply the squeeze theorem to evaluate limits.
 gain an understanding of the relationship between infinite limits and vertical asymptotes.
 describe horizontal asymptotes in terms of limits at infinity.
 see the relationship between infinite limits at infinity and oblique asymptotes.
 give the definition of continuous function.
 identify the difference between continuous and discontinuous functions.
 state the theorems on continuity.

In this section we study the concepts of limits and continuity of functions. The concept of limit is
fundamental to our main subjects of the branch of mathematics called differential and integral calculus.
When we ask about the limit of a function at a point c, we are to ask about tendencies of the values of
f(x) as x gets arbitrarily closer and closer to c.

126
Consider the function f(x) = 2x and find values of f for values of x close to 3 (but not necessarily equal
to 3).
 values of x to the left of 3 2.
x 2 2.5 2.99 2.999 …
9
5.
 values of x to the right of 3 f(x) 4 5 5.98 5.998
.. …
3.8
x 4 3.5 3.01 3.001 …
1
6.
f(x) 8 7 6.02 6.002
.. …
As you can see from the above two 2 tables, the values
of f(x) = 2x tend to approach to 6 as x gets closer and closer to 3 from both sides of 3.
lim(2 x)
Intuitively, we say “6 is the limit of f(x) = 2x as x approaches 3” and we write : x 3 = 6.
In general, if for a given real number c, the values of a function f(x) approaches a number L as x gets
lim f ( x)
close to c, we write : x c =L
We may sometimes write this as f(x)  L as x  c.
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number. When one ask for the behavior (approximate
value) of f(x) for x near c, normally one is not interested about the value f(c). Instead, one is asking
about values of f at x  (c -  , c +  ) for x ≠ c, with  > 0 ( - delta). We call the interval (c -  , c
+  ) a neighborhood of c. When we exclude c from the neighborhood, we obtain a union of two
disjoint intervals. i.e., (c -  , c)  (c, c +  ).
Such a set is called a deleted neighborhood of c. For  > 0, the interval (c -  , c) may be called a left
neighborhood of c while (c, c +  ) a right neighborhood of c. Thus when we talk of f near c, we are
interested in the function values only in a deleted neighborhood of c.
Therefore, when our interest is to know limit of f at c, we are mainly curious to know about the
tendencies of f(x) for x in a deleted neighborhood of c.

Figure 4.1: Deleted neighborhood of c

lim( x  3) 5
Similarly, if x gets close to 2, the function f(x) = x + 3 gets close to 5, so that x 2

2
lim ( x 2  3)  2
and if x gets close to 1, f(x) = x – 3 approaches –2, so that x 1 .
You can also see that
1 1
lim ( x 3  1) 9 lim x  1 lim 
x 2 , x 8 = 3, and x  1 x 5 4

127
In the above examples we were able to find the limits without much difficulty. However, finding
x2  4
lim
certain limits are not so immediate. For example consider : x 2 x 2

Here both x2 – 4 and x – 2 approach to 0 as x approaches to 2, and 0 0 is not determined. But note that
x 2  4 ( x  2)( x  2)
x 2 = x 2 = x + 2, for x  2.
x2  4
Thus, for x close to 2 (but not necessarily equal to 2), the behavior of x  2 is similar to that of x + 2
and it seems reasonable to conclude that
x2  4
lim lim( x  2)
x 2 x  2
= x 2 = 4.
In the same manner, we have
( x  2) 2  4 x 2  4x  4  4 x( x  4)
lim lim lim lim ( x  4) 4
x 0 x = x 0 x = x 0 x = x 0 , (for x  0)
x1 x1 x  1 lim x 1 1 1 1
lim
x 1 x  1
lim
= x 1 x  1 , x  1 =
x 1   lim
( x  1) x  1 = x  1 x  1 = x  1 = 2 , (for x  1)
Even though standard textbooks of calculus give the formal (analytic) definition of limit of a function
using the notion of neighborhoods, we shall give here a working definition in terms of what we call
one-sided limits.
Definition 4.1:
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number.
lim f ( x)
1. A real number L is called the left-hand limit of f at c, written as x  c  =L
if and only if for all values of x sufficiently close to c from the left side of c, the corresponding
values of f approach to L.
lim f ( x)
2. A real number R is called the right-hand limit of f at c, written as x  c  =R
if and only if for all values of x sufficiently close to c from the right side of c, the corresponding
values of f approach to R.
Note that, if the set (c -  , c)  (c, c +  ) is a deleted neighborhood of c, then for left-hand limit we
take x(c – , c), i.e. x < c, and for right-hand limit we take x(c, c + ), i.e. x > c (but not
necessarily x = c).
 x 2 , for x  1
 lim f ( x) lim x 2 lim f ( x) lim 2 x
 2 x, for x 1
Example 4.1: Let f(x) = Then  1
x = x 1 = 1, while x  1 = x 1 =2
 1, for x  0
x

Example 4.2: Let f(x) = x = 1, for x  0 y
lim f ( x) lim ( 1)
x 0 = x 1 = –1
x

128
 lim f ( x)
and x 0 = 1 –1
Figure 4.1
y
2 x  1, for x  0
 2
Example 4.3 : Let f(x) =  x  1. for x  0 y = x2+1
lim f ( x) lim
The x 0 = x  0  (2x + 1) = 1 x
lim lim
and x  0  f(x) = x  0  (x2 + 1) = 1 y = 2x + 1

Figure 4.2
lim f ( x) lim
Note that in this example x 0 = x 0 f(x)
Definition 4.2:
Suppose  is function and c is a fixed real number. A real number L is called the limit of f at c if and
only if the left-and right-hand limits exist and are both equal to L;
lim f ( x) lim f ( x) lim f ( x)
i.e. x c = L if and only if x  c  = L = x c 

lim f ( x)
Thus for x c to exist, the following conditions must be satisfied:
lim f ( x)
i) x  c  must exist
lim f ( x)
ii) x  c  must exist
lim f ( x) lim f ( x)
iii) x  c  = x c
lim f ( x)
Otherwise, we say x c does not exist.
2 x  1, for x  0
 2
x  1, for x  0
Thus in Example 4.3, where f(x) = 
lim f ( x) lim f ( x) lim f ( x)
we have seen above that x 0 =1= x 0 Thus, x 0 = 1.
Example 4.4: Let f(x) = 2x for x  . Then
lim f ( x) lim 2 x 1
lim f ( x) lim 2 x
x  1 = x  1 =2 =2 and x 1 = x 1 = 21 = 2
lim 2 x lim 2 x lim 2 x
Since x  0 = x  1 = 2, we have x  1 =2
x
lim a
In fact, if a > 0, a  1, then x  c = ac, for any cR
lim log ax log x log c lim sin x
Similarly, you can show that x  c = a = a , for c > 0 and x  c = sin c, c.
 x 2 , for x 1

3, for x  1
Example 4.5: Let f(x) = 

129
 lim f ( x) lim x 2 lim f ( x) lim 3 lim f ( x)
Then x  1 = x  1 = 1 while x  1 == 3. Since 1  3, x 1
x  1 does not exist.

Example 4.6: Let f(x) = x , for x  0. Then xlim

 0
f ( x)
= 0. But since f(x) = x is not defined to the
lim x lim x
left of 0, x 0 does not exist. Hence x 0 does not exist.
Remark: If a function f has a limit as x approaches a number c, then the limit is unique; i.e.
lim f ( x) lim f ( x)
if x c = L1 and x c = L2, then L1 = L2.
 Basic Limit Theorems

lim lim
Theorem 4.1: Suppose x c f(x) = L, x c g(x) = M and k is a constant.
lim lim
Then i) x c kf(x) = k x c f(x) = KL … Constant Rule
lim lim lim
ii) x c (f + g)(x) = x c f(x) + x c g(x) = L + M … Addition Rule
lim lim lim
iii) x c (f – g)(x) = x c f(x) - x c g(x) = L – M … Difference Rule

lim lim
Example 4.7: x   2 5sin x = 5 x   2 sin x = 5(1) = 5
Example 4.8: Let f(x) = 2x and g(x) = 5x – 1. Then
lim lim lim lim lim
x  1 (f + g)(x) = x  1 f(x) + x  1 g(x) = x  1 (2x) + x  1 (5x – 1) = 2(1) + 5(1) – 1 = 2 + 5 – 1 = 6

lim lim lim lim lim

x  3 (f – g)(x) = x  3 f(x) – x  3 g(x) = x  3 (2x) – x  3 (5x – 1) = 2(3) – [5(3) – 1] = 6 –14 = –8

lim lim
Theorem 4.2: Assume that x c f(x) = L and x c g(x) = M.

Then
lim
x c (fg)(x) =
lim f ( x) lim g ( x) = L.M …
x c x c Product Rule

lim lim
lim
Example 4.9: x  x cos x = x. x   cos x = . cos  = (-1) = -.
x 

lim lim lim lim

It follows from Theorem 4.2 that x c x2 = x c x.x= x c x. x c x = c.c = c2
lim x n c n
In general, if n is a positive integer, x  c .
Thus, if P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 is any polynomial function of degree n and c is any
real number, then from Theorems 4.1 and 4.2, we get
lim lim
x c P(x) = x c ( a xn + a n-1
+ … + a2x2 + a1x + a0)
n n-1 x

lim lim lim lim lim

= x c anxn + x c an-1xn-1 +…+ x c a2x2 + x c a1x + x c a0
lim lim lim lim
= an x c xn + an-1 x c xn-1+ …+ a2 x c x2 + a1 x c x + a0
= ancn + an-1cn-1 + …+ a2c2 + a1c + a0 = P(c)
Example 4.10: Let P(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1. Then
lim lim
x   1 P(x) = x   1 (2x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1) = 2(–1)3 + 4(–1)2 – 3(–1) + 1 = –2 + 4 + 3 + 1 = 6

130
 lim lim
Theorem 4.3: Assume that x c f(x) = L, x c g(x) = M and suppose M  0
lim f ( x)
 f x c
L
 
lim  g  lim g ( x)
Then x c   (x) = x  c = M … Quotient Rule

lim log x
x  10
log x 1
lim lim x
Example 4.11: x  10 x = x  10 = 10 .
lim p( x )
p( x) p( x) x c p (c )
lim lim lim q( x )
If f(x) = q( x) is a rational function, then x c f(x) = x c q( x) = x c = q(c) = f(c) if
f ( c ) 0 .
lim ( x 3  4 x  1)
3
x  4x 1 ( 2) 3  4( 2)  1
x  2
 8  8 1 1
lim 2 lim (4 x 2  x  6) 4( 2) 2  ( 2)  6
Example 4.12: x   2 4 x  x  6 = x   2 = = 16  2  6 = 8 .

lim
Theorem 4.4: Suppose x c f(x) = L, L  0 and aR such that LaR
lim
Then, x c (f(x))a = La …………... Power Rule
1
  2

limsin x   limsin x 
1
lim sin x 2
1
x

x

 x  2 
Example 4.13: 2 = 2 = = 1 2 = 1 = 1.
lim 3 ( x  2 x  3) 2
2

lim x 2  2 x  3  2
3

= 16  4  3 = 27  = 32 = 9
2 2
3 3
Example 4.14: x 4 = x 4

Theorem 4.5 (The Squeezing Theorem). Suppose f, g and h are functions such that f(x)  h(x)  g(x) for all x in
lim lim lim
some deleted neighborhood of c. If x c f(x) = L = x c g(x), then x c h(x) = L.
1
lim
Example 4.14: Evaluate x  0 x2sin x
1 1
Solution: It may be tempting to consider x sin x as the product of x and sin x and then use the
2 2

1
lim
Product Rule. Unfortunately it can be shown that x  0 sin x does not exist. Thus we cannot use the
Product Rule to evaluate the given limit. However since the sine function has range [–1, 1], it follows
1
that –1  sin x  1, for x  0. Multiplying both sides by x2, we get
1
lim lim
–x2  x2sin x  x2 with x  0 (–x2) = 0 = x  0 x2
1
lim 2
Thus, by the Squeeze Theorem, we get x  0 x sin x = 0.

131
 sin x
lim
Remark: One of the most important applications of the Squeezing Theorem is evaluating x 0 x .
We cannot apply the Quotient Rule to evaluate this limit since the limit of the denominator is 0. But
using some geometric constructions and the Squeeze Theorem it can be shown that

sin x
lim
x 0 x =1

Remark: The above result has important consequences especially in the evaluation of some limits
involving trigonometric functions.
sin 5 x
lim
Example 4.15: Find x  0 x
sin 5 x 5 sin 5 x sin 5 x
lim lim lim
Solution: x 0 x = x 0 5 x = 5 x 0 5 x
sin 5 x sin y
lim lim
If we put y = 5x, we have as x  0, 5x  0 so that y  0. Thus x 0 x = 5 y  0 y = 5.
sin ax
lim
In general, for any a  , x  0 x = a.
tan x
lim
Example 4.16: Find x 0 x
tan x  sin x 1   sin x   1  1
lim lim  cos x . x  lim  x  lim 
x  0 cos x

Solution: x  0 x = x  0   = x 0     = 1. 1 = 1.
cos x  1
lim
Example 4.17: Evaluate x  0 x
Solution: By multiplying both numerator and denominator by cos x + 1 we get
cos x  1  cos x  1   cos x  1  cos 2 x  1
lim lim    lim
x 0 x = x 0  x   cos x  1  = x  0 x(cos x  1)
 sin 2 x
lim
= x  0 x(cos x  1) (since sin2x + cos2x = 1)
 sin x    sin x  sin x  sin x 0
lim  x   cos x  1  lim lim
= x 0    = x  0 x . x  0 cos x  1 = 1. 1 = 1.0 = 0.

 Infinite Limits, Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes

lim
When x  c  f(x) does not exist, it may happen that as x approaches c from right, the value of f(x)
becomes indefinitely large or becomes negative and indefinitely large in absolute value. The value of
f(x) may behave similarly when the left-hand limit at c does not exist. We shall use the symbols 
(infinity) and -  to express these cases, respectively.
1
To explain these concepts consider the function f(x) = x , for x  0
As x gets close to 0 from right, the values of
132
 1
f(x) = x become arbitrarily large positive.
1
lim
In this case we write x  0 x = 

and when x gets close to 0 from left,

1
the values of f(x) = x become arbitrarily small negative.
1
lim
In this case we write x  0 x = -. See Figure 4.3. Figure 4.3
Definition 4.3:
Let f be a function defined in a deleted neighborhood of c.
lim
i) We say that the left-hand limit of f(x) at c is infinity, and write x  c  f(x) = 
if for every real number M, we have f(x) > M for every x close to c from the left side of
lim
ii) We say that the right-hand limit of f(x) at c is infinity, and write x  c  f(x) = 
if for every real number M, we have f(x) > M for every x close to c from the right side if c.
lim
iii) We say that the limit of f(x) at c is infinity and write x c f(x) = 
lim lim
if and only if x  c  f(x) =  and x  c  f(x) = 
Definition 4.4:
Let f be a function defined in a deleted neighborhood of c.
lim
i) We say that the left-hand limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity, and write x  c  f(x) = -
if for every real number M, we have f(x) < M for every x close to c from the left side of c.
lim
ii) We say that the right-hand limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity, and write x  c  f(x) = -
if for every real number M, we have f(x) < M for every x close to c from the right side if c.
lim
iii) We say that the limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity and write x c f(x) = -
lim lim
if and only if x  c  f(x) = - and x  c  f(x) = -
1 1 1 1
lim lim lim
Example 4.18: For f(x) = x , for x  0, x  0 x =  and x  0 x = -. Hence x  0 x does not exist.
1 1 1 1
2 lim 2 lim 2 lim 2
Whereas for f(x) = x , x  0, x  0 x =  = x  0 x . Hence x  0 x = .
1 1
lim lim
In general, for any real number c and f(x) = x  c we have x  c f(x) = x  c x  c =  and
1
lim lim
x  c f(x) = x  c x  c = -.

Definition 4.5:
133
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number. We say that the line x = c is a vertical asymptote
of the graph of f if and only if either
lim lim
x  c  f(x) =  or x  c  f(x) = 
x2
2
Example 4.19: Find all the vertical asymptotes of f(x) = x  1
Solution: If c is any number different from 1 or -1, then by the Quotient Rule,
x2 c2
lim f ( x) lim 2 2
x c = x c x  1 = c  1 R
Thus any line x = c for c   1 cannot be a vertical asymptote.
x2  x  2  1 
lim f ( x) lim 2 lim  x  1   x  1 
For c = 1, x  1 = x 1 x  1 = x 1   
 x 2  1  3
lim  x  1 . xlim  
= x 1    1  x  1  = 2 () = 


 x 2  1 
lim f ( x) lim  x  1 . x  1 
Similarly, for c = -1, x  1 = x  1   
 x 2  1   1
lim  x  1 . xlim     
= x  1    1  x  1   2  () = -


x2
2
Hence the lines x = 1 and x = -1 are vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function f(x) = x  1 .
Next, we try to investigate the behavior of a function f as x increases (or decreases) indefinitely, and
lim lim
try to see if we have x   f(x) or x   f(x). Such limits, if they exist, are in general called limits at
infinite.
Definition 4.6:
i) Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (c, ), for some cR. We say that the
lim
limit of f(x) as x approaches to infinity is the number L, and write x   f(x) = L if when
x is assigned sufficiently large positive values, the corresponding values of f approach to L.
ii) Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (-, c) for some cR. We say that the
lim
limit of f(x) as x approaches to negative infinity is the number L, and write x   f(x) = L
if when x is assigned sufficiently small negative values, the corresponding values of f approach
to L.
1
Example 4.20: Let f(x) = x , for x  0.
1
When x is assigned sufficiently large positive values, the values of f(x) = x become close to 0.
1
lim
Similarly for values of x sufficiently small negative values, f(x) = x becomes close to 0. Hence x  
1 1
lim
x = 0 and x   x = 0. See Figure 4.3 above.
134
 1 1 1
lim 2 lim 2 lim x  c  2
Similarly, x  x = 0, x   x = 0 and in general, x  = 0.
Definition 4.7:
lim lim
If for a function f and a real number L, x   f(x) = L or x   f(x) = L, then the line y = L is called a
horizontal asymptote to the graph of f.
1
Thus the line y = 0 (i.e. the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote for both the function f(x) = x and f(x) =
1
x 2 . See Figure 4.3 above.
3x 2  x  1
2
Example 4.21: Find a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f(x) = 2 x  5
Solution: Since we are interested with the behavior of f for large values of |x|, we divide both
numerator and denominator of f by the leading exponent (i.e.x2) to get
3x 2 x 1 1 1
2
 2 2 3  2
x x x x x
3x 2  x  1 2x 2
5 5
2 2
 2 2 2
f(x) = 2 x  5 = x x = x
 1 1
lim  3   2 
x 
 x x 
2
3x  x  1  5 3 0 0 3
lim lim lim  2  2 
2
Then x   f(x) = x   2 x  5 =
x 
 x  = 20 = 2
3 3
lim
Thus x   f(x) = 2 and the line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f.
3
lim
Similarly, x   f(x) = 2 .
p( x)
Remark: For a rational function f(x) = q( x) , with deg(p)<deg(q), we find a horizontal asymptote by
applying the above technique.
As a combination of the above two subsections, it may happen that as the values of |x| increase without
bound, the corresponding values of |f(x)| also increases without bound leading to what are generally
called infinite limits at infinity.
Definition 4.8:
Let f be defined on an interval of the form (c, ), for cR. We say that the limit of f(x) as x
lim
approaches to infinity is infinity, written x   f(x) =  whenever x is assigned sufficiently large
positive values, the corresponding values of f(x) increase without bound.
Remark: Analogous definitions can be given for
lim lim lim
x   f(x) = -, x   f(x) =  and x   f(x) = -.

lim lim
Example 4,22: For f(x) = x3, we have x   x3 =  and x   x3 = -

135
 3 2
1 3
 4
x x 4
x 4  3x  2 2 1 x
lim lim 
2
Example 4.23: x   2 x  1 = x   x 2 x 4 = . (By dividing by ).
Definition 4.9:
lim
If for a function f and for two real numbers a and b x   [f(x) – (ax + b)] = 0, then the line
y = ax + b is called an oblique (or a skew) asymptote to the graph of f.
p( x)
In general, for a rational function f(x) = q( x) , we have
lim
i) When degree(p) < degree (q), x   f(x) = 0 and the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of f.
ii) When degree(p) = degree(q), then f has a horizontal asymptote given by the quotient of the
leading coefficients of p and q.
lim
iii) When degree(p) > degree(q), then x   f(x) = , and in particularly if
degree(p) = degree(q)+1, then f has an oblique asymptote obtained as a quotient when we
divide p by q.
4 x2  5x  1
Example 4.24: Let f(x) = x 3 , find all asymptotes of f.
2
4 x  5x  1
lim f ( x) lim
Solution: Since x   3 = x  3 x 3 = , the line x = -3 is a vertical asymptote.
4 x2  5x  1 20
By the long division method, we get f(x) = x 3 = (4x – 7) + x  3
20
lim lim
 x   [f(x) – (4x – 7)] = x   x  3 = 0
Therefore, the line y = 4x – 7 is an oblique asymptote of f.
 A special Limit in Exponential Function
x
 1
1  
Consider the function f(x) =  x  with domain (-, -1)  (0, )
The following two tables indicate the behavior of the values of f(x) as x approaches to positive and
negative infinity, respectively,
x 2 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
f (x ) 2.75 2.593743 2.704814 2.716924 2.718146 2.718268

x -2 -10 -100 -1000 -10,000 -100,000

f (x ) 4 2.867972 2.731999 2.719642 2.718418 2.718295
x
 1
1  
As is tried to be indicated from the above tables, the values of  x  tend to approach to an irrational
number whose value is 2.7182818…. This number, denoted by e, is called the base of the natural
logarithm, and plays an important role in calculus.

136
 log e x
Remark: The natural logarithmic function (with base e) is given by f(x) = and is denoted
by f(x) = nx. Its inverse, the natural exponential function is given by f(x) = exp(x) = ex.
Thus from the above constructions, we have x x
 1  1
lim  1    1  
x   x  = e = xlim
   x .
This limit has important consequences.
x 3 x 3
 1  1  1
lim  1  x  lim  1  x  1  
x
Example 4.25: x     = x    .
x 3
 1  1
lim  1  x  lim  1  x 
= x    . x    = e.13 = e
x a
 1
lim  1  x 
In general, for any real number a, x     = e.
lim
Example 4.26: Show that t  0 1  t  = e
1
t

lim lim
Solution: We prove this by showing that t  0 1  t  = e = t  0 1  t  . First use the substitution t =
1 1
t t

x
1 1  1
lim lim 1  
x , so that x = t and as x  , t  0+. Hence, t  0 1  t  = x   
1
t x  = e.
x
 1
lim lim 1  
Similarly, as x  -, t  0- . Hence, t  0 1  t  = x   
1
t x = e
lim lim lim
Therefore, t  0 1  t  = e = t  0 1  t   t  0 1  t  = e.
1 1 1
t t t

x
 5
lim  1  x 
Example 4.27: Evaluate x    
5 5
Solution: Let t = x . Then x = t and
x
 5 5
1
lim  1  x 
x  
lim 5 lim 
 = t  0  1  t  t = t  0  1  t  t
1
 5  lim (1  t ) 1t 

=  t  0 
 = e = e5 .
-5

x
 a
lim  1  x 
In general, for any real number a, x     = ea.
 Continuity of a Function
In our everyday usage, the word continuity refers to something that happens without any interruption.
In calculus, the term continuity is used to describe functions whose graphs can be traced without any
break. We shall give its formal definition using the concept of limits.
Definition 4.10:
- Let f be a function and c be a number in the domain of f. f is said to be continuous at c if
lim f ( x)
t c = f(c)
- If f fails to be continuous at c, then we say that f is discontinuous (or not continuous) at c.
- f is said to continuous if it is continuous at each point of its domain.

137
Example 4.28: Let f(x) = 2x and c = 1 y
lim f ( x) lim
Then x 1 = x  1 2x = 2 y = 2x
and f(1) = 2(1) = 2. 2
lim 2 x
Since x  1 = 2 = f(1), f is continuous at 1.
1 x
In fact f is a continuous function. See Figure 4.4. Figure 4.4
Remark: For a function f to be continuous at c, the following conditions must be satisfied
a. f(c) must be defined
lim
b. x c f(x) must exist
lim
c. x c f(x) = f(c)
Otherwise if one of the above conditions is not satisfied, then f is discontinuous at c.
3 x, for x  0

2, for x 0
 x 2 , for x  0
Example 4.29: Let f(x) = 
lim f ( x) lim 3x 2
Then f(0) = 2 so that f(0) is defined . x  0 = x 0 =0 2 y=x
2
lim f ( x) lim x 0 lim f ( x)
and x  0 = x 0 . Thus x 0 =0
lim f ( x)
But since x 0  f(0) , f is not continuous at 0. . y = 3x
Figure 4.5
lim f ( x) lim sin x
Example 4.30: Let f(x) = sinx. Then, x 
2 = x 
2 = 1 = sin  2 = f  2 
Hence f(x) = sinx is continuous at  2 .
In fact f(x) = sinx is a continuous function. Similarly, the functions f(x) = cosx, the exponential
log a x
function with base a, f(x) = ax, the logarithmic function with base a, f(x) = , the natural
exponential function f(x) = e and the natural logarithmic function f(x) = nx are all continuous
x

functions in their respective domains.

Theorem 4.6: Suppose f and g are functions with common domain such that both f and g are continuous at c. Then
1) f + g is continuous at c.
2) f – g is continuous at c.
3) if k is a scalar, kf is continuous at c.
4) fg is continuous at c.
f
5) if g(c)  0, g is continuous at c.
Example 4.31: Let P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 be any polynomial of degree n, and let
cR, arbitrary. Then,
lim lim
x c P(x) = x c (a xn + a xn-1 + …+ a x2 + a x + a )= a cn + a cn-1 + …+ a c2 + a c + a = P(c)
n n-1 2 1 0 n n-1 2 1 0
Hence, P(x) is continuous at c, and since c was taken arbitrarily, every polynomial function is
continuous.
138
 p( x)
Example 4.32: Let f(x) = q( x) be any rational function. Then if c is any real number such that q(c) 
lim p( x)
p( x) x c p (c )
lim lim q( x) lim q ( x)
0, then x c f(x) = x c = x c = q(c) = f(c)
Thus any rational function is continuous in its domain.
x3  x  1
2
From the above theorem we can see that f(x) = 5x 2 – 4x + 7 is continuous in R, g(x) = x  4 is
3 5
2
continuous in R\{-2, 2}, h(x) = |x| cos x - x is continuous for x  0 and f(x) = x  1 + nx is
continuous for x(0, 1)  (1, ).
As a generalization of the Power Rule for limits, we have the following theorem
lim
Theorem 4.7 (Substitution Rule): Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that x c f(x) = L and g is

continuous at L. Then
lim
x c g(f(x)) = g
lim f ( x) = g(L)
x c

lim f ( x)
Example 4.33: For f(x) = sinx, g(x) = x , and c =  2 , we have
2
x 
= 1 and g is continuous at
lim lim sin x
1. Thus x c g(f(x)) = x c = 1 = 1.
Using Substitution Rule we have continuity of the composite of two functions as given by the
following theorem.
Theorem 4.8: Suppose f and g are functions such that f is continuous at c and g is continuous at f(c). Then, gof is
continuous at c.
lim lim lim lim f ( x)
Proof: Since f is continuous at c, x c f(x) = f(c). Now x c (gof)(x) = x c g(f(x)) = g x c
  =
g(f(c)) = (gof)(c). Therefore, gof is continuous at c.
2
x 5
Example 4.34: For f(x) = x2 + 5, g(x) = ex and c = 1, we have (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = e and
x 2 5
lim lim e 12  5 x 2 5
x  1 (gof)(x) = x  1 = e6 = e = e6. Thus, (gof)(x) = e is continuous at 1.
 Intermediate Value Theorem
Recall that for a function f continuous on a closed interval [a, b] its graph can be traced between the
points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) without any break or interruption. In this section we shall see an important
application of continuous functions: namely, the Intermediate Value Theorem, and some of its
consequences. y
For a function continuous on [a, b], the f
intermediate value property asserts that if L f(b)
is any number between (intermediate to) f(a )
and f(b), then there is at least one number c L
between a and b whose image under f is L.
See Figure 4.6.
a c b x
f(a)
Figure 4.6
Theorem 4.9: (Intermediate Value Theorem)
Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Let L be any number between f(a) and f(b), (either f(a)  L 
f(b), or f(b)  L  f(a). Then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.

139
Example 4.35: Let f(x) = x2. Then f is continuous on [0, 3] with f(0) = 0 and f(3) = 9. By the
Intermediate Value Theorem f assumes (takes on) every value between 0 and 9. For instance for L = 4,

we have 2 [0, 3] with f(2) = 4, and for L = 7, we have 7 [0, 3] with f 7 = 7.  

Example 4.36: Let f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + x + 4 on [-2, 1]. Show that there exists some c [-2, 1] such that
f(c) = 4.
Solution: f is continuous on [-2, 1] with f(-2) = 2 and f(1) = 8. Since 2  4  8, it follows, by the
Intermediate Value Theorem that there exists c [-2, 1] such that f(c) = 4. i.e. f(c) = c 3 + 2c2 + c + 4 =
4. In this case we can find such c by solving
' '
c3 + 2c2 + c + 4 = 4 f(n)=f(n ) c3 + 2c2 + c = 0 2n=2n c(c2 + 2c + 1) = 0
'
n=n c ( c + 1)2 = 0 which gives either c = 0 or c = -1
Since both of these values are in [-2, 1], for this particular case we have two values in [-2, 1] with
image under f equal to 4.
One of the most important applications of the Intermediate Value Theorem is given in the following
theorem.
Theorem 4.10: Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and assume that f(a) and f(b) have opposite
signs. Then there is at least one c (a, b) such that f(c) = 0.

Proof: Without loss of generality, assume that f(a) < 0 and f(b) > 0. Then choose L = 0, between f(a)
and f(b). By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is at least one c between a and b such that f(c) = L
= 0.
Remark: This means that the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one root in the interval (a, b).
Example 4.37: The function f(x) = x3 – x – 2 is continuous on [1, 2]. f(1) = -2 < 0 and f(2) = 4 > 0.
Thus there is a number c in (1, 2) such that f(c) = 0 or c3 – c – 2 = 0.
Example 4.38: Show that the graphs of y = ex and y = 3x intersect in the interval [0, 1]
Solution: Define the function f(x) = ex -3x. Then f is continuous on [0, 1] with f(0) = e0 -3(0) = 1 - 0 =
1 > 0 and f(1) = e 1 – 3(1) = e – 3 < 0. Thus there is a number c (0, 1) such that f(c) = e c – 3c = 0 and
the graphs of y = ex and y = 3x intersect at c(0, 1).
Exercise 4.1
1. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.
1
x 2 1
2x  1 x 1 x2  1 x
lim lim lim lim lim lim
a. x  4 (7-2x) b. x  2 3x  1 c. x  3 2 x  1 d. x   1 x  1 e. x  2 x  2  2 f. x  1 x  1

lim f ( x) lim f ( x) lim f ( x)

2. Find x c  , x c and x c , if it exists, for
 x, for x  2

a. f(x) = cos x , at c =  6 c. f(x) = 2 x  2, for x  2 , at c = 2
| x  1 |, for x   2

b. f(x) = x  3 , at c = -3 d. f(x) = 1 , for x  2 , at c = -2

3. Evaluate each of the following limits, if it exists.

140
 lim lim lim
2 x x  lim ❑
a. x 3 (2x -3x + 5) c. x 0 2 sinx e. 4 (cos x)4 g. x →3

 1 3
 sin x sin( 2 x) sin( 3 x) sin 3x
lim  x 2  x 2  lim 4 3 lim lim lim
b. x  4   d. x  1 7 x  9 f. x  0 tan x h. x  0 5x 2
i. x  0 sin 4 x
4. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist
2 x 4 x3  1 2 x3  3x  5
lim lim lim lim cos x lim lim
x  1 x  12 2 3
a. x  3 x  3 b. c. x   x  1 d. x   e. x   2 x f. x   5 x  1
5. Find all the asymptotes, if any, for the following functions
x2  9 3x3  2 x  1
2
a. f(x) = tanx b. f(x) = x  4 c. f(x) = ( x  1)
6. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.
x x 1
4  2x  3 
lim ❑ lim ¿  1   lim ¿  
a.
x→ ∞
b.
x→ ∞  x 1 c.
x→ ∞  2 x  1 

7. Check whether or not the following functions are continuous at the indicated points.
a. f(x) = x2 + 1, at c = 2 c. f(x) = |x2 – 1|, at c = -1, 0, 1
3  x 2 , for x 1

3, for x 1
b. f(x) = x  2 , at c = 2 d. f(x) =  , at c = 1
8. Show that the following equations have roots in the indicated intervals.
1 
a) logx = 0, in
 2 ,2
b) 2x – 2 = 0, in [0, 2] c) cos x – x = 0, in
0, 
2
 
9. Using the Intermediate Value Theorem show that the graphs of f and g intersect in the given
interval.
a. f(x) = x3 + 4x + 2 and g(x) = -1, in [-1, 0] c. f(x) = 2sinx and g(x) = 1 – x, in [0, 2]
1 
 , e
b. f(x) = x nx and g(x) = sinx, in  e 
4.2 Derivatives
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to
 get acquainted with the concept of the derivatives of a function.
 evaluate the derivative of elementary functions using the definition.
 find the slope and equation of a tangent line to a curve at a given point.
 evaluate the derivatives of combinations of functions.
 find the derivatives of polynomial and rational functions.
 have a good understanding of the Chain Rule.
 apply the Chain Rule to evaluate derivatives of composite functions and algebraic functions.
 find the derivative of the logarithmic function.
 find the derivative of the exponential function.
 apply the above derivatives to the natural logarithmic and natural exponential functions as
special cases.
 evaluate derivatives of composite functions with the logarithmic and exponential functions.

141
  have an understanding of the derivative of a derivative.
Using the concepts discussed in section 4.1, we are now ready to study one of the central concepts of
calculus: the derivative of a function. Even though the derivative is connected with finding the tangent
lines to curves at a point, its main applications are in finding rates of change of variable quantities
relative to the change in another quantity.
Consider a function f continuous at a point c in its domain.
lim f ( x)
Then, by definition of continuity x c = f(c) y f
This means for x close to c, f(x) is f(x)
close to f(c). If we denote the f(c)
increment (or change) x – c in the
x-direction by h = x – c (so that x = c + h) as
is seen in Figure 4.7,
then the corresponding change in the y-direction
is given by c x x
f(x) – f(c) = f(c + h) – f(c). Figure 4.7
The ratio of these two increments is given by
f ( x )  f (c )
x c
and is called the difference quotient of f at c.
For instance, if f(x) = x2 + 2 and c = 3, then
f ( x)  f (3) ( x 2  2)  (3 2  2) x2  9
x 3 = x 3 = x 3
We shall define the derivative of a function of f at c as the limit of the above difference quotient, if the
limit exists.
Definition 4.11
Let c be a number in the domain of a function f. If
f ( x )  f (c )
lim
x c x c
exists, we call this limit the derivative of f at c, and denote it by (c), so that
f ( x )  f (c )
lim
(c) = x c x c
If this limit exists we say that  has a derivative at c, or  is differentiable at c or (c) exists.
Remarks:
f (c  h )  f (c )
lim
2. Observe that we can alternatively write: (c) = h 0 h
since for h = x – c, we have x = c + h and as x  c, h  0.
3. The notation (c) is read as “the derivative of f at c” or for short “f prime at c”.
df
(c)
Other notations are given by dx or Df(c.)
4. The quantity f(c) describes the rate of change of the function f around the point (c, f(c)).
Example 4.39: Let f(x) = 2x + 3. Then, for any c R, the point (c, f(c)), we have

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 f ( x )  f (c ) (2 x  3)  (2c  3) 2 x  2c x c
lim lim lim lim lim
(c) = x c x c = x c x c = x c x  c = 2 x c x  c = 2 x c (1) = 2. Since
cR is arbitrarily taken, we have for f(x) = 2x + 3, (x) =2 for all xR.
In fact for any linear function f(x) = ax + b, we have
f ( x )  f (c ) (ax  b)  (ac  b) x c
lim lim lim
(c) = x c x c = x c x c = a x c x  c = a
for any c R. Thus (x) = a
Note that the graph of a linear function is a straight line and the rate of change (a constant) is measured
by the slope of the line.
Example 4.40: Let f(x) = 3x2 + 5. Then for any xR
f(x + h) = 3(x + h)2 + 5 = 3x2 + 6xh + 3h2 + 5 and
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) (3x 2  6 xh  3h 2  5)  (3x 2  5)
lim lim
(x) = h 0 h = h 0 h
6 xh  3h 2 3h(2 x  h)
lim lim lim
= h 0 h = h 0 h = 3 h 0 (2x + h) = 6x.
Thus, for f(x) = 3x2 + 5, (x) = 6x for any xR.
In particular, when c = 1, (1) = 6(1) =. 6 is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at (1,8)
Example 4.41: Let f(x) = c, where c is a constant.
Then for any xR,
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) c c
lim lim lim
(x) = h 0 h = h 0 h = h 0 0 = 0.
Thus, for f(x) = c, a constant, (x) = 0 for all xR.
Hence, for f(x) = 15, (x) = 0, for f(x) = - 2 , (x) = 0, and so on.
Applying the above definition, we can get the following derivatives.
 (x) (x)  (x) (x)

1 1 f(x) = sinx (x) = cosx, for all xR

2
f(x) = x (x) = x , for all x  0
x 1 (x) = cosx (x) = -sinx, for all xR,
f(x) =
2 x , for x > 0
(x) =
Using the definition to evaluate the derivative of more complicated combinations and compositions of
functions becomes cumbersome. At this stage the student must be able how to find the derivatives of
various types of functions quickly and efficiently without always resorting to the definition. In the
table below we list some techniques of differentiation which can be proved using the definition.

Theorem 4.11: Suppose  and g are differentiable at c, and k is a constant, then

a) (kf)(c) = k (c) … Constant Rule
b) (f + g)(c) = (c) + g(c) … Addition Rule
c) (f – g)(c) = (c) – g(c) … Difference Rule
d) f(x) = xn, n an integer, (x) = n xn-1 … Power Rule
d) (g)(c) = (c) g(c) + (c) g(c) … Product Rule

 f f (c) g (c)  f (c) g (c)
  (c) 
e) g [ g (c)] 2 provided g(c)  0 … Quotient Rule
f) (gof)(c) = g(f(c)). (c) ….. The Chain Rule
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Example 4.42: Let f(x) = x2 + 3 and g(x) = sinx. Then
d d
( + g)(x) = (x) + g(x) = dx (x2 + 3) + dx (sinx) = 2x + 0 + cosx = 2x + cos x
d d d
dx (g(x) – 4(x)) = dx (sinx) - 4 dx (x2 + 3) = cosx – 4(2x + 0) = cos x – 8x.
Since polynomials are sums or differences of constant multiples of powers of x, the first four rules help
us to evaluate their derivatives.
Remark: Given a polynomial of degree n, P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0
d
P(x) = dx (anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0)
d d d d d
= an dx (x ) + an-1 dx (x ) + … + a2 dx (x ) + a1 dx (x) + dx (a0).
n n-1 2

= nanxn-1 + (n-1)an-1xn-2+ … + 2a2x + a1

Example 4.43: For p(x) = 5x4 – 2x3 + x2 + 7x – 1, we have p(x) = 20x3 – 6x2 + 2x + 7.
For q(x) = 6x3 + 2 x2 – 3x + , we have q(x) = 18x2 + 2 2 x – 3.
Thus, if (x) = x4, then (x) = 4x3 and if g(x) = x12, then (x) = 12x11, and so on.
As an application of the product rule, we have the following examples.
Example 4.44: Let k(x) = 2x sinx. Find k(x).
Solution: If we put f(x) = 2x and g(x) = sinx, then (x) = 2 and g(x) = cosx.
Thus, k (x) = (x)g(x) + (x)g(x) = 2sinx + 2xcosx.

Remark: In practice, to evaluate the derivative of a product of two functions, we do not need to
identify which one is f and which one is g.
Example 4.45: Let h(x) = x3 cosx. Then
h(x) = (x3) cosx + x3(cosx)= 3x2cosx + x3(-sinx) = 3x2cosx – x3 sinx.
For the derivative of the product of three functions f, g and h, we have
(fgh)(x) = f(x)g(x)h(x) + f(x)g(x)h(x) + f(x)g(x)h(x).
Example 4.46: Let k(x) = x3 sinx cosx. Find k(x).
Solution: Put f(x) = x3, g(x) = sinx and h(x) = cosx in the above statement with (x) = 3x2, g(x) =
cosx and h(x) = -sinx. Then k(x) = 3x2 sinx cosx + x3 cosx.cosx + x3sinx(-sinx)= 3x2 sinx cosx + x2
cos2x – x3 sin2x.
3x 2  5
Example 4.47: Let f(x) = 2 x  1 . Find (x)
Solution: Putting p(x) = 3x2 – 5 and q(x) = 2x + 1, we get
6 x(2 x  1)  (3 x 2  5)( 2) 12 x 2  6 x  6 x 2  10 6 x 2  6 x  10
2 x  1 2 x  1 = 2 x  1
2 2 2
(x) = =
As an important consequence of the Quotient Rule, we can now find the derivatives of the remaining
four trigonometric functions.
Example 4.48: Let f(x) = tanx. Show that (x) = sec2x

144
 sin x d  sin x 
1
sin x  cos x  sin x(cos x)1
1

 
Solution: (x) = tanx = cos x . Then: (x) = dx (tanx) =  cos x  = (cos x) 2
cos x. cos x  sin x( sin x) cos 2 x  sin 2 x 1
2 2 2
= cos x = cos x = cos x = sec2x.
In the same manner, we can show that
d d d
dx (cotx) = -csc2x, dx (secx) = secxtanx and dx (cscx) = -cscx.cotx.
The Chain Rule states that (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) (x), for all x such that f is differentiable at x and g is
differentiable at f(x).
Example 4.49: Find the derivative of h(x) = cos(x2 + 1)
Solution: Let f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = cosx. Then, h(x) = (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x 2 + 1) = cos(x2 + 1)
and h(x) = g(f(x)). (x) = -sin(x2 + 1) . (x2 + 1) = 2xsin(x2 + 1).

If a and b are any real numbers, we can easily show that

d d
dx (sinax) = a cosax and dx (cosbx) = -bsinbx
d d
Thus, dx (sin4x) = 4 cos4x and dx (cos5x) = -5 sin5x
Example 4.50: Find the derivative of h(x) = (1+3x -5x)12
Solution: Let f(x) = 1 + 3x – x5 and g(x) = x12. Then h = gof and
d
h(x) = dx (1+3x – x5)12 = 12(1 + 3x – x5)11 (1 + 3x – x5) = 12(3 – 5x4) (1 + bx – x5)11.
Example 4.51: Find the equations of tangent and normal lines to the semicircle
1 3
 , 
2 2 2 
y = f(x) = 1  x at  
1
2
Solution: The slope of the tangent line T is given by the derivative of y = f(x) = 1  x at x = 2 .
Thus, by Chain Rule,
dy d 1  2x  x
2 2 2 2
(x) = dx = dx 1  x = 2 1  x (1- x2) = 2 1  x = 1  x
so that the slope of T is
 1 12 1 2 1
 
1 1 4
m =   2  = =-2. 3 = 3
1 3
 , 
2 2 
and since the tangent line passes through the point   , its equation in slope-point form is
3 1  1
x 
y- 2 =- 3  2  or x+ 3y–2=0

145
 1 3
 , 
2 2 
The slope of the normal line at   is 3 and its equation is
3  1
x 
y- 2 = 3  2  or y - 3 x = 0.
Remark: The Chain Rule can be extended to more than two functions.
2
Example 4.52: Find the derivative of the function k(x) = cos 2 x  3
2
Solution: Let k(x) = cosx 2 x  3 = h(g(f(x))) with
f(x) = 2x2 – 3, g(x) = x and h(x) =cosx. Then
d
k(x) = dx

cos 2 x 2  3  2
1
2
= h(g((x)).g((x)) (x) = - sin 2 x  3 . 2 2 x  3 .4x =
 2 x sin 2 x 2  3
2x 2  3
Example 4.53: Let f(x) = sin(tan(x2)). Find (x)
d
Solution: (x) = dx (sin(tan(x2))) = cos (tan(x2)) sec2(x2) (2x) = 2x.cos(tan(x2)) sec2(x2).

 Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Function

Recall that for a > 0, and a  1, the logarithmic function with base a is given by
log a x
f(x) = for x > 0.
In particular, when a = e, we get the natural logarithmic function
log a x
f(x) = = nx , for x > 0.
1
log a x
log a x
Theorem 4.12: Let a > 0, a  1 and let f(x) = . Then (x) = x

From Theorem 4.12, when the base a = e, it follows that

1 1 1  1
log e x = (nx) = x log e e = x .1 = x : i.e. ln x   x
Also, by applying change of base of logarithms, we get
1 1 log e e 1 1  1

log a x  = x log a e
x log a
. log a x  
= e = x ln a : i.e. x ln a
1 1
log 5 e
log 5 x
Example 4.54: For (x) = , we have (x) = x = x ln 5
Example 4.55: Find the derivative of the following
x
a) 2
f(x) = log3(x + x – 1) b) g(x) = ln x
1 2x 1
2
. log 3 e 2
. log 3 e
Solution: a) (x) = x  x  1 (x + x – 1) = x  x  1
2

146
 1
 1. ln x  x.
 x  x ln x  1
  2
b) g(x) =  ln x  = (ln x) = ln x
2

ax
Theorem 4.13: Let a > 0, a  1 and let f(x) = ax. Then, (x) = (ax) =
log a e .

By applying change of base we also have : ax

(ax) = log a e = ax n a
ex
(ex)= ex
When the base a = e, we get (ex) = log e e = exne = e.x1 = ex: i.e.
3x
Example 4.56: For f(x) = 3x, we have (x) = log 3 e = 3x n3.
Example 4.57: Find the derivative of the following
4x 2

c) f(x) = x  e
x 1 x
a) f(x) = e b) g(x) = 3sinx d) g(x) = e nx
Solution: a) By using the Chain Rule, we get
x 1
1 e
(x) = e 
x 1
=e

x 1
. x 1   =e
x 1
, x 1 = x 1
b) (3sinx) = 3sinx, n3. (sinx) = n3.cosx.3sinx
d 4x
1 1  4e 4 x
xe 4x 4x
c) dx = 2 x  e (x + e4x) = 2 x  e
d) By the Product Rule and Chain Rule we get:
1  1
g(x) = e ln x = 
2 xe
x2
x
nx + 

e x
x
. = e x 2  2 x ln x 

2 2
x


 Higher Derivatives

If a function f is differentiable at a point x in its domain, we denote its derivative by (x), where
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
lim
(x) = h  0 h , provided the limit exists.
This derivative is usually called the first derivative of f at x.
If the new function  is differentiable at a point x, then we can repeat the process and find its
derivative as
f ( x  h)  f ( x)
lim
((x)) = (x) = h  0 h , provided the limit exists.
we call (x) the second derivative of f at x, and it is often read as “ double prime of x”.
Observe that (x) is simply the derivative of the function  at x and is no more difficult than finding
the first derivative.
1 d  1 1
 
Example 4.58: If (x) = nx, then (x) = x and hence (x) = dx  x  = x .
2

We can similarly find the derivative of (x) to get

147
 f ( x  h)  f ( x)
lim
((x)) = (x) = h  0 h , and so on,
and call this the third derivative of f at x.
1 1 2
2 3
Thus, for f(x) = nx, (x) = x , (x) = x and (x) = x
These derivatives when they exist are called higher derivatives (or derivatives of derivatives)
dn f
n
(x)
The nth derivative [n](x) can also be denoted by dx .
d2 f d3 f
2
( x ) 3
( x)
Thus the second derivative is (x) or [2](x) or dx and the third derivative is (x) or [3](x) or dx
.
Example 4.59: Find the higher derivatives of the following
a) f(x) = 4x3 + x2 – 3x + 7 b) g(x) = ex c) f(x) = sin(x) d) g(x) = n(3x)
3 2
Solution: a) For f(x) = 4x + x – 3x + 7, we have
(x) = 12x2 + 2x – 3, (x) = 24x + 2, (x) = 24, [4](x) = 0 and for n  4, [n](x) = 0
b) For g(x) = ex, g(x) = ex, g(x) = ex, and in general for n > 1, g[n](x) = ex
c) f(x) = sin(x), (x) = cos(x), (x) = -sin(x), (x) = -cos(x), [4](x) = sin(x) and so on
3 1 1 2 3.2
 2 3
 4
d) g(x) = n(3x) , g(x) = 3 x x , g(x) = - x , g(x) = x , g[4](x) = x , …
Exercise 4.2
1. For each of the following functions, find (c) using the definition
a) f(x) = 2x – 4, at c = 1 b) f(x) = x2 + 3, at c = -1 c) f(x) = x3 – 2, at c = 0 d) f(x) = |x + 2|, at c = 2
2. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the graph of f at the given point.
1 1
2
a) f(x) = x + x – 1, at (2, 5) b) f(x) = x , at (4, 2) c) f(x)=2cosx, at (  2 , 0) d) f(x) = x , at (2, 2 )
3. Find the derivative of the following functions
2 x 3  5x 2x
b. g(x) = x secx
2
a. f(x) = (x2 – 5) cosx c. h(x)= x  3 d. g(x) = tan x
4. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the functions at the indicated point.
x
f(x) = sinx cosx, at  4 ,1 2 b. f(x) x  1 , at 1,1 2
2
a.
5. Find the derivative of the following functions.
1

a. f(x) = tan3x b. g(x) = x 1  x

2
c. f(x) = x sin x2
2

d. g(x) = x  x 
4

cot x
x 2  x2 1 x 1 x
5x  4 g. f(x) = sin 2 x  1
3
e. f(x) = f. g(x) = xcosx + h. g(x) =
x
f(x) = etanx
i. j. g(x) = n(n(x)) k. f(x) = (n(x)+ e )3 l. f(x) = n2(x) + n(x2 )
6. Find the first, second and third derivatives of the following function
2
x
a. f(x) = e b. g(x) = secx c. f(x) = sin(2x) + cos(3x) d. g(x) = n(sinx)

148
 4.3. Applications of the derivative
At the end of this section you should be able to:
 define maximum and minimum values of a function on a given interval.
 explain the fundamental theorem of local extrema values.
 identify the regions where a function is increasing and decreasing.
 apply the first and second derivative tests to find local extrema values of a function.
 solve practical problems related to extrema.
 state the important points that are necessary to sketch the graph of a function.
 sketch the graph of a function applying the above concepts.
 solve related rates problems.
At the beginning of this unit we have mentioned that the derivative of a function at a point c in its
domain measures the rate of change of the function around that point. In this section we shall see how
the derivative can be applied to solve a variety of problem in the areas of engineering, the natural
sciences, business and the social sciences. We see how it can be used to solve maximum and
minimum values of a function (i.e., where it has “peaks” and where it has “valleys”), where it curves
upward and where it curves downward, and in general, to sketch the graph of the function. At the end
we shall introduce related rates problems and see how to solve them using the derivative.
a) Extrema of a Function
Definition 4.12: Let  be a function defined on an interval I. If there is a number d in I such that f(x)
 f(d) for all x in I, then f(d) is called the maximum value of f
on I. Similarly, if there is a number c in I such that f(x)  f(c) for all x in I, then f(c) is called the
minimum value of f on I. (See Figure 4.8) A value of f that is either a maximum value or a minimum
value of f on I is called an extreme value of f on I.
Remark: If the set I is the domain of the function f and if f has a maximum value on I, then this
maximum value is called the (absolute or global) maximum of f. Similar for minimum value of f.
Example 4.60: Let f(x) = x2 on I = [-2, 4]. Then
f has the maximum value of 16 = f(4) and the minimum
value of 0 = f(0). Both 0 and 16 are extreme values of f.
- On the interval [-2, 4), the minimum value of f is 0
but f has no maximum.
- On the interval (0, 4) f has neither a maximum
nor a minimum. See Figure 4.8. Figure 4.8
1
Example 4.61: Let f(x) = x for x  0.
The domain of f is I = (-, 0)  (0, ) and f has neither
a maximum nor a minimum value on I. See Figure 4.9.
On the interval [-1, 0] f has the maximum value -1 = f(-1),
but no minimum. On the interval (0, 2] f has the minimum
1
 f ( 2)
value 2
Graph of f ( x )  1
, but has no maximum. On the interval [-1, 2], x

149
f has no extrema. Figure 4.9

Theorem 4.14: (Maximum-Minimum Theorem). Let f be continuous on a closed

bounded interval [a, b]. Then f has a maximum and a minimum value on [a, b].

Even though the above theorem tells us about the existence of extreme values on [a, b], it does not tell
us where they occur or how to find them. The following theorem will help us in determining such
values.

Theorem 4.15: Let f be defined and continuous on [a, b]. If f has an extreme value at c
in (a, b) and f is differentiable at c, then (c) = 0.

Example 4.62: Let f(x) = x3 - 3x + 1.

Then  is differentiable and the
critical points of  are the values
of x for which (x) = 0,
But (x) = 3x2 – 3 = 0
 3(x – 1) (x + 1) = 0
 x = 1 and x = -1 are critical points of f.

If we want to find extreme values of f on, say, the interval [-3, 3] we compute and compare the values
of f at -3, -1, 1 and 3 to get f(-3) = 17 , f(-1) = 3, f(1) = -1 and f(3) = 19.
Thus the minimum value of f on [-3, 3] is -17 which occurs at -3 and the maximum value of f is 19
which occurs at 3.
 Monotonic Functions
One of the important points needed to sketch the graph of a function is to find the regions in which the
graph slopes upward to the right (increases) or it slopes downward to the right (decreases) as seen in
Figure 4.11 (a) and (b), respectively.
y y

x x

(a) (b)
Figure 4.11
Definition 4.13: Suppose f is a function defined on an interval I.
i) f is said to be increasing on I if f(x1)  f(x2) whenever x1 < x2
ii) f is said to be decreasing on I if f(x1)  f(x2) whenever x1 < x2
iii) f is said to be monotonic on I if f is either increasing or decreasing on I.
Remark: we can similarly define the terms strictly increasing, strictly decreasing and strictly
monotonic by replacing  by < and  by >.
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Example 4.63: Let f(x) = x2-1. Find the intervals of monotonicity of f.
Solution: For x1, x2 (-, 0) with x1 < x2, we have
2 2
f(x ) = x1 -1 > x 2 -1 = f(x )
1 2
 f is strictly decreasing on (-, 0).
For x1, x2 (0, ) with x1 < x2, we have
2 2
f(x ) = x1 -1 < x 2 -1 = f(x )
1 2
 f is strictly increasing on (0, ). Figure 4. 12
The derivative of a function gives us a test for monotonicity as is indicated in the following theorem.
Theorem: 4.16 Suppose f is continuous and differentiable on an interval I.
i) If (x) > 0, for every x I, then  is strictly increasing on I.
ii) If (x) < 0, for every x I, then  is strictly decreasing on I.

Example 4.64: Find the intervals over which the following function f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1is monotonic.
Solution: For f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1, (x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x + 1)
To find the intervals over which  is increasing and decreasing we find the sign of (x) using the
critical points x = 1 and x = -1 and the Sign Chart Method.
-1 1
x – 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + ++ + +
x + 1 - - - - - - - 0 + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + +
(x) + + + + + 0 - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + +
From the above “sign chart” we can see that
(x) > 0 for x (-, -1)  (1, ) and (x) < 0 for x (-1, 1).
Thus  is strictly increasing on (-, -1)  (1, ) and strictly decreasing on [-1, 1]. See Figure 4.10.
 The First and Second Derivative Tests for Relative Extrema
If  is a differentiable function, we have seen that at relative extreme values
(c) = 0. Thus in order to locate relative extreme values of  we find the values of x for which (x) =
0 or (x) does not exist. But this method does not help us to determine which of these values of x
give relative extreme values (or which value is a maximum or which is a minimum). The next two
theorems will provide us with conditions that guarantee that  has relative extreme values. These
conditions will also help in sketching the graphs of functions and in solving applied problems.

Theorem 4.17: (The First Derivative Test)

Let f be continuous on an interval I, and let c I.
a) If (x) changes its sign from positive to negative at c
i.e. if (x) > 0 to the left of c and (x) < 0 to the right of c, then  has a relative
maximum value at c.
b) If (x) changes its sign from negative to positive at c, then  has a relative
minimum value at c.

Example 4.65: Consider again the function f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1.

(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x + 1) = 0 gives the critical points x = 1 and x = -1
For the critical point x = -1 check the sign of  at -2 and 0 with (-2) = 9 > 0 and (0) = -3 < 0. Thus
(-1) = 3 is a relative maximum value of f.
151
Similarly taking the critical point x = 1 between 0 and 2, we get (0) = -3 < 0 and (2) = 9 > 0. Thus
f(1) = -1 is a relative minimum value of f. (See Figure 4.10 above)

The above theorem needs to check the signs of two distinct points to the left and to the right of each
critical point. The next theorem makes use of the sign of the second derivative directly at the critical
points.

Theorem: 4.18 (The Second Derivative Test)

Let f be differentiable in an interval I and let c I with (c) = 0.
a) If (c) < 0, then (c) is a relative maximum value of f.
b) If (c) > 0, then (c) is a relative minimum value of f.
If (c) = 0, then we can not draw any conclusion about f(c).

Example 4.66: Consider again the function f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1 with (x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x + 1).
We have (1) = (-1) = 0 and (x) = 6x. Since (-1) = -6 < 0, (-1) = 3 is a local maximum value
of f. Since (1) = 6 > 0, (1) = -1 is a local minimum values of f.
4x
2
Example 4.67: Let f(x) = x  4 , Find the local extreme values of f.
4( x 2  4)  4 x(2 x)
Solution: (x) = ( x 2  4) 2 , Quotient Rule.
2 2
4 x  16  8 x 16  4 x 2
= ( x 2  4) 2 2
= ( x  4)
2

(x) = 0  16 – 4x2 = 0  x = 2 or x = -2
 8 x( x 2  4) 2  (16  4 x 2 )2( x 2  4)( 2 x)
(x) = ( x 2  4) 4 - Quotient Rule and Chain Rule
2
8 x( x  12)
2 3
= ( x  4) - Simplification.
16( 8) 1
3
Thus (2) = 8 = 4 <0  f(2) = 1 is a local maximum value of f and
 16( 8) 1
3
(-2) = 8 = 4 >0  f(-2) = -1 a local minimum value of f.
 Practical Applications of the Extrema
A lot of practical problems can be expressed as a continuous function on a closed and bounded interval
we may be interested to find points where f attains its maximum or its minimum values. For instance
we may be interested in finding the maximum area of a region to be enclosed by a fixed perimeter; the
minimum distance from a fixed point to a curve. In economics a function may represent a profit or
cost function and we may want to find the value of x to find maximum profit and minimum cost, and
so on. The Maximum – Minimum Theorem and the first and second derivative test will be crucial in
finding such points as are illustrated in the following examples.
Example 4.68: A landowner wishes to use 2000 meters of fencing to enclose a rectangular region.
Suppose one side of the land lies along a river and does not need fencing. What should be the sides of
the region in order to maximize the area?
152
Solution: Suppose the rectangle is to have length x and width y meters as seen in Figure 4.13.
x
Since the length of the fencing is
2000 meters, we have y
x + 2y = 2000
 2y = 2000 – x  y = 1000 - x 2 Figure 4.13

The area of the rectangle is A = xy which can be written as a function of x alone as

x2
A(x) = xy = x(1000 - x 2 ) = 1000x - 2 for 0  x  2000
Thus we find the maximum value of A on [0, 2000].
A(x) = 1000 – x = 0  x = 1000 is a critical point.
Comparing the value of A at the critical point and at the endpoints 0 and 2000, we get
A(0) = 0, A(1000) = 500,000 and A(2000) = 0 (check!)
Thus the maximum value of A occurs when x = 1000 so that :
y = 1000 - x 2 = 1000 – 500 = 500.
Consequently, to enclose maximum area, the fence should have a length of 1000 mts and a width of
500 mts.
Example 4.69: Ethiopian Airlines offers a round trip discount on group flight from Addis Ababa to
Lalibela. If x people sign up for the flight, the cost of each ticket is to be 1000 – 2x Birr. Find the
number of people the airline gets maximum revenue from the sales of tickets for the flight,
Solution: Since individual cost of a ticket is 1000 – 2x, the total cost of the group will be
C(x) = (1000 – 2x)x = 1000x – 2x2.
To find a critical point, we solve C(x) = 1000 – 4x = 0, which gives the only critical point
x = 250 of C(x).
You can easily check that for x < 250, C(x) > 0 and for x > 250, C(x) < 0. Thus by the First
Derivative Test C has an (absolute) maximum value at x = 250.
The maximum revenue the airline gets from the sales of 250 tickets is then
C(250) = 1000(250) – 2(250)2 = 125,000 Birr.
Example 4.70: A manufacturer wishes to produce rectangular containers with square bottom and top
each of which is to have a capacity of 1000 cubic inches. If the cost of production of each container is
proportional to its surface area, what should be the dimensions so as to minimize the cost of
production?
Solution: Let x be the side of the base h
and h be the height of the container as seen in Figure 4.14.
Then the volume is h x
2
V = x h = 1000 x
V 1000
2 2
 h= x = x for x > 0 Figure 4.14

To find the surface area, we have the area of the top and bottom as 2x2 and the area of the four sides as
 1000  4000
 2 
4xh = 4x  x  = x

153
Hence the total surface area is given by
4000
s(x) = 2x2 + x for x > 0.
Since the cost of production is proportional to the surface area, to minimize cost, we find the minimum
value of s.
4000 4 x 3  4000
2
s(x) = 4x - x = x2 =0
 4x – 4000 = 0
3
 x3 = 1000
 x = 10 is the only critical point.
By the Second Derivative Test, we have
8000
3
s(x) = 4 + x with s(10) = 4 + 8 = 12 > 0
Thus x = 10 gives the minimum value s(10) = 600 sq. in.
1000 1000
2
The height is h = x = 100 = 10 in.
Hence the manufacturer would minimize the cost of production by manufacturing cubes of side 10
inches.
Curve Sketching
As a second application of the derivative we shall see here sketching the graphs of functions. You
have been sketching the graphs of polynomial and rational functions starting from your high school
mathematics. Here we systematically apply the notions of differential calculus to give precise meaning
to the asymptotes, intervals of increase and decrease, the turning points and find the range of the
functions.
First we shall list the important items that will help us in sketching the graph of a function y = f(x).
1) Determine the domain of the function f.
2) Find the intercepts of the function f.
- x-intercepts are points of the form (x, 0)
- y-intercepts are points of the form (0, y)
3) Determine the asymptotes, if any, of the function f.
- A line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f iff
lim lim
x  c  f(x) =   or x  c  f(x) = .

- A line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f iff

lim lim
x   f(x) = L or x   f(x) = L.

- A line y = ax + b is an oblique (or skew) asymptote of the graph of f iff

lim
x   [f(x) – (ax + b)] = L

4) Determine the intervals of monotonicity of the function f.

- f is increasing for all x at which (x) > 0
- f is decreasing for all x at which (x) < 0
5) Find extreme values of , if any.
Find the critical points of f and apply the first or second derivative tests to determine
whether they are relative extreme points or not.

154
 6) If necessary plot some additional points to help you see the behavior of the function.
x 2
Example 4.71: Sketch the graph of f(x) = x  2 .
Solution. 2.1 The domain of f is R\{-2} and the x-intercept is the value of x for which
x 2
f(x) = x  2 = 0  x = 2. Hence x-intercept at (2, 0).
0 2
The y-intercept is the value of y when x = 0, i.e. f(0) = 0  2 = -1. Hence y-intercept at (0, -1).
x 2
lim lim
Since x  2 f(x) = x  2 x  2 = -, the line x = -2 is a vertical asymptote to the graph of f.
lim
Also you can check that x  2 f(x) = .
x 2 x 2 x
lim lim lim x  2 x
Since x   f(x) = x   x  2 = x   = 1, the line y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f.
To find the intervals of monotonicity, let us first find f '(x).
By the Quotient Rule for Differentiation,
( x 2)( x  2)'  ( x  2)( x 2)' x 2 ( x  2)
( xx22 ) '  4

f '(x) = ( x  2) 2 = ( x  2) 2
= ( x  2) 2 .
Hence f '(x) > 0 for every element x in the
domain of f. It follows that f is strictly increasing on (-  , -2) and on (-2,  ).
 has no critical number and hence no local
extrema. Additional points:
f(-1) = -3, f(1) = - 1 3
The graph of f is given in Figure 4.15.

1
Example 4.72: Sketch the graph of f(x) = x + x , for x  0 . Figure 4.15
1 x 2 1
Solution: Since f(x) = x + x = x  0 and since x  0 f has no intercepts.
 1  1
lim lim  x  x  lim lim  x  x 
x  0 f(x) = x  0   =  and x  0 f(x) = x  0   = -
The line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of f.
1
lim lim
x   [f(x) – x] = x   x = 0

Hence the line y = x is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f.

1 x 2  1 ( x  1)( x  1)
2 2
(x) = 1 - x = x = x2 = 0 gives two critical points x = 1 and x = -1.
Using a sign chart to find the intervals of monotonicity:
-1 1
155
 x – 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + ++ + +
x + 1 - - - - - - - 0 + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + +
(x) + + + + + 0 - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + +
(x) > 0 in the interval (-, -1)  (1, ) so that it is
strictly increasing in (-, -1)  (1, ).
(x) < 0 in the interval (-1, 1) \ {0} so that
f is strictly decreasing in (-1, 1) \{0}.

Using the first derivative test, you can see that

f(-1) = -2 is a local maximum and f(1) = 2
is a local minimum. You can also apply the
second derivative test to see this.
5
Additional points: f(-2) =  5 2 ,f  1 2  = 2 ,
Graph of f ( x)  x  1

5 x

f 
1 2  = 5 2 , f(2) = 2 . Figure 4.16
The graph is given in Figure 4.16.
Related Rates
One of the most important applications of the derivative is to solve problems involving rates of change.
As was mentioned at the beginning of this section the derivative measures the rate of change of a
variable quantity (which is the independent variable x) with respect to another variable (which is the
dependent variable y = f(x)). Here we shall apply this to solve some practical related rates problems.
Example 4.73: Suppose a particle P starts from a point 0 and moves along a straight line in the
positive direction as See in Figure 4.17
Let s(t) devote the distance traveled from
0 in t seconds. If we assume that the speed 0 P
is constant, then we can compute the speed as Figure 4.17
dis tan ce traveled
speed = time elapsed
If we are interested to find the average speed of the particle between two times t 1 and t2
(with t1 < t2), we get
change in dis tance s (t 2 )  s (t1 )
Average speed = change in time = t 2  t1
In particular if t1 is any time t and t2 is a short time later say t2 = t + h for h > 0, then we have
s (t  h)  s(t ) s (t  h)  s(t )
Approximate speed (at t = t1) = t h t = h
If the speed is not even constant, by taking h smaller and smaller we can approximate the speed of the
particle at time t, to get what is called the (instantaneous) velocity of the particle as
s (t  h)  s(t )
lim
v(t) = h 0 h
Thus, if s(t) denotes the position function of the particle its velocity is given by

156
 ds
v(t) = s(t) = dt - rate of change of position.
Similarly, the acceleration of the particle can be obtained by
dv
a(t) = v(t) = dt - rate of change of velocity
v(t  h)  v(t ) d 2s
lim 2
= h 0 h = s(t) = dt
For instance if s(t) = t3 – 6t2 + 20 for 0  t  6,
then v(t) = s(t) = 3t2 – 12t
and a(t) = v(t) = s(t) = 6t – 12
In general, if any quantity q is a function of time t, then the rate of change of the quantity with
respect to time is given by the derivative q(t).

Example 4.74 : Water is flowing into a vertical cylindrical tank of radius 2 feet at the rate of 8 ft 3/min.
How fast is the water level rising after t minutes?
h(t)

v(t)
Figure 4.18

Solution: Let v(t) denote the volume of water in the tank after t minutes and let h(t) denote the
height of water in the tank after t minutes. See Figure 4.18.
Since the rate at which water is flowing into the tank is 8 ft 3/min. the volume of water in the tank after t
minutes is : v(t) = 8t
On the other hand since the base of the cylinder is 2 feet and height in h minutes is h(t), we have the
volume : v(t) = r2h(t) = 4h(t)
2
t
Thus 4h(t) = 8t  h(t) = 
The rate at which the water level is rising in then
2
h(t) =  ft|min, a constant! (why?)
Example 4.75: Two automobiles start from a point A at the same time. One travels west at 60 km/hr
and the other travels north at 35 km/hr. How fast is the distance between them increasing 3 hrs later?
Solution: Let s(t) denote the distance
between the two cars after t hrs. In s(t)
t hrs the car due north travels 35t kms 35t
and the car due west travels 60t kms A
as seen in Figure 4.19 60t
Figure 4.19.
Hence the distance s(t) between the two cars in t hrs is
(35t ) 2  (60t ) 2
s(t) =
The rate of change of the distance between the cars is

157
 2(35) 2 t  2(60) 2 t
2 2
s(t) = 2 (35t )  (60t ) … How ?
Hence after 3 hrs the distance between the two cars is increasing at the rate of
3(35) 2  3(60) 2
2 2
s(3) = 3 (35)  (60) = 5 193 km/hr
Exercise 4.3
1. Find relative extrema and the intervals in which the given function is increasing or decreasing
x 1
2 2
a) f(x) = 5 – 4x – x 2 3 2
b) g(x) = x + x – x – 4 c) f(x) = x  1 d) g(x) = x + x
2

2. Use the First or Second Derivative Test to determine relative extreme values of the function
x2 4 1 1
x 2
a) f(x) = 5x2 – 2x + 1 b) g(x) = 4 + x c) f(x) = x4 + 2 d) g(x) = x  1
cos x
e) f(x) = 1  sin x f) g(x) = (x2 + 2)6
3. Sketch the graph of the following functions
ex x 3  3x 2  4
a) f(x) = (x2 – 1)2 b) g(x) = x c) g(x) = x2  1
4. A menu of total area of 100 sq. in. is printed with 2 in. margins at the top and bottom and 1in.
margins at the sides. For what dimensions of the menu is the printed area largest?
5. A rectangle of perimeter p is rotated about one of its sides so as to form a cylinder. Of all such
possible rectangles, which generated a cylinder of maximum volume?
6. The volume of a spherical balloon is increasing at a constant rate of 8 cubic feet per minute.
How fast is the radius of the sphere increasing when the radius is exactly 10 feet?
7. At midnight ship B was 90 miles due south of ship A. Ship A sailed east at 15 m/hr and ship B
sailed north at 20 m/hr. At what time were they closest to each other?

4.4. Integrals and their applications

In this section we shall introduce the second major part of calculus known as integral calculus. Just
like subtraction is the inverse process of addition, integration is the inverse process of taking the
derivative of a function. Historically, integral calculus was developed in solving problems connected
with finding areas of regions with curved boundaries.
Section Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
 define an anti-derivative of a continuous function.
 state properties of anti-derivatives.
 find indefinite integrals of some elementary functions.
 evaluate the integrals of functions using the techniques of integration.
 solve integrals involving trigonometric functions.
 find the definite integral of continuous functions.
 apply the concepts of definite integrals to find areas of regions bounded by continuous
functions.
158
 The Indefinite Integral

As is mentioned above the process of integration is the inverse process of differentiation and hence is
sometimes called taking anti-derivatives.
Definition 4.14: A function F(x) is called an anti-derivative of a continuous function f(x) if and only
if F(x) = f(x) for every x in the domain of f.
Example 4.76: Let f(x) = 3x2 + 4x. Then the function F1(x) = x3 + 2x2 is an anti-derivative of f(x),
d
since F(x) = dx (x3 + 2x2) = 3x2 + 4x = f(x).
Note that F1 is not the only anti-derivative of f(x). You can also check that F2(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5 and
F3(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 7 are also anti-derivatives of f.
In fact, if c is any real number, then F(x) = x3 + 2x2 + c is an anti-derivative of f(x) = 3x2 + 4x since
d
F(x) = dx (x3 + 2x2 + c) = 3x2 + 4x = f(x)
Theorem 4.19: If F(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x), then F(x) + c, where c is an arbitrary constant, is also an anti-
derivative of f(x).

Notation and terminologies: Given a function f, the symbol f ( x)dx stands for any (and hence all)
anti-derivatives of f. i.e. if F(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x), we write 
f ( x)dx
= F(x) + c, for any

constant c. The symbol  is called the integral sign. The function f(x) is called the integrand, x is
called the variable of integration, and c is called a constant of integration.
f ( x)dx is also called the indefinite integral of f with respect to x.
Examples 4.77: We have

a)  3x dx = x 2 3
+c c)  sinxdx = -cosx + c; e)  cosx dx = sinx + c g)  e dx = e
x x
+c
1
b)
x dx = n|x| + c d)  sec2xdx = tanx + c f)  cscx cotxdx = -cscx + c
 Properties of the Indefinite Integral
Suppose F and G are antiderivatives of f and g, respectively, and k is a constant. Then

1)  kf(x)dx = k  f(x)dx = kF(x) + c.

2)  (f(x) + g(x))dx =  f(x)dx +  g(x)dx = F(x) + G(x) + c.
3)  (f(x) – g(x))dx =  f(x)dx -  g(x)dx = F(x) – G(x) + c.
Examples 4.78:

1)  4 cosxdx = 4  cosxdx = 4sinx + c

 1 1
 e
x

2)

x  dx =  e dx - x dx = e
x
– n|x| + c
x

3) If f(x) = x , for any rational r  -1, then

r

159
 x r 1
c
 f(x)dx =  xrdx = r  1 (verify!)
1
x 2  2
x6 3 c c
c 1
Thus,  x5dx = 6 and 
x 2 
dx = 2 = x .
 1 2  1
 x 3  2 sec x dx x  3 dx sec 2 xdx  2 x 2
4) = +2 = + 2tanx + c.
5) If P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 is a polynomial, then its anti-derivative is given by
a n x n 1 an 1 x n a 2 x 3 a1 x 2
P(x) = 
P ( x)dx
= n 1 + n + …+ 3 + 2 + a0x

Thus,  (3x 4
+ 2 x3 – 5x + 2)dx = 3  x4dx + 2  x dx - 5  xdx +  2dx
3

3 5 2 4 5 2
x x x
= 5 + 4 - 2 + 2x + c
 Some Techniques of Integration

In the previous section we were trying to find anti-derivatives of some functions whose derivatives can
easily be found from the previous unit on differentiation. But there are various functions such as
2x
2
f(x) = (x + 3)5 , g(x) = xe-x and h(x) = x( x  4)
whose anti-derivatives are not readily found. In this section we shall see some techniques to find the
integrals of such functions.

a) Integration by Substitution

This technique is basically developed by reversing the Chain Rule. It is very helpful in finding the
integrals of functions that appear as the composite of two functions.
( x  3)
5
dx
Suppose we want to find the indefinite integral:
1 r 1
x c
and then integrate term by term using the formula: 
r
5
x dx r  1
we may expand (x + 3) = .
But this would obviously be very tedious and cumbersome. On the other hand if we replace or
du d
substitute u for x + 3, we get : (x + 3)5 = u5 and dx = dx (x + 3) = 1  dx = du.
5 1 5 1
   
Thus,  =  = 6 u6 + c. Hence, 
5
x  3 dx u du x  3 dx
= 6 (x + 3)6 + c, for some constant c.
Theorem 4.20: If g(x) is continuous x[a, b] and f is continuous at g(x), then

 f(g(x))g(x)dx =  f(u)du - Integration by Substitution

Example 4.79: Evaluate  2x(x 2

– 5)6dx

160
 du
Solution: Let u = x2 – 5. Then, dx = 2x which implies that du = 2xdx. Thus,
1 1
 2x(x2 – 5)6dx =  u6du = 7 u7 + c and hence  2x(x2 – 5)6dx = 7 (x2 – 5)7 + c.
x
 1 x 2
dx
Example 4.80: Integrate
du 1
du
Solution: Let u = 1 + x . Then, dx = 2x which implies that xdx = 2 . Therefore,
2

x 1 du
 1  x 2 dx  u 2 1 u 2 du 1 .2.u 2
1 1
2
= = 2 = 2 + c = u  c = 1  x + c.

Example 4.81: Integrate sin 4 xdx

du 1 1 1
Solution: Let u = 4x. Then dx = 4  dx = 4 du. Thus  = 4 
sin 4 xdx sin udu
= - 4 cosu +c = -
1
4 cos4x+ c.
1 1
In general  = - a cosax + c, and 
sin axdx cos bxdx
= b sinbx + c
These two formulas can be used to find integrals involving trigonometric functions together with
trigonometric identities.

Example 4.82: Integrate 

sin 2 x cos 2 xdx
1  cos 2 x 1  cos 2 x
Solution: From trigonometric identities we have : sin x = 2 2 2
and cos x = 2
1 1
Thus 
sin 2
x cos 2
xdx
= 2
 (1  cos 2 x) (1  cos 2 x)dx
2
1 1  1 
(1  cos 2 2 x)dx   1  (1  cos 4 x) dx
= 4 = 4  2  =
1 1 1 1
8  dx  cos 4 xdx
8 = 8
x
32
sin 4 x  c.

Example 4.83: Find tan xdx

sin x du
Solution: tan xdx  dx
= cos x . Let u = cos x. Then dx = -sinx  sinx dx = -du.
 du 1
Hence, tan xdx =
u  du
=- u = -n|u| + c = -n|cosx| + c.

You can similarly find cot xdx .

Integrate 
 2x
e dx
Example 4.84:

161
 du 1
Solution: Let u = - 2x. Then dx = -2  dx = - 2 du.
1 1 1
 e u du
So that 
 2x
e dx
= 2 = 2 eu + c = 2 e-2x + c
d
In general since dx e = (x) e , we have
f(x) f(x)  f ( x)e f ( x ) dx e f ( x )
= + c.
1
x2 3

Thus xe dx
= 2 e x2
+ c and 3 x 2 e x dx x2
= e + c.
b) Integration by Parts
The method of integration by parts is basically developed from the Product Rule for differentiation. If
f and g are differentiable functions, we have
(f(x)g(x)) = (x) g(x) + g(x) (x)
Integrating on both sides with respect to x, we get

f(x) g(x) = 
f ( x) g ( x)dx g ( x) f ( x)dx
+
If one of the integrals on the right can be easily evaluated, we can find the other integral using the
following theorem

Theorem 4.21: If f and g are differentiable functions, then

f ( x) g ( x)dx = f(x)g(x) - g ( x) f ( x)dx - Integration by parts

Find 
x
xe dx
Example 4.85:
Solution: Let f(x) = x and g(x) = ex. Then (x) = 1 and g(x) = ex. Therefore,
xe dx = xe - e .1.dx
x x
x
= xex – ex + c, for some constant c.
Integration by parts can be easily remembered using the following substitutions.
Let u = f(x) and v = g(x)
Then du = (x)dx and dv = g(x)dx

So thatf ( x) g ( x)dx = udv = f(x)g(x) - g ( x) f ( x)dx = uv- vdu

Thus, 
udv uv  vdu
- Integration by Parts.

Example 4.86: Find xnxdx

1 x2
Solution: Let u = nx, dv = xdx. Then, du = x dx, v = 2 .
x2 x2 1 x2 x x2 x2
Thus 
xnxdx 
= 2 nx - 2 x
dx  dx
= 2 nx - 2 = 2 nx - 4 + c.

Example 4.87: Find 

nxdx

162
 1
Solution: Let u = nx and dv = dx. Then, du = x dx and v = x
1
Hence nxdx = xnx -
x. x dx = x nx - dx = xnx – x + c = x(nx – 1) + c.
2

Find the integral 

x
x e dx
Example 4.88:
2

and  = x e -
x x
2 x x x e dx 2 x
2 xe dx
Solution: Let u = x and dv = e dx. Then, du = 2xdx, v = e .

But we have seen above that 

x
xe dx 2
= xe - ex + c. Hence,
2
x e dx = x e
x
2 x
– 2(xex – ex + c) = ex(x2 – 2x + 1) + c1 where c1 = -2c is a constant.
In some cases we may have to apply integration by parts more than once to arrive at the required
result as in the following example.

Find 
x
e cos xdx
Example 4.89:
Solution: Let u = ex and dv = cosxdx. Then, du = exdx and v = sinx. Thus,
e = exsinx - 
x
e x sin xdx
cos xdx
.
To evaluate the integral on the right, we again use integration by parts.
Let u = ex and dv = sinx dx. Then, du = exdx and v = -cosx.
e = -excosx +  which implies 2 
x
sin xdx e x cos xdx e x cos xdx
Thus, = exsinx + excosx + c.
1 x
e
Therefore, 
x
e cos xdx
= 2 (sinx + cosx) + c.
c) Integration by the Method of Partial Fractions
p( x)
The method of Partial Fractions is used for rational functions : f(x) = q ( x)
where degree of p(x) is less than degree of q(x). (If not we can apply long division to write f(x) as a
sum of a polynomial and a rational function with the desired property.) The first step in this method is
to factorize the denominator q(x) into linear factors, if possible. (The case where we have irreducible
quadratic factors of q(x) will not be treated here.) Now with each linear factor (ax + b) m (of
A1 A2
 2
multiplicity m) we associate constants A 1, A2, …,Am and write ax  b (ax  b) +…with the Ai’s to
be determined. Then, the rational function f(x) is then expressed as a sum of simple rational functions
and can be easily integrated.

1
Example 4.90:

Find x
2
 4
dx

Solution: By factorizing x2 – 4 as (x – 2) (x + 2), we have

163
 1 1 A B A( x  2)  B( x  2)
x  4 = ( x  2)( x  2) = x  2 + x  2 =
2
( x  2)( x  2)

Since the denominators are equal, we equate the numerators as A(x+2) + B(x - 2) = 1.
From equality of polynomials, we get
A  B 0 1

2 A  2 B 1   A = 1 4 and B = 4

1  14  1 4 1 dx 1 dx 1 1
 dx   dx x  2 - 4 x  2 =
Hence, x
2
 4 =  x  2 x 2 = 4 4 n|x – 2| - 4 n |x+2| + c.
3x 2  x  1
 3 2 dx
Example 4.91: Find x  x  2 x
Solution: The denominator x3 – x2 – 2x = x(x2 – x – 2) = x(x + 1) (x – 2) has three roots 0, -1 and 2.
3x 2  x  1 3x 2  x  1 A B C
x  x  2 x = x( x  1)( x  2) = x + x  1 + x  2
3 2

A( x  1)( x  2)  Bx( x  2)  Cx( x  1)

= x( x  1)( x  2)
 A(x+1) (x - 2) + B x(x - 2) + Cx(x+1) = 3x2 + x – 1
This equation is true for all xR. In particular,
when x = 0, A(1)(-2) = -1 A=12
when x = -1, B(-1)(-3) = 1 B=13
when x = 2, C(2)(3) = 13  C = 13 6
2
3x  x  1 1 dx 1 dx 13 dx 1 1 13

Hence, x
3 2
dx
 x  2x = 2 x + 3
x 1 + 6 x  2 = 2 n|x| + 3 n|x + 1| + 6 n|x-2|+c.

 The Definite Integral

For a very long time, mathematicians have struggled with the problem of finding areas of plane
regions. Until the invention of the integral calculus, however, the regions considered were mostly
those regions bounded by straight lines, called polygons, with a few exceptions such as the circle and
the ellipse. The Greek mathematicians found the area of a polygon by first finding the area of a
rectangle, then finding the area a parallelogram, and then finding the area of a triangle. The area of a
polygon can be used to approximate the area of a region bounded by curved boundaries. For instance,
the area of a circle can be found by drawing a sequence of inscribed polygons
P4, P8, P16, …,Pn, and then taking limit as n  .
To develop the idea for more general regions, consider the region bounded by the graphs of
y = 2x2 + 1, x = 0, x = 6 and x-axis.
To find the area of the region, let us identify the region S by drawing its boundaries, namely the graphs
of y = f(x) = 2x2 + 1, x = 0, x = 6 and the x-axis as shown in Figure 4.20.

164
Unfortunately, since f(x) = 2x2 + 1 is a curve that is not
a line segment, we cannot find the area of the region
by the elementary methods. So, it is necessary to
develop a stronger technique that also generalizes
the elementary method and enables us to find the area
of such regions.

Let A(S) denote the area of the region S. It is not difficult

to give lower and upper bounds of A(S). For instance,
we consider the rectangle r that is enclosed by the boundaries Figure 4.20
of S and the rectangle R that encloses S, as shown in Figure 4.21.

Then A(r)= 6 and A(R) = 6 73 = 438. Hence

6  A(S) 438, which gives a wide range of bounds
of A(S).

Better bounds of A(S) can be obtained if we consider

the finer rectangles r1 , r 2 , r 3 , r 4 , r 5 and r 6 that are
enclosed by the boundaries of S and R1, R2, R3, R4, R5
and R6 that enclose S as shown in Figure 4.22. Figure 4.21

Evidently, each of the rectangles has base 1 unit

but varying heights. It follows that

A( r1 )+A( r 2 ) + … + A( r 6 ) A(S) A(R1) + A(R2) + … + A(R6)

6 6
 A(ri )  A( Ri )
i 1  A(S)  i 1
i.e.,
which gives 116  A(S)  188.
To give a formal definition of the subdivisions,
for any positive integer n, divide [a, b] into
subintervals by introducing points of subdivision Figure 4.22
x0, x1, …xn
Definition 4.15: A partition of [a, b] is a finite set P of points x0, x1, …, xn such that
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < … < xn = b. We describe P by writing P = { x0, x1, …xn}
By definition, any partition of [a, b] must contain a and b.
The length of any subinterval [xi-1, xi] of a partition P is defined and given by : xi = xi – xi-1
In particular, when the lengths of each subintervals are equal, it is called a regular partition.
In this section we shall consider only regular partitions, so that the length of each subinterval is
b a
xi = xi – xi-1 = n

165
Having chosen a partition P of [a, b], we inscribe and circumscribe rectangles on the region R using the
division points of P as seen in Figure 7.3(a) and (b). Since f is continuous on [a, b], by the Maximum-
Minimum Theorem, for each i between 1 and n, there is a minimum value m i and a maximum value M i
of f on the subinterval [xi-1, xi]. If ri and Ri denote the inscribed and circumscribed rectangles on [x i-
1,xi], respectively, then the area of r i is A(ri) = mixi and the area of R i is A(Ri) = Mixi, since the base

of both ri and Ri is xi = xi - xi-1. From our observation in Figure 7.3 (a) and (b) we see that the area of
the region R is between the sum of the inscribed rectangles and the sum of the circumscribed
rectangles.
Definition 4.16: Let f be continuous on [a, b] and P be any partition of [a, b].
The sum Lf(P) = m1x1 + m2x2 + …+ mnxn
is called the lower sum of f associated with P and the sum
Uf(P) = M1x1 + M2x2 + … + Mnxn
is called the upper sum of f associated with P.
From our construction we see that if P is any partition of [a, b], then the area of R should be
between Lf(P) and Uf(P) i.e.
Lf(P)  Area (R)  Uf(P)
 1 3 
0, ,1, ,2
Example 4.92: Let f(x) = x for o  x  2 and let P =  2 2  be a partition of [0, 2].
2

 1  1   3  3 
 0, 2   2 ,1 1, 2   2 ,2
Then the subdivision of [0, 2] associated with P are , , , . Since x2 is an
increasing function on [0, 2], the minimum value of f on each subinterval is at the left end point and
the maximum value of f at the right end point. Thus
 1 1  3 9
   
m1 = f(0) = 0, m2 = f  2  4 , m3 = f(1) = 1, m4 = f  2  4
 1 1  3 9
   
and M1 = f  2  4 , M2 = f(1) = 1, M3 = f  2  4 , M4 = f(2) = 4
2 0 1
The base of each subinterval is xi = 4 = 2 . Thus the lower sum of f associated with P is
1 1 1 1 9 1 7
Lf(P) = 0. 2 + 4 . 2 + 1. 2 + 4 . 2 = 4
and the upper sum of f associated with P is
1 1 1 9 1 1 15
Uf(P) = 4 . 2 + 1. 2 + 4 . 2 + 4. 2 = 4
7
Therefore the area of the region R below the graph of f(x) = x2 above the x-axis on [0, 2] is between 4
15 7 15
and 4 , i.e. 4  Area(R)  4 .
Definition 4.16: Let f be continuous on [a, b]. The definite integral of f from a to b is the unique
number I satisfying Lf(P)  I  Uf(P) for every partition P of [a, b].
b

f ( x)dx
This integral is denoted by : I= a

166
The numbers a and b are called the lower and upper limits of integration, respectively.
Note that as the number of subdivisions of an interval [a, b] increases, the minimum and the maximum
values of f on [xi-1, xi] are close to each other. For each i from 1 to n if we take an arbitrary number t i
n

 f (t i )xi
in [xi-1, xi], then we get the sum : i 1 = f(t1)x1 + f(t2)x2 + …+ f(tn)xn
This sum is called a Riemann sum or an Integral sum.
b

f ( x)dx
Even though it is sometimes possible to calculate a by finding formulas for lower and upper
sum we are to evaluate it here by the use of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
For the moment we can conclude that if f is continuous and nonnegative on [a, b], then the area of the
b

f ( x)dx
region R between the graph of f and the x-axis on [a, b] is given by : Area(R) = a .
Remark: The definite integral has the following properties.
If f and g are integrable over [a, b] and k is a constant, then
b b b b b

kf ( x)dx f ( x)dx ( f ( x) g ( x))dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx

a) a =k a b) a = a  a
b b

f ( x)dx f ( x)dx
c) If f(x)  0, for a  x  b, then a  0 and if f(x)  0, for a  x  b, then a 
0.
b

f ( x)dx
d) If m  f(x)  M for all x  [a, b], then m(b – a)  a  M(b – a)
b c b

f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx

e) If c is any number in (a, b), then a = a + c - Additive Property
a a b

f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx

f) a = 0 for any number a. g) b =-a .
b

f ( x)dx
To develop a general method for evaluating a without computing lower and upper sums we
shall state the most important theorem in calculus: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. To this
end let f(t) be continuous on [a, b]. Then f is integrable on [a, b] and for any x[a, b] the definite
x x

f ( x)dt f (t )dt
integral a exists. Define a function F on [a, b] as F(x) = a
In effect the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that the function F(x) is differentiable with
derivative f(x) thereby eliminating the integral by the derivative. It also shows us how to evaluate the
definite integral.
Theorem 4.22: (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)
x

f (t )dt
Let f(t) be continuous on [a, b] and for each x [a, b] let : F(x) = a
Then (i) F(x) is a differentiable function with F(x) = f(x)
167
b

 f (t )dt
(ii) If F is any anti-derivative of f on [a, b], then a = F(b) – F(a).
 1 3
x
Example 4.93: Let f(x) = x2 for 0  x  2. Then F(x) = 3 is an anti-derivative of f, so that by the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
2
1 3 2 1 3 1 3 8 8
x dx
2
x 2 .0  0
0 = 3 0 = F(2) – F(0) = 3 - 3 = 3 = 3
From our previous discussion, the area of the region R under the graph of f(x) = x 2 on [0, 2] above the
2

x dx
2

x-axis is thus 0 = 8 3 sq. units.

Example 4.94: Evaluate each of the following definite integrals
4  2 1

sin xdx ( x  cos x)dx (5 x

3
3 x dx  2 x  e x )dx
a) 1 b) 0 c) 0 d) 0

2
32
Solution: a) Since F(x) = 3. 3 . x = 2x x is an anti-derivative of f(x) = 3 x , we have
4

3 x dx
0 = F(4) – F(1) = 2(4) 4 - 2(1) 1 = 16-2 = 14
b) An anti-derivative of sinx is –cosx. Thus


sin xdx
0 = -cosx 0 = -cos - (-cos 0) = -(-1) + 1 = 2.
 2 2
 x2   2  2
 ( x  cos x)dx   sin x 
2

 8
 1 1
c) 0 =  0 =  - (0 + 0) = 8 .
1 1
5 4 x 5  13
(5 x  2 x  e )dx
3 x 2
 4 x  x  e   1  e  e
d) 0 = 0= 4  - (0 + 0 – 1) = 4
1

x  1dx
Example 4.95: Evaluate 2

 x  1, for x  1

Solution: By definition |x + 1| =  ( x  1), for x   1
y
Then by Additive Property, we have
1 1 1

x  1dx  ( x  1)dx ( x  1)dx

2 = 2 + 1

1 1
 x2   x2 
 2  x  2  x
= - 2 +   1 x
Figure 4.23

168
  1     1   1  1
 2 1  (2  2)    1    1  2
= -    +   2   2  = 2 =52
From the method of Integration by Substitution we have:
f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx = f (u )du where u = g(x)
If we are to evaluate this integral between a and b, we have,
when x = a, u = g(a) and when x = b, u = g(b). Thus it follows

b g (b )
- Change of Variable.
f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx  f (u)du
a g (a)

x x 2  4dx
Example 4.96: Evaluate 2
Solution: We have two possibilities to evaluate such a definite integral. One way is to find an anti-
2
derivative of x x  4 and evaluate it between 2 and 3 by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. The
other is to use the change of variable formula and change the limits of integration before integrating.
To this end, let u = g(x) = x2 – 4. Then du = 2xdx.
When x = 2, u = g(2) = 0 and when x = 3, u = g(3) = 5
3 3 5
du 1 12 1 2 5
1 5 5
x x  4dx  2
2
u u du . u u .5, 5
2
Thus 2 = 0 = 0 = 3
2 0
= 3 -0= 3 .
 Application of the Definite Integral: Area
The definite integral has several applications such as finding areas of regions, arc length of
curves, surface areas and volumes of solids of revolution. In this section we shall see how to
find areas of plane regions with curved boundaries using the definite integrals.
In the previous section we have seen that if f(x)  0 for all x [a, b] and if f is continuous on [a, b],
b

f ( x)dx
then a gives the area of the region R below the graph of f, above the x-axis, between the lines x
= a and x = b. For instance, if f(x) = x 2 for 0  x  2, then the area of R as given in is given by A(R) =
2
x3 2

2
x dx  8 3
3 0
0 sq. units.
- If f(x)  0 on [a, b], then taking g(x) = -f(x)  0 for a  x  b, the area of the region R below the x-
b b b

g ( x)dx  f ( x)dx f ( x)dx

axis, above the graph of f on [a, b] is given by A(R) = a = =-a
a .
For instance, if f(x) = 2x for -2  x  0, then the area of the region R below the x-axis, above the
graph of f on [-2, 0] is given by
0 0
0
 f ( x ) dx  2xdx
A(R) = -  2 = -2 = -x2  2 = -[0 - 4] = 4 sq. units.

169
Now let f and g be continuous on [a, b], and assume that f(x)  g(x) for a  x  b. Then the area of
the region R below the graph of f, above the graph of g, and between the lines x = a and x = b is given
by
b

 f ( x)  g ( x)dx
A(R) = a

Example 4.97: Find the area of the region bounded by f(x) = 2 x , g(x) = -x and line x = 9.
Solution. Sketching the graphs of y = f(x), y = g(x) and x = 9, the region R can be identified as shown
in Figure 4.24.
y

R 9 x

y = -x

Figure 4.24
It follows that
3
9
0  f ( x) 
9

g ( x) dx   2 x  x dx  4 x 2
0
 x 2 9 76.5
|
A(R) = 3 + 2 0 .
Exercise 4.4
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals

a)  (x 3
+ 5)dx c)  (4 – x + 3x 2
– 2x5)dx e)  2x dx-8

3
x  4 x
b)  (cosx – 4ex)dx d)  3 sinxdx f)
 x 2 dx
2. Find the following integrals by substitution
dx n 4 x
a)
x  3 b) 
sin x cos xdx 2
c) 
e dx x3
d)
 x dx
3. Find the following integrals by the method of Integration by Parts.
nx
a) x cos xdx
b) x
 2
dx
c) 
( x  1)3x dx
d) x
2
sin xdx

4. Integrate the following by the method of Partial Fractions

dx dx x 2x
( x  2)(3x  4) ( x  1)( x  2)( x  3) x 2
 x  6 dx
x  2 dx2
a) b) c) d)

170
 5. Find the area of the region R between the graph of f and the x-axis on the given interval
a) f(x) = x2 + 1 , on [1, 3] c) f(x) = 2 + cosx, on 0, 3 2
1
b) f(x) = x , on [1, 4] d) f(x) = |x| - 1, on [-1, 2]
6. Find the area of the region between the graphs of the following functions.
. a) f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2 – x
b) f(x) = ex, x = -1, x = 3 and the x-axis
c) f(x) = x2 – 4 and g(x) = 4 – x2
Answer Key
Chapter One
Exercise 1.1
1. a. Proposition, False b. Proposition, True c. not d. not e. not
2. a. √ 2 is not a rational number. b. 0 is a negative integer. c. 111 is not a prime number.
3. a. 15 is an odd number or 21 is a prime number; True
b. If 15 is an odd number, then 21 is a prime number; False
c. 15 is an odd number and 21 is a prime number; False
d. If 21 is a prime number, then 15 is an odd number; True
e. 15 is not an odd number or 21 is a prime number; False
f. If 15 is not an odd number, then 21 is not a prime number; True
g. 15 is an odd number and 21 is not a prime number; True
h. If 21 is not a prime number, then 15 is not an odd number; False
4.
p q ¬ q p ⋀ ¬ q ¬ p ⋁ q ¬ q ⟺ p ¬ p ⟹ ¬q ¬ p⟹q p ⟹¬ q
T T F F T F T T F
T F T T F T T T T
F T F F T T F T T
F F T F T F F F T

Exercise 1.2
1. a.
p q p ⋀q p⟹q ( p ⋀ q )⟺ p
T T T T T
T F F F F
F T F T T
F F F T T
Therefore, p ⟹ q ≅ ( p ⋀ q )⟺ p.
b.
p q r ¬p ¬q q⋁r ¬p⋁r p ⟹(q ⋁ r ) ¬ q ⟹(¬ p ⋁ r)
T T T F F T T T T
T T F F F T F T T
171
T F T F T T T T T
T F F F T F F F F
F T T T F T T T T
F T F T F T T T T
F F T T T T T T T
F F F T T F T T T

Therefore, p ⟹(q ⋁ r )≅ ¬ q ⟹(¬ p ⋁ r) .

c.
p q r p ⋁q p⟹q q⟹r ( p ⋁ q )⟹ r ( p ⟹ q)⋀ (q ⟹ r)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T T F F F
T F T T F T T F
T F F T F T F F
F T T T T T T T
F T F T T F F F
F F T F T T T T
F F F F T T T T

Therefore, ( p ⋁ q )⟹ r ≇ ( p ⟹ q)⋀ (q ⟹ r) .
d.
p q r ¬r q⋁r p ⟹ q p ⟹(q ⋁ r ) ( ¬ r ) ⟹( p ⟹ q)
T T T F T T T T
T T F T T T T T
T F T F T F T T
T F F T F F F F
F T T F T T T T
F T F T T T T T
F F T F T T T T
F F F T F T T T
Therefore, p ⟹(q ⋁ r ) ≅ ( ¬ r ) ⟹( p ⟹ q).
e.
p q r ¬r q⋁r ¬ r ⋀ p p ⟹(q ⋁ r ) (¬ r ⋀ p )⟹ q
T T T F T F T T
T T F T T T T T
T F T F T F T T
T F F T F T F F
F T T F T F T T
F T F T T F T T
F F T F T F T T
F F F T F F T T

172
 Therefore, p ⟹(q ⋁ r ) ≅ ( ¬ r ⋀ p ) ⟹ q.
2. a.
p q p ⋁q p ⟹( p ⋁ q)
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F T

Therefore, p ⟹( p ⋁ q) is a tautology.
b.
p q p⟹q p ⋀ (p ⟹ q) ( p ⋀ ( p ⟹ q ) )⟹ q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Therefore, ( p ⋀ ( p ⟹ q ) )⟹ q is a tautology.
c.
p q r p ⟹ q q ⟹ r ( p ⟹ q ) ⋀ (q ⟹ r ) p⟹r (( p ⟹ q ) ⋀ (q ⟹ r ) ¿ ⟹(
p⟹r¿
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
Therefore, (( p ⟹ q ) ⋀ (q ⟹ r ) ¿ ⟹( p ⟹ r ¿ is a tautology.
3.
p q ¬q p ⋀¬q p ⋀q ( p ⋀ ¬ q)⋀ ( p ⋀ q )
T T F F T F
T F T T F F
F T F F F F
F F T F F F

Therefore, ( p ⋀ ¬ q)⋀ ( p ⋀ q ) is a contradiction.

4. a. Contrapositive: If the lake is not frozen, then it is not cold.
Converse: If the lake is frozen, then it is cold.
b. Contrapositive: If Solomon is not happy, then he is not healthy.
Converse: If Solomon is happy, then he is healthy.
c. Contrapositive: If Tigist does take a walk, then it does not rains.
173
 Converse: If Tigist does not take a walk, then it rains.
5. c ¿ ¬ p ⋀ ¬ q=¬ ( p ⋁ q )=T . This means, p ⋁ q is false.
6. a ¿ T b) T c) T d) T e) T f) T g) F h) T i) T j) F
7. ( ¬ p ⋀ q ) ⟺( p ⋁ q) is always true except if both p and q become true.
8. a ¿ p ⟺ ¬q and ¬ p ⟺ q become false.
b ¿ p ⟺ ¬q and ¬ p ⟺ q become true.

9. a)
p q p⟹q p ⟹ ¿)
T T T T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T

b)
p q p ⋁q q⋁p ( p ⋁ q ) ⟺(q ⋁ p)
T T T T T
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F F F T

c)
p q r q⋀r ¬(q ⋀ r ) p ⟹¬(q ⋀ r )
T T T T F F
T T F F T T
T F T F T T
T F F F T T
F T T T F T
F T F F T T
F F T F T T
F F F F T T

d)
p q ¬p p⟹q ¬p⋁q ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺(¬ p ⋁ q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T

e)
174
 p q r q ⋀ ¬q r ⋀ q p ⋀q (q ⋀ ¬q )⟹( ( p ⋀ q ) ⟹ ¿ (r ⋀ q ¿ ¿
r ⋀ q¿
T T T F T T T T
T T F F F T T T
T F T F F F T T
T F F F F F T T
F T T F T F T T
F T F F F F T T
F F T F F F T T
F F F F F F T T

f)
p q r ¬p ¬p⋀q q⋀r p ⟹( ¿(q ⋀ r ¿ ¿ ⋁ (¬ p ⋀ q)
q⋀r¿
T T T F F T T T
T T F F F F F F
T F T F F F F F
T F F F F F F F
F T T T T T T T
F T F T T F T T
F F T T F F T T
F F F T F F T T
10. a) Sufficient; T
b) not sufficient; if p is T, then becomes T. Otherwise if p is F, then it becomes F.
c) sufficient; T d) sufficient; T d) sufficient; T e) sufficient; T f) sufficient; T

Exercise 1.3
1. a) i) True for (x, y) = (3, 4) and (x, y) = (5, 5) ii) False for (x, y) = (1, -1).
b) i) True for (x, y) = (1, 2) and (x, y) = (6, 6) ii) False for (x, y) = (2, -2).
c) i) True for (x, y) ={ (1, -1), (-3, 4), (1, 0)} ii) False for (x, y) = (1, 0).
2. ( ∀ x ∈O ) P (x) : For every odd integers x, x +1 is even.
2

( ∃ y ∈O ) Q(x) : There exists an odd integer x such that x2 is even.

3. a) There exists a rational number r such that the number 1/r is rational.
b) For every rational number r, x2≠ 2.
4. a) False, for example, for n =2 b) True, for example, for n =3.
5. a) True b) False c) True d) True e) True f) False g) True h) True
6. a) ( ∀ x , y ∈ A ) P(x , y) b) True c) ¬ ( ∀ x , y∈ A ) P (x , y )≡ ( ∃x , y ∈ A ) ¬ P (x , y ) d) False
x
7. a) For every x ∈ A , there exists y ∈ B such that <1. b) For
y
x=2 , y=4 ; For x=3 , y=4 ; For x=5 , y =6the quantified statement becomes true.
8. a) There exists y ∈ B for every x ∈ A such that x− y <0 .
b) For y=10 ; the quantified statement becomes true.

175
Exercise 1.4
1. i)
p q ¬p ¬q ¬ p ⟹ ¬q
T T F F T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T

The premises ¬ p ⟹ ¬q and q are true simultaneously in row 1 only. Since in this case p is also true,
the argument is valid.

ii)
p r s ¬p ¬r ¬s ¬r ⋁ ¬s ¬s⟹ p (¬ s ⟹ p)⟹ r
T T T F F F F T T
T T F F F T T T T
T F T F T F T T F
T F F F T T T T F
F T T T F F F T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F T T T F T T F
F F F T T T T F T

The premises ¬ r ⋁ ¬ s and (¬ s ⟹ p)⟹ r are true simultaneously in 2nd , 6th , and 8th rows. In the 2nd
row however the conclusion takes value F. Hence, the argument form is invalid.
iii)
p q r ¬p ¬r p ⟹¬ p r ⟹q
T T T F F F T
T T F F T F T
T F T F F F F
T F F F T F T
F T T T F T T
F T F T T T T
F F T T F T F
F F F T T T T

The premises p ⟹¬ p ,¬ p and r ⟹ q are true simultaneously in rows 5th , 6th, and 8th rows. In the 5th
row however the conclusion takes value F. Hence, the argument form is invalid.
iv)
p q r ¬p ¬q ¬r p⟹q ¬r⟹¬q ¬r⟹¬ p
T T T F F F T T T

176
 T T F F F T T F F
T F T F T F F T T
T F F F T T F T F
F T T T F F T T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F T T T F T T T
F F F T T T T T T

The premises p ⟹ q and ¬ r ⟹ ¬ q are true simultaneously in rows 1st, 5th , 7th, and 8th. Since in this
case ¬ r ⟹ ¬ p is true, the argument form is valid.

v)
p q r s ¬p ¬q p⟹q ¬ p⟹r r ⟹s ¬q⟹s
T T T T F F T T T T
T T T F F F T T F T
T T F T F F T T T T
T T F F F F T T T T
T F T T F T F T T T
T F T F F T F T F F
T F F T F T F T T T
T F F F F T F T T F
F T T T T F T T T T
F T T F T F T T F T
F T F T T F T F T T
F T F F T F T F T T
F F T T T T T T T T
F F T F T T T T F F
F F F T T T T F T T
F F F F T T T F T F

The premises p ⟹ q , ¬ p ⟹ r and r ⟹ s are true simultaneously in rows 1st, 3rd , 4th , 9th, and 13th.
Since in this case ¬ q ⟹ s is true, the argument form is valid.
2. a) Let p ≡ he studies medicine; q≡ he will get a good job; r ≡ he will get a good wage.
Now the premises are: p ⟹ q, q ⟹ r , ¬ r and the argument form becomes:
p ⟹ q, q ⟹ r , ¬ r ⊢ ¬ p
To check the validity, we use a truth tble:
p q r ¬p ¬r p⟹q q⟹r
T T T F F T T
T T F F T T F
T F T F F F T
177
 T F F F T F T
F T T T F T T
F T F T T T F
F F T T F T T
F F F T T T T
The premises p ⟹ q, q ⟹ r ∧¿ ¬ r are true simultaneously in row 8th only. Since in this case the
conclusion ¬ p is true, the argument form is valid.
b) Let p ≡ the team is late; q≡ it can play the game; r ≡ the referee is here.
Now the premises are: p ⟹¬ q , r ⟹ q, p and the argument form becomes:
p ⟹¬ q , r ⟹ q, p ⊢ ¬ r
To check the validity, we use a truth tble:

p q r ¬q ¬r p ⟹¬ q r ⟹q
T T T F F F T
T T F F T F T
T F T T F T F
T F F T T T T
F T T F F T T
F T F F T T T
F F T T F T F
F F F T T T T
The premises p ⟹¬ q , r ⟹ q∧p are true simultaneously in row 4 only. Since in this case the
th

conclusion ¬ r is true, the argument form is valid.

c) Let p ≡ the professor offers chocolate for an answer; q≡ you answer the professor’s question.
Now the premises are: p ⟹ q, p and the argument form becomes:
p ⟹ q, p ⊢ q
To check the validity, we use a truth tble:

p q p⟹q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The premises p ⟹¬ q , r ⟹ q∧p are true simultaneously in row 1st only. Since in this case the
conclusion q is true, the argument form is valid.
3. a) ¬ p ⟹ ¬q , q ⊢ p
1) q hypothesis
2) ¬ p ⟹ ¬q hypothesis
3) q ⟹ p contrapositive of (2)
4) p Modes Ponens using (1) and (3)
b) ¬ r ⋀ ¬ s ,(¬ s ⟹ p)⟹ r ⊢¬ p
1) ¬ r ⋀ ¬ s hypothesis
2) ¬ r principle of Detachement using (1)
178
 3) (¬ s ⟹ p)⟹ r hypothesis
4) ¬ r ⟹ ¬(¬ s ⟹ p) contrapositive of (3)
5) ¬(¬ s ⟹ p) Modes Ponens using (2) and (4)
6) ¬(s ⋁ p) Demorgan’s Law using (5)
7) ¬ s ⋀ ¬ p Demorgan’s Law using (6)
8) ¬ p principle of Detachement using (7)
c) ¬ p ⋁ q , r ⟹ p , r ⊢q
1) r hypothesis
2) r ⟹ p hypothesis
3) p Modes Ponens using (1) and (2)
4) ¬ p ⋁ q hypothesis
5) q Modes Tollendo Ponens using (3) and (4)
d) p ⟹(q ⋁ r ), ¬r , p ⊢q
1) p hypothesis
2) p ⟹(q ⋁ r ) hypothesis
3) q ⋁ r Modes Ponens using (1) and (2)
4) ¬ r hypothesis
5) q Modes Tollendo Ponens using (3) and (4)
e) p ⟹¬ q , p , r ⟹ q ⊢ ¬r
1) p hypothesis
2) p ⟹¬ q hypothesis
3) ¬ q Modes Ponens using (1) and (2)
4) r ⟹ q hypothesis
5) ¬ q ⟹¬ r Contrapositive of (4)
6) ¬ r Modes Ponens using (3) and (5)
f) p ⟹ q , ¬ p ⟹ r ,r ⟹ s ⊢ ¬q ⟹ s
1) ¬ p ⟹ r hypothesis
2) ¬ r ⟹ p Contrapositive of (1)
3) p ⟹ q hypothesis
4) ¬ r ⟹ q Principle of Syllogism using (2) and (3)
5) r ⟹ s hypothesis
6) ¬ q ⟹ r Contrapositive of (4)
7) ¬ q ⟹ s Principle of Syllogism using (5) and (6)
g) ¬ p ¬ q ,(q ⋁ r )⟹ p ⊢¬ r
1) ¬ p ¬ q hypothesis
2) ¬ p Principle of Detachement using (1)
3) (q ⋁ r )⟹ p hypothesis
4) ¬ p ⟹ ¬(q ⋁ r) Contrapositive of (3)
5) ¬(q ⋁ r ) Modes Ponens using (2) and (4)
6) ¬ q ¬r Demorgan’s Law using (5)
7) ¬ r Principle of Detachement using (6)
h) ¬ q ⟹¬ p ,r ⟹ p ,¬ q ⊢¬ r
1) ¬ q hypothesis
179
 2) ¬ q ⟹¬ p hypothesis
3) ¬ p Modes Ponens using (1) and (2)
4) r ⟹ p hypothesis
5) ¬ p ⟹ ¬r Contrapositive of (4)
6) ¬ r Modes Ponens using (3) and (5)
i) p ⟹ q , ¬r ⟹ ¬q ⊢ ¬r ⟹ ¬ p
1) ¬ r ⟹ ¬ q hypothesis
2) p ⟹ q hypothesis
3) ¬ q ⟹¬ p Contrapositive of (2)
4) ¬ r ⟹ ¬ p Principle of Syllogism using (1) and (3)
4. a) Let p the rain comes; q the crops are ruined; r ≡ the people will strave.
≡ ≡
The argument form is : ¬ p ⟹(q ⋀ r ),¬ q ⋁ ¬ r ⊢ p
1) ¬ p ⟹(q ⋀ r ) hypothesis
2) ¬(q ⋀ r )⟹ p contrapositive of (1)
3) ¬ q ⋁ ¬ r hypothesis
4) ¬ ( q ⋀ r ) Demorgan’s Law using (3)
5) p Modes Ponens using (2) and (4)
b) Let p ≡ the team is late; q≡ it can play the game; r ≡ the referee is here.
Now the premises are: p ⟹¬ q , r ⟹ q, p and the argument form becomes:
p ⟹¬ q , r ⟹ q, p ⊢ ¬ r
1) p hypothesis
2) p ⟹¬ q hypothesis
3) ¬ q Modes Ponens using (1) and (2)
4) r ⟹ q hypothesis
5) ¬ q ⟹¬ r contrapositive of (4)
6) ¬ r Modes Ponens using (3) and (5)
Exercise 1.5
1. d and e are sets.
2. a) complete listing and set-builder method.
A={a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, I, j} and A={ x∨x is the first ten letters in English alphabet }
b) partial listing and set-builder method.
A={ x∨x is a student of Addis Ababa in the 2018/19 academic year }
c) partial listing and set-builder method.
A={5, 10, 15, . . .} and A={ x∨x is positive multiple of 5 }
d) Partial listing and set-builder method.
A={ x∨x is a country in the world }
e) complete listing and set-builder method.
A={ } and A={ x∨x is a horse with six legs }
3. a) A={-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} b) D={0, 1} c) B={-2, -1, 0, 1, 2} d) E = { } e) C = {1}
4. a) False b) False c) False d) True e) False f) True g) False h) True i) False
5. a)True b) True c) True d) False e) False f) False g) False h) False
6. a) P({ab})={∅ ,{ab}} b) P({1,1.5})={∅ ,{1},{1.5},{1,1.5}} c) P({a,b}) = {∅ ,{a},{b},{a,b}}
d) P({a, 0.5, x}) = {∅ , {a}, {0.5}, {x}, {a, 0.5}, {a, x}, {0.5, x}, {a, 0.5, x }}
180
 7. Subsets : 2, 4, 8, 16, 28, 210, and 220 subsets respectively.
Proper subsets : 1, 3, 7, 15, 28 – 1 , 210 – 1, and 220 – 1 proper subsets respectively.
8. 2n subsets and 2n – 1 proper subsets.
9. a) yes, empty set c) no, there is not e) yes, set with 2 elements g) yes, set with 4 elements
b) no, there is not d) no, there is not f) no, there is not h) yes, set with 2 elements
10. a) 6 elements b) 5 elements c) empty set d) 8 elements
11. a) True b) True c) True d) False
12. Let x ∈ A , then
a) x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈ B , since A ⊆ B
⟹ x ∈ C , since B⊆C
This means, x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈C . Therefore, for any x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈C . So, A ⊆ C .
b) Let x ∈ A , then
x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈ B , since A ⊂ B
⟹ x ∈ C , since B⊂C
This means, x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈C . Therefore, A ⊂ C .
Exercise 1.6
1. B ={2, 3, 6}
2. a) A ∪ B={1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 ,8 , 9 , 10 }
b ¿ (A ∪B)∪C={−3 ,−2 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ,7 ,8 ,9 , 10 },
A ∪ ( B∪ C )= {−3 ,−2 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 9 , 10 }. Therefore, ( A ∪ B)∪ C=¿ A ∪ ( B∪ C )
3. a) A' ={1 ,3 , 5 , 7 , 9} b) A ∩ A' =∅ c) A ∪ A' = {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 ,6 , 7 , 8 , 9 }=U
d) ( A¿¿ ')'=A={2 , 4 , 6 , 8 }¿ e) ∅ −U =∅ f) ∅ ' =U= {1 , 2 ,3 ,… , 9 } g) U '=∅
4. a)
U
A B A B
=

U
(AUB)' A' ∩ B'

b)
A∩B A∩B U
=

U
(A∩B)' A' U B'

c)
A-B B A'
A–B≠∅ d) AU A' =U
A

U U
A U A'
5. A – B = {7, 8}; (A – B) – C = { }; B – C = {5, 9}; A – (B – C) ={7, 8};
A – (B – C) ≠ (A – B) – C
181
 6. a) ∅ b) {∅ } c) {{∅ }} d) {{{∅ }}}
7. A∩B = { }; (AUB)∩C ={8, 11} ; (A – B)UC={2, 3, 8, 11, 13}; (A – B) – C ={2, 3}
A – (B – C) = {2, 3, 11}; (A – C) – (B – A) = {2, 3}; A' ∩ B' ∩C ' ={ } = ∅ .
8. a) A = {a, b, c, d, e, y} b) B = {a, b, c, d, e, x, y, z} c) A – B = {a, c, d, x}
9. a) (AUB)UC = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}; AU(BUC) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10}
Therefore, (AUB)UC = AU(BUC)
b) A∩¿ BUCUD) = {3, 5, 6, 8}; (A∩ B ¿ U ¿C)U(A∩D) = {3, 5, 6, 8}
Therefore, A∩¿ BUCUD) = (A∩ B ¿ U ¿C)U(A∩D)
c) A∩ B ∩C ∩ D=¿{5, 8}
( A ∩ B∩ C ∩ D ¿ '=¿ {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10}; A ' UB ' U C ' UD ' = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10}
Therefore, ( A ∩ B ∩C ∩ D)'= A ' UB ' U C ' UD '
d) C – D = {1, 4, 6}; C ∩ D ' = {1, 4, 6}. Therefore, C – D = C ∩ D ' .
e) A ∩(B ∩C)' = {3, 6, 10}; (A – B)U(A – C) = {3, 6, 10}.
Therefore, A ∩(B ∩C)' = (A – B)U(A – C)
10. a ¿ A ∆ B=( A−B ) U ( B−A )= {1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 9 ,10 } ; b ¿C ∆ D= (C−D ) U (D−C)= {1.4,6,7, 9}
c) ( A ∆ C ) ∆ D={1 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,10 } d) ( AUC )−( A ∆ B)={5 , 7 , 8}
11. a ¿ A ∆ B=( A−B ) U (B− A)
= (B – A)U(A – B), since union U is communtative.
= A∆ B
b) (AUB) –(A∩ B ¿ = (AUB) ∩ (A∩ B ¿ '
= (AUB) ∩ (A' U B' )
= ((AUB) ∩ A' ) U ((AUB) ∩ B' )
= ((A∩ A ' ¿U(B ∩ A' ))U((A∩ B' ¿U(B ∩ B' ))
= (∅ U (B ∩ A' ))U((A∩ B' ¿U ∅ ¿
= (B ∩ A' )U(A∩ B' ¿
= (B – A) U (A – B)
= (A – B) U (B – A) = A ∆ B
c) A ∆ ∅ =¿ (A – ∅ ¿ U (∅ −A ) = A U ∅ = A
d) A ∆ A=( A−A ) U ( A− A ) =∅ U ∅ =∅
12. a) b)
A B B
U
C
U
A
C D

Chapter Two
Exercise 2.1
1. a) 10 b) -1/12 c) 22 d) 5/3
2. a) True b) False c) True d) True
3. a) 0 b) undefined c) 0 d) undefined e) 1 f) 0
a a
4. Suppose a ≠0 and let =b , then a=0. b=0. Which is a contradiction. So is undefined.
0 0
182
 5. a) a< b ⟺ a . a<b . a , multiply by a>0 both sides
2
⟺a <b.a (1)
And a< b ⟺ b . a<b . b , multiply by b>0 both sides
2
⟺ b . a< b (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
2 2 2 2 2 2
a < a . b<b ⟺ a <¿ b . Therefore, a< b ⟺ a <¿ b .
a b
b) a< b ⟺ < , divide both sides by ab> 0
ab ab
1 1
⟺ <
b a
1 1 1 1
⟺ > . Therefore, a< b ⟺ > .
a b a b
6. a) True b) False c) False d) False
Exercise 2.2
16 87 −9 42
1. a) x= b) x=2 c) x= d) x= e) x=
5 10 5 13
5 11
2. a) x ≤− b) x > c) x ≥ 1
12 15
3. x=15 boxes of20 kg ; y =35boxes of25 kg
5
4. x={2, }
2
3 4−√ 43 4+ √ 43
5. a ¿ x={− ,2 } b) x={− √ 10 , √ 10 } c) x={−1−√ 5 ,−1+ √ 5} d) x={ , }
2 2 2

6. a ¿ x ∈ (−∞ ,−6 ) ∪ (4 , ∞) b) x ∈ −∞, ( 1−√ 17

4
∪
4 ][
1+ √ 17
,∞)

c) x ∈ [ −3 , 8 ]d) x ∈ [ −4 , 4 ] e) x ∈ ( 3−2√ 4 , 3+2√4 )

7. x−2 may be negative number. So, multiplying an inequality by a negative number changes the
sign of the inequality.
Exercise 2.3

{ }
( 1 , 1 ) , ( 1 , 2 ) , ( 1 , 3 ) , ( 1 , 4 ) , ( 1 , 5 ) , (1 , 6 ) , ( 2 ,1 ) , ( 2 ,2 ) , ( 2 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 4 ) , ( 2 , 5 ) , (2 , 6 ) ,
1. a) R= ( 3 , 1 ) , (3 , 2 ) , ( 3 ,3 ) , ( 3 , 4 ) , ( 3 , 5 ) , ( 3 ,6 ) , ( 4 , 1 ) , ( 4 , 2 ) , ( 4 , 3 ) , ( 4 , 4 ) , ( 4 , 5 ) , ( 5 ,1 ) ,
( 5 , 2 ) , ( 5 , 3 ) , (5 , 4 ) , ( 6 ,1 ) , ( 6 , 2 ) ,(6 , 3)
b) Yes
2. i) R={( 1 ,1 ) , ( 1 ,5 ) , ( 2 , 2 ) , ( 2 , 6 ) , ( 3 ,3 ) , ( 3 , 7 ) , ( 4 , 4 ) , ( 5 ,1 ) , ( 5 ,5 ) , ( 6 , 2 ) , ( 6 ,6 ) , ( 7 , 3 ) ,(7 ,7)}
ii) Domain (R) = {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 }; Range (R) = {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 }
iii) R−1 ={( 1 ,1 ) , ( 1 ,5 ) , ( 2 , 2 ) , ( 2 , 6 ) , ( 3 ,3 ) , ( 3 , 7 ) , ( 4 , 4 ) , ( 5 ,1 ) , ( 5 ,5 ) , ( 6 , 2 ) , ( 6 ,6 ) , ( 7 ,3 ) ,(7 ,7)}
iv) Domain ( R−1 ) = {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 }; Range ( R−1 ) = {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 }
−1
3. R={( 1 ,2 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 3 , 4 ) , ( 4 , 5 ) , ( 5 ,6 ) } ; R ={( 2 , 1 ) , ( 3 , 2 ) , ( 4 , 3 ) , (5 , 4 ) , ( 6 , 5 ) }
Domain (R) = {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5} ; Co-domain (R) = { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 } ; Range (R) =
{2 , 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 }
4. Domain = x ∈ R; Range = y ∈ R .

183
 5. a and d are functions.
6. a) Domain = {−4 , 2 , 4 }; Range (R) = {−5 ,−3 ,0 , 6 }. It is not a function.
3
b) Domain = {−1 , 6 , 8 }; Range (R) = {−2 ,− ,5 }. It is a function.
2
c) Domain = {−√ 3 ,−1 , 0 , 1, √ 3 }; Range (R) = {0 ,1 , 3 }. It is a function.
1 1 1 1
d) Domain = {−1 ,− , }; Range (R) = { , ,1 }. It is a function.
2 3 8 6
e) Domain = {0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 }; Range (R) = {5 }. It is a function.
f) Domain = {5 }; Range (R) = {0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 }. It is not a function.
7. a) Domain (f) = R ; Range (f) = R ; b) Domain (f) = R ¿ 2, 3\}; Range (f) = R ¿ 0\}.
c) Domain(f)=(−∞ , 2 ] U ¿; Range (f)=¿; d) Domain(f)=[−1 ,5]; Range (f) = [1, 10].
8. a) f(-3) = -14 b) f(1) = 0 c) f(6) = 35
Exercise 2.4
28 4 3 2 3
1. a) b) 4 c) d) e) f)
5 25 4 5 5

( )
3
3 2 2
2. a) x + +2 ; Domain=x ∈ R ¿ 1\}; b) +2 ; Domain=x ∈ R ¿ 1\}
x−1 x−1
2 2
; Domain=x ∈ R ¿ 1, √−2};
3
c) 3 d) 3 ; Domain=x ∈ R ¿ -1\}
( x−1 ) (x + 2) x +1
3. a) ( fog )( x )=x ; Domain = x ≥ 0 ; b) ( gof ) ( x ) =|x| ; Domain= x ∈ R ; c) No
2
4. g ( x )= x+ 2
5
3
5. g ( x )= x−1
2
x−1 2 x −1
6. f ( x )= ; f ( 2 x )= . Now,
x +1 2 x+1

3 f ( x )+1
=
3( ) x−1
x +1
+1 3 x−3+ x +1 4 x −2
=
x+ 1
=
x +1
=
4 x −2 2 x−1
=
f ( x)+3
( )x−1
x +1
+3
x−1+3 x +3 4 x+2 4 x+2 2 x +1
x+ 1 x +1
3 f ( x )+ 1 2 x−1
Therefore, f ( 2 x )= = .
f (x)+3 2 x +1
7. a) f ( x )=x 3 ; g ( x )=x+ 2 b) f ( x )= √ x ; g ( x )=5 x−3;
1 1
c) f ( x )= + 6; g ( x )=x d) f ( x )= ; g ( x )=x+ 6;
x x
−7
8. a) 20 x+ 25 ; b) 20 x−8; c) f ( g ( h ( 3 ) ) ) = ; d) 3 e) 4 x+ 4 a−3; f) 4 x+ a−3
3
Exercise 2.5
1. f ={ (−3 ,9 ) , (−2 , 4 ) , (−1 , 1 ) , ( 0 ,0 ) , ( 1 ,1 ) , ( 2 , 4 ) , ( 3 , 9 ) }; f is not 1-1 and also f is not onto.
2. f ={ ( 1 , 1 ) , ( 2 , 2 ) , ( 3 , 3 ) } ; f ={ (1 , 2 ) , (2 , 1 ) , (3 ,3 ) }; f ={ (1 , 3 ) , ( 2 ,1 ) , ( 3 ,2 ) } and so on.
¿
3. a ¿ f ={ ( ( 1 ,2 ) , ( 3 ,2 ) , ( 0 , 3 ) } ; f ={ ( 2 ,1 ) , ( 2 ,3 ) , ( 3 , 0 ) }, which is not a function.
b) If f is a 1-1 function, then the inverse of f is also 1-1 with domain equal to Range(f) into A.
c) If f is 1-1and onto, then f ¿ is 1-1 function from B into A. d) f −1=f ¿.
184
 4. f ( x )=5+ ( 8−5 ) x is a monotonic and increasing function. Minimum value f(0)=5 and
maximum value f(1)=8, which means 5 ≤ f (x )≤ 8. Therefore, f is a 1-1 function from A onto B
5. a) not one-one b) one-one c) not one-one d) one-one e) one-one
6. a) onto b) not onto c) not onto d) not onto
x+6 9 3 4 x−3
7. a) b) 2 x+ c) d) e) f) x 3−1 g) ± √ −1−x−2 , x ≤−1 h)
7 2 1−x 3 x +1 2 x +5
−x
x−2
Exercise 2.6
1. a) q ( x )=x −9 ; R=44 b) q ( x )=2 x 2 + x+ 5; R=24
c) q ( x )=−x3 −x2 −x−1; R=0 d) q ( x )=x 4−x 3 + x 2−3 x+3 ; R=−6
2. p ( x )=( x−4 ) ( x−2 ) (2 x+1)
3. The remaining zeros of r ( x ) are 3∧−3.
4. So, 2∧−5 are theother zeros of p ( x ) .
5. a) p ( x )=k ( x−1 )3 ( x−2 )2 (x−3) and deg ⁡( p)=6 .
1 3 2
b) p ( x )= ( x−1 ) ( x−2 ) (x−3)
2
−3
6. The remaining root is .
2
1 1 1
7. a) x=1 , x=5 , x =−2; b) x= , x=5 , x=−3 ; c) x= , x= , x=−1 ;
2 3 2
8. a) Domain(f) = R ¿ -5,5\}, no real zeros. b) Domain(f) = R ¿ 2,-6\}, the real zero is 3.
c) Domain(f) = R ¿ 0,1,2\}, the real zero is 3. d) Domain(f) = R , the real zeros are -4 & 4.
1−x
9. a) The graph of f (x)=
x−3
The vertical Asymptote : x=3.
The horizontal Asymptote : y=−1.
x-intercepts : (1 , 0)
1
y-intercept : (0 ,− )
3

185
 2
x +1
b) The graph of f (x)= . The vertical Asymptote : x =0. The oblique Asymptote : y=x . No
x
x and y intercepts.

1
c) The graph of f ( x )= +2 . The vertical Asymptote : x=0 . The horizontal Asymptote: y=2.
x
186
 −1
x-intercepts : ( ,0¿.
2

2
x
d) The graph of f ( x )= 2 . The vertical Asymptote : x=−2∧x=2. The horizontal Asymptote:
x −4
y=1. x and y-intercept : (0 , 0 ¿ .

187
10. The behavior of f awhen x is near to 3 is: x → 3 , the function f ( x ) →19 .
11. a ¿ y =x+1 is the oblique asymptote.
b) The graph is :

188
Exercise 2.7
1. a) R b) R c) x ≥ 3 d) R ¿ 1/3\}
2. a) Domain = R ; Range = y >0 ; y-intercept : (0 , 1); horizontal Asymptote : y=0.

b) Domain = R ; Range = y <9 ; y-intercept : (0 , 8); horizontal Asymptote : y=9.

189
c) Domain = R ; Range = y <1; x and y-intercept : (0 , 0); horizontal Asymptote : y=1 .

190
 1
d) Domain = R ; Range = y >0 ; y-intercept : (0 , )
2 ; horizontal Asymptote : y=0.
e

5 1 1
3. a) x=4 b) x= c) x= d) a=
2 6 2
x x +3 3 x x
4. f ( x )=2 ∧f ( x +3 )=2 =2 .2 =8. 2 =8 f ( x )
x x−2 −2 x 1 x 1
5. g ( x )=5 ∧g ( x −2 )=5 =5 .5 = . 5 = g(x) .
25 25
x x+2 2 x x
6. f ( x )=3 ∧f ( x+2 )=3 =3 .3 =9.3 . So,
f ( x+ 2 )−f (x) 9. 3 x−3x 8.3 x x
= = =4. 3
2 2 2
−1
7. a) 5 b) -2 c) undefined d) e) 1 f) √ 5
2
8. f ( 6 )=5 , Domain ( f )=(−∞ ,−2 ) U (2 , ∞).
9. g ( 4 )=1 , Domain ( f )=(−∞ , 1 ) U (3 , ∞)
−1
x x x x
10. log 1 =log 6 =log 6 =−log 6
−1

11. a) Domain = x >3; Range = R ; x-intercept : (4 , 0); vertical Asymptote : x=3 .

b) Domain = x >0; Range = R ; x-intercept : (8 , 0); vertical Asymptote : x=0 .

191
 c) Domain = x <0; Range = R ; x-intercept : (−1 , 0); vertical Asymptote : x=0 .

d) Domain = x >0; Range = R ; x-intercept : (1 , 0); vertical Asymptote : x=0 .

192
 −1 1
12. f ( x )= (lnx+1)
3
13. g ( x )=ln 2 ( x )
14. a) 600 b) −3000 c) −2400
7 −2 11
15. a) π b) π c) π
4 9 6
16. a)

b)

193
 c)

d)

e)

194
 f)

( )
2 2
( )( ) ( ) sinx+ cosx sin x−cos x
17. a) sinx−cos x cscx+secx = sinx−cos x =
sinxcosx sinxcosx
sinx cosx
¿ − =tanx−cotx
cosx sinx
b) sec 2 x−csc 2 x=( sin2 x +cos 2 x ) ( sec 2 x−csc 2 x ), since sin2 x+ cos2 x=1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
¿ sin xsec x−sin x csc x+ cos x sec x−cos x csc x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
sin x sin x cos x cos x sin x cos x sin x cos x 2 2
¿ 2
− 2 + 2
− 2 = 2
−1+1− 2 ¿ 2
− 2 =tan x−cot x
cos x sin x cos x sin x cos x sin x cos x sin x
−2
18. cosx =
√5
Chapter Three
Exercise 3.1

[ ]
2 3 4
1. A= 3 4 5
4 5 6
2. A=[ ]

3. 2 3 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
A1 = 1 2 , A 2 = 1 3 , A 3 = 2
2 4 3
3 , A =2
4 4
3
3 , A=2
4 5
3
4
5

4 5 [ ] [ ] [ 5 ] [4 5 ]
A6 = 3 4 , A 7 = 1 2 , A 8= 1
3 4
3 , A =2 3
3 9

Exercise 3.2

195
 1. i)
[ 01 00 ] , B=[00 11 ]
A=
ii)
A=
[ 01 00 ] , B=[00 01 ] iii)
[−10 01 ]
A=

2.
B=
[−αα −ββ ] , α , β ∈ ℜ
3. No, there is no c to satisfy AB=BA

4. i)
A( BC )=
[1828 −1
−2 ] , ( AB)C=
[ 28 −2 ]
18 −1
. Therefore, A( BC )= ( AB)C .

ii)
α ( AB )=
[−2−αα 58 αα ] , (αA )B=[−2−αα 58 αα ] , A( αB )=[−2−αα 58 αα ] .
Therefore, α ( AB )=( αA ) B= A( αB ) .

5.
V =JP=
[ 5000
3600 ]
Exercise 3.3

1. a)
[ ] [ ]
At = 1 3 , ( A t )t = 1 −1 . Therefore , ( A t )t = A
−1 2 3 2

b)
[
( A+B)t = 4 3 At +Bt = 4 3
−3 3 , ] [ ]
−3 3 . Therefeore, ( A+B)t = At + Bt .

c)
[ ] [ ]
(4 A )t = 4 12 , 4 A t = 4 12
−4 8 −4 8 . Therefore, (4 A )t = 4 A t .

( AB) =[ 3 [−3 −4 ]
−3 −4 ]
t 9 , B A= 3 9 t t
t
. Therefore, ( AB) = B A .
t t
d)
Exercise 3.4

1.
[
−2 0
2 1 ]
[ ]
1 0 0
0 1 0
2. 0 0 1
Exercise 3.5
1. B and C are in reduced row Echelon form.

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 3 3 0 0 1 0 0
2 1 −2 0 1 −2 0 1 0
A= → →
3 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 1
2.
3 2 1 0 0 0 , row echelon form 0 0 0 , reduced row echelon

196
 ][ ]
1 2 1 3

[ [ ]
1 2 1 3 1 0 0 0
0 8 4 9
B= −3 2 1 0 → →0
7 1 1/2 0
3 2 1 1 0 0 0 −
2 , row echelon form 0 0 0 1 , reduced row
echelon form.

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 0 3 1 2 0 3 1 0 0 3
C= 2 1 2 2 → 0 −3 2 −4 →0 1 0 0
1 1 0 3 0 0 −2/3 4 /3 , row echelon form 0 0 1 −2 , reduced
row echelon form.
Exercise 3.6
1. Rank ( A )=2 , Rank ( B )=2 , Rank ( C )=3 , Rank ( P ) =3 , Rank ( Q )=3 , Rank ( R )=3
Exercise 3.7
1. Det ( A )=−3 , Det ( B )=9
2. Det ( A )=10 , Det ( B )=−5 , Det ( C ) =−6
3. Cof ( A )=¿
4. Rank ( A )=3 , Rank ( B )=3 , Rank (C )=3
Exercise 3.8
1. Adj ( A ) =¿

[ ]
1 −2 2
A =
1 /5 1/5
−1
[
2 /5 −1/10
−1
]
, B = 0 3 −2
0 −1 1
2.

[ ] [ ]
1 1 0 −1
4 −4 1
A−1 = [
3 /10 −1/10
−1 /5 2/5 ]
, B= 0 −1 1 , C=
−1 2 −1
0 1/2 0 0
0 −4 /5 1/5 2/5
3.
0 1/10 −2/5 1/5
Exercise 3.9
x =2, x 2=−1 , x 3 =0 d) infinitely many solution.
1. a) x 1=4 , x 2=8 b) no solution c) 1
Exercise 3.10
1. a) x 1=2, x 2=−1 b)
x 1=4 /5 , x 2=−3/2 , x 3 =−8 /5 c)
x 1=7 , x 2 =4 , x 3 =8
Exercise 3.11
1. a) x 1=28/11, x 2 =−32/11 b)
x 1=1 , x 2=1 , x 3 =2 c)
x 1=4 , x 2=4 , x 3 =4

Review Exercise

[ ]
a11 + a11 a12+ a21 … a1n +a n1
A+ A t = a21+ a12 a22+ a22 … a2n +a n2
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
a n1 + a1 n a n2 + a2 n … ann +a nn
1. , which is symmetric.
197
 [ ] [ ]
3 45 9 3 45 9
A( BC )= 11 −11 17 , ( AB )C= 11 −11 17
2. i)
7 17 13 7 17 13 . Therefore, A( BC )= ( AB)C .

[ ] [ ] [ ]
12 α −3 α 12α −3 α 12 α −3 α
α ( AB )= −4 α 5 α , (αA )B= −4 α 5 α , A(αB )= −4 α 5 α
ii)
4α α 4α α 4α α .
Therefore, α ( AB )=( αA ) B= A( αB ) .
3. BA= [ 1,037.5 1, 400 1,012.5 ] . In the first outlet 1,037.5 profit, in the second outlet 1,400
profit and the third outlet 1,012.5 profit.

4.
[
A= 84 60 30
42 120 84 ]
5. a) x=4 b) x=3 c) There is no such value of x.

6. i)
A−1 =
[ cosθ sin θ
−sin θ cosθ
=A
]
ii)
[ ] [
A2 = cos2θ sin2 θ , A 3= cos3 θ sin 3 θ , . . . , A n = cosnθ sin nθ
−sin 2θ cos2θ −sin 3 θ cos3 θ −sin nθ cosnθ ] [ ]
7.
AB=
[ =
][
cos θ sin θ cos φ sin φ cosθ cosφ−sin θ sin φ
][cosθ sin φ+sin θ cos φ
−sin θ cosθ −sin φ cosφ −sinθ cos φ−cosφ sin φ −sin θ sin φ+cos θ cosφ ]
[ ]
= cos(θ+φ ) sin (θ+φ ) , by trigonometric identity
−sin(θ+φ ) cos (θ+φ)

[ ]
0 −1 0
−1
A = −1 1 0 , for α≠0
8.
2 /α −1 /α −1/α
1 m m
A−1 = adj( A ), det( A m )=( det ( A ) ) and adj( A m )=( adj( A ) ) , by definition
9. det ( A ) .Then,

( )
m
adj( A )
( A m )−1= 1 m adj( A m )= 1
( adj( A ) )
m
= = ( A −1 m
)
det( A ) ( det ( A ))
m det( A )
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
10. ( A+B) A ( A−B )=( AA +BA )( A−B )= AA A+BA A− AA B−BA B
= AA−1 A + AA−1 B−BA −1 A−BA−1 B , sin ce A−1 A= AA−1 =I n and BI n =I n B
= AA−1 A−BA−1 A +AA−1 B−BA−1 B , sin ce addituion of matrices is communtative.
=( A−B ) A−1 A +( A−B ) A−1 B
=( A−B )( A−1 A+ A−1 B )
=( A−B ) A−1 ( A+B)
x =1 , x 2=−1 , x 3 =2 c) x 1=5 /71, x 2=50 /71 , x 3 =198/71 , x 4 =−144 /71
11. a) no solution b) 1
12. a) x 1=1 , x 2 =2
x =1 , x 2=−1 , x 3 =4
b) 1 c) 1
x =5 , x 2=8 , x 3 =−2
13. a)
x 1=2, x 2=−1 , x3 =−2 b)
x 1=4 , x 2=1 , x 3 =−7 c) no solution
198
 Chapter Four
Exercise 4.1
1. a) −1 b) 3/ 7 c) 2/ 5 d) −2 e) 4 f) 1
2. a) √ 3/2 b) does not exist c) 2 d) 1
1 /4
d) ( 16 ) =2 3
3. a) 14 b) −6 c) 0 e) 1/4 f) 1 g) √ 2 h) 6 /5 i) 3 / 4
4. a)   b)  c) 0 d) does not exist e)  f) 2 / 5

x (2n  1) , n
5. a) Vertical Asy: 2 b) Vertical Asy: x  4 ; Oblique Asy: y x  4
c) Vertical Asymptote: x  1 ; Oblique Asymptote: y 3x  6
4
6. a) e b) e c) e
7. a) continuous b) not continuous c) continuous d) not continuous
1 
1/ 2 2
c   , 2
8. a) log  0  log . So, there is a root 2 
  
  0 1 c   0, 
b)  1  0  2 . So, there is a root c  0, 2 c) 2 . So, there is a root  2

9. a)  3  f ( x) 2 and g ( x)  1 in  1, 0 . So, f and g have the common value in the given

interval.
b)  1 / e  f ( x) e and sin(1 / e)  g ( x) sin( e) . So, f and g have the common values in the
given interval.
c) 0  f ( x) 2 sin( 2) and  1  g ( x) 1 . So, f and g have the common values in the given
interval.
Exercise 4.2
1. a) 2 b) -2 c) 0 d) 1
1 27
y  x
2. a) tangent line : y 5 x  5 ; normal line : 5 5
1
y  x 1
b) tangent line : 4 ; normal line : y  4 x  18
x 
y 
c) tangent line : y   2 x   ; normal line : 2 4
1 15
y  x  1 y 4 x 
d) tangent line : 4 ; normal line : 2
sec x
g ( x)   x sec x tan x
3. a) f ( x) 2 x cos x  ( x  5) sin x
2
b) 2 x
(6 x 2  5)( x 2  3)  2 x(2 x 3  5 x) 2 tan x  2 x sec 2 x

h ( x)  g ( x) 
c) x 2
 32
d) tan 2 x
1  1
y x y
4. a) tangent line : 2 ; normal line : 4 b) tangent line : 2 ; normal line : x 1

199
 1  2x2 sin x 2  4 x 2 cos x 2
g ( x)  f ( x) 
5. a) f ( x) 3 tan x sec x
2 2
b) 1  x2 c) 2 x

g ( x) 
 4(2 x  1)

x2  x 
5 f ( x) 
2

1 2
x  x 2 1 
 1/ 2 
 2x 

x 


x 2 1 
d) e) 
5 cos 2 x  1 1
g ( x) cos x  x sin x  (5 x  4)  2 / 3 f ( x)  f ( x) 
f) 3 g) 2 x 1 i) x ln x
1  
1
1
 x  1 / x csc 2 x   ( x  1 / x) 2   1  2  cot x
g ( x)  2  x  2
f ( x)  (ln x  1)
h) x 1 / x l) x
1 1 1
f ( x) 3(ln x  e x ) 2 (  e x . )
k) x 2 x
2 2 2 2 2

6. a) f ( x) 2 xe ,
x
f ( x) 2e x  4 x 2e x , f ( x) 12 xe x  8 x 3e x

b) g ( x) sec x tan x, g ( x) sec x tan x  sec x, g ( x) sec x tan x(tan x  2 sec x  3 sec x)
2 3 2 2 2

c) f ( x) 2 cos 2 x  3 sin 3 x, f ( x)  4 sin 2 x  9 cos 3x, f ( x)  8 cos 2 x  27 sin 3x

d) g ( x) cot x, g ( x)  csc 2 x, g ( x) 2 csc 2 x cot x
Exercise 4.3
1. a) f is increasing on (-∞, -2] and decreasing on [-2, ∞). f(-2)=9 is the relative maximum value
and f has no relative minimum value.
b) g is increasing on (-∞, -1]U[1/3, ∞) and decreasing on [-1, 1/3]. g has a relative maximum
at x=-1 and g(-1)=-3 and relative minimum at x=1/3 and g(1/3)=-113/27.
c) f is increasing on [-1, 1] and decreasing on (-∞, -1]U[1, ∞). f has a relative maximum at
x=1 and f(1)=1/2 and relative minimum at x=-1 and f(-1)=-1/2.
d) g is increasing on [1, ∞) and decreasing on (-∞, -1]U[-1, 0)U (0, 1]. g has no relative
maximum and has relative minimum at x=-1and x=1 and g(-1)=g(1)=2.
2. a) f has a relative minimum at x=1/5 and f(1/5)=4/5.
b) g has a relative minimum at x=2 and g(2)=3.
c) f has a relative minimum at x=-1/2 and f(-1/2)=-3/16.
d) g has a relative maximum at x=0 and g(0)=1.
e) f has no relative extrema. f) g has a relative minimum at x=0 and g(0)=64.
3. a) f is strictly increasing in (-1, 0)U(1, ∞) and strictly decreasing in (-∞, -1)U(0, 1). f has a
relative maximum at x=0 and f(0)=1 and relative minimum at x=-1 and x=1 and f(-1)=f(1)=0.

200
 b) g has vertical asymptote at x=0. g is strictly increasing in (1, ∞) and strictly decreasing in (-
∞, 0)U(0, 1). g has a relative minimum at x=1 and g(1)=e.

c) g has vertical asymptote at x=1 and x=-1and oblique asymptote y=x-3. g is strictly
increasing in (-∞, -1)U(-1, 0)U(2, ∞) and strictly decreasing in (0, 2). g has a relative
minimum at x=0 and x=2 and g(0)=-4 and g(2)=0.

4. Area¿ 108−40 √ 2≈ 51.432

p p
5. x= ,∧ y=
3 6
dr 1
6. rate of radius= = feet /minute
dt 50 π
7. t=3.6 hrs
Exercise 4.4

201
 3 6 2
x −x 3 x
1. a) +5 x+ c b) sinx−4 e x +c c) + x − +4 x+ c
3 3 2
9 2
2x x 8
d) −3 cosx+ c e) +c f) + + c
9 2 √x
3 5
sin x ln x
2. a ¿ ln|x −3|+c b) +c c) 3 e x /3 +c d) +c
3 5

( )
x
−lnx 1 3 1
3. a) xsinx+ cosx +c b) − +c c) x+ 1− +c d) −x 2 cosx−2 xsinx−2 cosx+c
x x ln 3 ln 3
3 1 7 2 1
4. a) ln |3 x +4|− ln ⁡∨ x +2∨+c b) ln|x−1|− ln|x −2|+ ln |x−3|+c
2 2 20 5 20
3 2 4
c) ln |x−3|+ ln |x +2|+ c d) 2 ln |x−2|− +c
5 5 x−2
32 3
5. a) b) ln 4 c) 3 π−1 d)
3 2
4
9 e −1 64
6. a) b) c)
2 e 3
References
1. Berhanu Bekele, Mulugeta Naizghi, Simon Derkee and Wondwosen Zemene, Mathematics
for Social Sciences, Ministry of Science and Higher Education, 2019
2. Alemayehu Haile and Yismaw Alemu, Mathematics an Introductory Course,
Department of Mathematics, Addis Ababa University
3. Demisu Gemeda and Seid Mohammed, Fundamental Cocepts of Algebra, AAU
4. Edwin J. Purcell, Dale Varberg, Calculus with Analytic Geometry
5. G. Chartrand, A. D. Polimeni and P. Zihang, Mathematical proofs: a transition to
advanced mathematics 3rd edition, Pearson Education. Inc.
6. Goodman Hirsch, Precalculus-Understanding functions, 2000

202