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The Same or Different?
Linguistics 1a: Phonetics and Phonology

6. Phonemes and Allophones
Warren Maguire w.maguire@ed.ac.uk
The Same or Different?
Complementary and Parallel Distribution

Superman and Clark Kent look similar They never appear in the same place together
they are in Complementary Distribution
So we know they are two versions of the same thing Superman and Lois Lane do not look similar They do appear in the same place together
they are in Parallel Distribution
So we know they are two different things
Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics
the study of the sounds of language how they are produced their physical properties how they are perceived
Sound Systems
Many speech sounds can be produced by humans Each language uses a subset of the possible sounds Each language has a different inventory of sounds
Phonology
the study of languages sound systems how they are organised how they vary how they are manipulated
French has no dental fricatives [ ] [ ]
English has no nasalised vowels [ ] []
Sound Systems
Each language also has a different inventory of sound patterns, or a different way of combining sounds to make words
Phonology
The aim of phonology is to discover these inventories and sound patterns, and to describe them systematically Sound inventories and patterns are:
known unconsciously by native speakers stored in the brain
espaol Spanish [espa ol] Spanish English [span ]
estado [esta o] state [ste t]
escuela [eskwela] school [sku l]
different for each language

they are language-specific
Sound Categories
Each language has a set of sound categories, called phonemes A phoneme is the smallest full sound segment which makes a meaningful distinction between words We can discover phonemes by using the Minimal Pair Test
Minimal Pair Test

A minimal pair is two words in a language which:
1) differ in just one sound segment 2) also have different meanings
Exercise: Starting with the word pig [p ], how many minimal pairs can you find?
[d ] [b ]
[p ] [p
[p n] [p t]
From Minimal Pairs to Phonemes

So [b ] and [p ] are a minimal pair If you use [b] instead of [p] or vice versa, you get a different word
i.e. [b] and [p] can occur in the same place (they are in parallel distribution) and they can be used to signify a difference in meaning
Finding Minimal Pairs

In order to find minimal pairs, we need to consider the phonetic environment of a segment This is the other sound segments which appear near it
This means that [b] and [p] belong to different sound categories, or phonemes We use slashes to bracket phonemes
/b/ /p/
Phonetic Environment
This is the phonetic environment of the segment [p] in the word pig The hash sign denotes a word boundary The underscore represents the [p] segment were interested in
Minimal Pairs
In the environment [#_ ], we find a contrast between the segments [p] and [b] Therefore, [p] and [b] belong to different phonemes In a minimal pair test, the phonetic environment should be identical
[#_ ]
Exercise: Finding Minimal Pairs

Write down as many segments as you can which fit into the following environments in English:
Accidental Gaps
No language makes use of all its possible combinations of segments There are always some possible words which dont actually exist
[ an] and [ an] are possible English words [ an] isnt a possible word
[a], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [t], [d], [n], [k], [b], [ ],
1. 2. 3.
[k_t] [#_an] [d _#]
[m], [p], [b], [t], [d], [ ], [n], [k], [f], [v], [ ],
Exercise: Phonetic Variation

Say the following phrases aloud, paying particular attention to the N sounds in the middle of each phrase - what is their place of articulation?
Systematic Phonetic Variation

Some phonetic variation does not produce minimal pairs, but is an automatic consequence of the phonetic environment It is systematic and predictable Dental [n] occurs before dental fricatives
[n ]
1. 2.
in a in the
[n
3. the men think 4. the men do
m n
k]
m n du ]
Alveolar [n] occurs everywhere else
Exercise: Phonetic Variation

Say the following phrases aloud, paying particular attention to the T sounds Put your hand in front of your mouth, and concentrate on how much air is coming out - is there any difference? 1. top stop tie sty
Distribution of Variants
Are the occurrences of [t ] and [t] predictable? What is the phonetic environment in which each occurs?
[t ] [t p] [t a ] [t n s] top tie tennis [st p] [sta ] [st ]
[t] stop sty string
[t ]
2. 3. 4.
[t]
Distribution of Variation
[t ] [#_ ] [#_a ] [#_ ] top tie tennis [s_ ] [s_a ] [s_ ] [t] stop sty string
Complementary Distribution
If the phonetic difference between two sounds is systematic and predictable, i.e.:
they never contrast - substituting one sound for the other does not result in a different meaning and their distributions (the environments in which they occur) are completely different
Then the sounds are in complementary distribution

where one occurs the other doesnt, and vice versa
Aspirated [t ] occurs at the start of words
Unaspirated [t] occurs after [s]
Sound Categories and Variants

If two segments are:
in complementary distribution and are phonetically similar
Allophones
The variants, or realisations of a phoneme are called allophones The phoneme /n/ has two allophones: [n] and [n] The phoneme /t/ has two allophones: [t ] and [t]
Then they are variants of the same sound category (Phoneme) The two segments [n] and [n] are different variants of a single phoneme /n/
/n/
[n] [n]
elsewhere
/t/
[t ]
word initially
[t]
after [s]
The two segments [t ] and [t] are different variants of a single phoneme /t/
before dental fricatives
Summary: Phonemes
Every language uses different sounds, and different patterns of sound Every language has a number of abstract sound categories, called phonemes Phonemes can be identified by finding minimal pairs
Summary: Allophones
Every phoneme can have a number of phonetically similar variants, called allophones Phonemes are sound categories Allophones are subcategories of phonemes

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The Same or Different?

Linguistics 1a: Phonetics and Phonology

The Same or Different?

Complementary and Parallel Distribution

So we know they are two different things

Phonetics and Phonology

French has no dental fricatives [ ] [ ]

English has no nasalised vowels [ ] []

espaol Spanish [espa ol] Spanish English [span ]

estado [esta o] state [ste t]

escuela [eskwela] school [sku l]

different for each language

Minimal Pair Test

From Minimal Pairs to Phonemes

Finding Minimal Pairs

Exercise: Finding Minimal Pairs

[a], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [t], [d], [n], [k], [b], [ ],

[k_t] [#_an] [d _#]

[m], [p], [b], [t], [d], [ ], [n], [k], [f], [v], [ ],

Exercise: Phonetic Variation

Systematic Phonetic Variation

3. the men think 4. the men do

Alveolar [n] occurs everywhere else

Exercise: Phonetic Variation

[t ] [t p] [t a ] [t n s] top tie tennis [st p] [sta ] [st ]

[t] stop sty string

Then the sounds are in complementary distribution

Aspirated [t ] occurs at the start of words

Unaspirated [t] occurs after [s]

Sound Categories and Variants

before dental fricatives

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