Energy Conversion Devices

Energy conversion devices
Air compressor
S V Wagh
Associate Professor Mechanical Engineering
COEP Technological University, Pune
Air compressor
Pneumatics: A system which uses compressed
air is called pneumatics.
It deals with the study of behavior & application of

compressed air.
A basic pneumatic system consist of a source of

compressed air, control valves, pipelines & pipe
fittings and pneumatic accessories like filter,
regulator and lubricator.
2
Uses of compressed air
It is used to
I. Drive air motors in coal mines
II. Inject fuel in diesel engines.
III. Operate pneumatic tools such as drills,
screw drivers, hammers, chisels, hoist,
sand blasters, air brakes for locomotive,
spray, blast furnace etc
IV. For agricultural accessories such as dusters
and sprayers
V. For cleaning purpose
VI. In gas turbine plants
3
Application of compressed air
vii. For drive of CNC machine tools
viii. For pneumatic conveying of

materials.
viii. For pneumatic gauging, inspection

and low cost automation systems
4
Introduction to Air compressor
An air compressor is a mechanical

device that increases the pressure of air
by reducing volume.
Air is compressible, the compressor
reduces the volume of air and induces
pressure in the air.
An air compressor converts electrical
energy into kinetic energy in the form of
the air
5
Introduction to Air compressor
The compressed air is stored in the air
receiver and can be used for cleaning
under pressure, generating torque and
develop force using actuators
This source is free of cost, safe, flexible

and convenient
Air compressor has very few parts

hence maintenance is very low 6
Classification of air compressor
• Air compressors are classified according to

method of energy transfer and pressure
generation
i.e. (a) Positive displacement and
(b) Dynamic compressors.
7
(a) Positive displacement compressors work on the

principle of increasing the pressure of air by
reducing the volume of air in an enclosed chamber.
(b) Dynamic compressors works on the

principle of imparting the energy by rotating vanes
of impeller on air flowing through casing that
increases pressure in air.
8
Fig. Classification of air compressor 9

• According to number of stages
Single stage, double stage, three stage of
multiple stage
• According to action
Single acting or double acting
• According to position of cylinder w.
r. t. crankshaft
Cylinders inline, vertical, radial position,
V-type cylinder arrangement.
10
• According to prime mover

Electric motor drive or IC engine drive,
Gas turbine drives
• According to cooling medium
Air cooled, water cooled air
compressors
11
Reciprocating Air compressors
12
Fig. Double stage reciprocating Air compressors 13

Reciprocating air compressors are positive
displacement type of air compressors.
These are piston & diaphragm type, vane type,

gear type, screw type compressors.
The principle of operation is same but

according to stages the delivery pressure is
different in each compressor.
14
A reciprocating air compressor consist

of a piston which is enclosed within a
cylinder and equipped with suction and
discharge valve
The piston receives power from electric

motor or IC engine. 15
The compression of air is done by first

drawing a volume of air into the cylinder
through suction valve during suction
stroke of piston and then compressed
and discharged through delivery valve
during delivery stroke. 16
Single stage reciprocating air compressor
17
Single stage reciprocating air compressor
Fig. Single stage reciprocating air compressor 18

Single stage Reciprocating Air compressors
In this type the entire compression is carried out

in a single cylinder
When piston starts moving downwards, the
pressure inside the cylinder falls below
atmospheric pressure that opens suction valve.
The pressure of the air in the cylinder rises during
compression and at the end of compression,
delivery valve opens and discharges the
compressed air into the receiver tank. 19
Single stage Reciprocating Air compressors
 Single stage air compressor develop pressure upto 7 bar.
 For higher pressures multistage compressors are suitable
20
Disadvantages of single stage compressor
• It can not handle high pressure ratio

efficiently.
• There are leakages past the piston and
ineffective cooling and lubrication.
• Robust construction is needed to withstand
high pressure.
21
Advantages of multistage
compressor
• Work done per kg of air can be reduced
using inter-cooler.
• Better mechanical balance.
• Loss of air due to leakage.
• Effective lubrication due to the lower
operating temperature range.
22
Double stage Reciprocating Air compressors
23
Double stage reciprocating air compressor
Fig. Cross-sectional view of double stage reciprocating air compressor

24
It consist of two cylinders –

(1) Low pressure (L.P.) cylinder and
(2) High pressure (H.P.) cylinder
Piston, crankcase, piston rod, crank,
crankshaft, oil, fins etc.
25
The fresh air is drawn inside the L.P. cylinder

(LP) through inlet suction filter.
This air is compressed by piston
As the piston moves towards the end of cylinder,
the air compression took place.
The delivery valve opens and this compressed air
from L.P. cylinder is directed to enter inside the
H.P. cylinder. 26
In high pressure cylinder this pressurised air is

further compressed to higher pressure.
The high pressure air from H.P. cylinder is then
delivered to receiver through discharge valves.
In this compressor, a pressure of air delivered is
up to 13 bar.
27
Advantages of reciprocating air compressor
Simple in design
Lower initial cost
Easy to install
Higher efficiency
28
Disadvantages of reciprocating air
compressor
• Number of moving parts are more
• Higher maintenance cost
• Heavy foundation is required as it has

vibration problem
• Cannot run at full capacity

29
Applications of multistage air
compressor
• Low pressure air is used for spray
painting, inflating tyres and for the
cleaning purpose.
• High pressure air is used for driving air

motor, pneumatic tools like hammers,
drills.
30
Rotary air compressor
31
Rotary air compressor
There are three basic types of rotary air
compressor
1. Radial or centrifugal compressor
2. Axial flow compressor
3. Positive displacement compressor or
blower
32
Radial or Centrifugal compressor
Fig. Centrifugal air compressor

33
It is dynamic compressor.
It consist of a rotating impeller which rotates at

higher speed (20,000 to 30,000 rpm in some
cases).
An impeller fitted inside casing force the air to the

rim of impeller, increasing velocity of air due to
centrifugal action.
34
 As air enters diffuser, its velocity drops down but its pressure
increases.
 The compressed air leaves the compressor at its

circumference.
 These compressors are used for continuous,

stationary services in industries like oil refineries,
chemical and petrochemical plants, natural gas
processing plants.
35
• These are also used in IC engine

superchargers and turbochargers.
• In gas turbine plants
• It can provide extremely high output

pressures greater than 10,000 psi.
36
Axial flow compressor
Fig: Axial flow compressor 37

Axial flow compressor
• An axial compressor is a machine that can
continuously pressurize gases.
• It is a rotating, airfoil-based compressor in
which the gas or working fluid principally
flows parallel to the axis of rotation.
• The energy level of the fluid increases as it
flows through the compressor due to the
action of the rotor blades which exert a torque
on the fluid.
• The stationary blades slow the fluid,
converting the circumferential component of
38
flow into pressure.
Axial flow air compressor
• Axial flow compressors produce a continuous
flow of compressed gas, and have the benefits
of high efficiency and large mass flow rate,
particularly in relation to their size and cross-
section.
• They do, however, require several rows of
airfoils to achieve a large pressure rise,
making them complex and expensive relative
to other designs(e.g. centrifugal compressors).
39
Axial flow air compressor
• Axial compressors are integral to the design of
large gas turbines such as jet engines, high
speed ship engines, and small scale power
stations.
• They are also used in industrial applications
such as large volume air separation plants, blast
furnace air, fluid catalytic cracking air, and
propane dehydrogenation.
• Due to high performance, high reliability and
flexible operation during the flight envelope, they
are also used in aerospace engines. 40
Compressor of a Jet Engine
41
Working of axial air compressor
• A shaft drives a central drum, retained by
bearings, which has a number of annular
airfoil rows attached usually in pairs,
one rotating and one stationary attached to a
stationary tubular casing.
• A pair of rotating and stationary airfoils is
called a stage.
• The rotating airfoils, also known as blades
or rotors, accelerate the fluid. 42
• The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or
vanes, convert the increased rotational kinetic
energy into static pressure through diffusion and
redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing
it for the rotor blades of the next stage.
• The cross-sectional area between rotor drum and
casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain
an optimum Mach number (the ratio of the speed
of the flow to the speed of sound, is smaller than
0.3) using variable geometry as the fluid is
compressed. 43
• As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction,
the centrifugal component in the energy equation
does not come into play.
• Here the compression is fully based on diffusing
action of the passages.
• The diffusing action in stator converts absolute
kinetic head of the fluid into rise in pressure.
• The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a
term that exists only because of the rotation of the
rotor.
• This types of compressor is high speed (10,000 to
30,000 rpm).
• This compressor design is commonly used44 in
aircrafts gas turbines
Internal Combustion Engine
S V Wagh
COEP Technological University Pune
1
• Internal combustion (IC) engine
• Turbine
• Air compressor
• Refrigerator and air conditioner
• Boiler and properties of steam
2
Heat engine
It can be defined as any engine that converts

thermal energy to mechanical work output.
Examples of heat engines
• Steam engine
• Diesel engine
• Petrol (Gasoline) engine
3
Classification of heat engines
• On the basis of how thermal energy is

being delivered to working fluid of the heat
engine, heat engine can be classified as
• Internal combustion engine and

• External combustion engine
4
Internal Combustion (IC) Engine
• In an Internal combustion engine, combustion

takes place within working fluid of the engine,
thus fluid gets contaminated with combustion
products.
– Petrol engine is an example of internal

combustion engine, where the working
fluid is a mixture of air and fuel.
5
External Combustion Engine
• In an External combustion engine, working

fluid gets energy using boilers by burning
fossil fuels or any other fuel, thus the working
fluid does not come in contact with
combustion products.
– Steam engine is an example of

external combustion engine, where the
working fluid is steam.
6
Classification of Internal combustion engine
1. According to cycle of operation
a) Two stroke engine b) Four stroke engine
2. According to nature of combustion

a) Otto cycle b) Diesel cycle c) Dual cycle
3. According to cooling system used

a) Air cooled engine b) Water cooled engine
4. According to ignition system used

a) Spark ignition engine b) Compression ignition engine
7
5. According to number of cylinders
a) Single b) Twin c) Multi cylinder engine
6. According to nature of governing system used

a) Quantity b) Quality c) Hit and miss governing
7. According to fuel used

a) Petrol b) Diesel c) Gas d) Oil engine
8. According to speed of the engine

a) Low b) Medium c) High speed engine
8
• Internal combustion engines may be classified as :

– Spark Ignition engines.
– Compression Ignition engines.
• Spark ignition engine (SI engine):

An engine in which the combustion process in each
cycle is started by use of an external spark.
9
• Compression ignition engine (CI engine):

An engine in which the combustion process starts
when the air-fuel mixture self ignites due to high
temperature in the combustion chamber caused by
high compression.
– Spark ignition and Compression Ignition

engine operate on either a four stroke cycle
or a two stroke cycle.
10
Compression ignition engine (CI engine)
• Four stroke cycle : It has four piston strokes over

two revolutions for each cycle.
• Two stroke cycle : It has two piston strokes over

one revolution for each cycle.
11
Internal combustion Engine Components:
Fig 1: Engine
Components
12
Fig 2: Engine components 13

• I.C. Engine components shown in Fig-1 and Fig-2 are
defined as follows:
• Block : Body of the engine containing cylinders, made of

cast iron or aluminum.
• Cylinder : The circular cylinders in the engine block in which

the pistons reciprocate back and forth.
• Head : The piece which closes the end of the cylinders,

usually containing part of the clearance volume of the
combustion chamber.
14
• Combustion chamber
chamber:: The end of the cylinder between the
head and the piston face where combustion occurs.
– The size of combustion chamber continuously changes
from minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a
maximum volume when the piston at BDC.
Crankshaft:: Rotating shaft through which engine work
• Crankshaft
output is supplied to external systems.
– The crankshaft is connected to the engine
block with the main bearings.
– It is rotated by the reciprocating piston through
the connecting rods connected to the
crankshaft, offset from the axis of rotation.
This offset is sometimes called crank throw or
crank radius. 15
Internal combustion Engine Components
Connecting rod: Rod connecting the
piston with the rotating crankshaft,
usually made of steel or alloy forging in
most engines but may be aluminum in
some small engines.
• Piston rings: Metal rings that fit into
circumferential grooves around the piston
and form a sliding surface against the
cylinder walls.
16
• Camshaft: Rotating shaft used to push
open valves at the proper time in the engine
cycle, either directly or through mechanical
or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker
arms, tappets) .
• Push rods: The mechanical linkage
between the camshaft and valves on
overhead valve engines with the camshaft
in the crankcase.
17
• Crankcase: Part of the engine block

surrounding the crankshaft.
– In many engines the oil pan makes up
part of the crankcase housing.
• Exhaust manifold: Piping system which

carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders, usually made of cast iron .
18
• Intake manifold: Piping system which

delivers incoming air to the cylinders,
usually made of cast metal, plastic, or
composite material.
– In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air
in the intake manifold system either by
fuel injectors or with a carburetor.
– The individual pipe to a single cylinder is
called runner.
19
Internal Combustion Engine Components
• Carburetor: A device which meters the

proper amount of fuel into the air flow by
means of pressure differential.
– For many decades it was the basic fuel
metering system on all automobile (and
other) engines.
• Spark plug:Electrical device used to initiate
combustion in an SI engine by creating high
voltage discharge across an electrode gap.
20
I.C. Engine components apart from
components shown in the figure:
• Exhaust System: Flow system for removing
exhaust gases from the cylinders, treating
them, and exhausting them to the
surroundings.
– It consists of an exhaust manifold which
carries the exhaust gases away from the
engine, a thermal or catalytic converter
to reduce emissions, a muffler to reduce
engine noise, and a tailpipe to carry the
exhaust gases away from the passenger
compartment. 21
I.C. Engine components apart from
components shown in the figure:
Flywheel: Rotating mass with a large moment
of inertia connected to the crank shaft of the
engine.
-The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy
and furnish large angular momentum that
keeps the engine rotating between power
strokes and smoothens out engine
operation.
Fuel injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays
fuel into the incoming air (SI engines ) or into
the cylinder (CI engines). 22
• Fuel pump: Electrically or mechanically driven
pump to supply fuel from the fuel tank (reservoir)
to the engine.
• Glow plug: Small electrical resistance heater
mounted inside the combustion chamber of many
CI engines, used to preheat the chamber enough
so that combustion will occur when first starting a
cold engine.
– The glow plug is turn off after the engine is
started.
• Starter: Several methods are used to start IC
engines. Most are started by use of an electric
motor (starter) geared to the engine flywheel.
Energy is supplied from an electric battery. 23
Fig-3: Engine
Terminology
24
Fig-3 : Engine Terminology
25
Engine Terminology
The engine terminology are as follows:
Top Dead Center (TDC) / Head End Dead Center (HEDC) /

TOP Center (TC):
Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest
point away from the crankshaft.
– Top because this position is at the top of the
engines (not always), and dead because the
piston stops as this point. Because in some
engines TDC is not at the top of the
engines(e. g: horizontally opposed engines,
radial engines, etc,.)
– When the piston is at TDC, the volume in the
cylinder is a minimum called the clearance
volume. 26
Engine Terminology
• Bottom Dead Center (BDC): Position of the
piston when it stops at the point closest to
the crankshaft.
– Some sources call this Crank End Dead
Center (CEDC) because it is not always
at the bottom of the engine. Some
source call this point Bottom Center
(BC).
• Stroke: Distance traveled by the piston from
one extreme position to the other :
• TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC. 27
Engine Terminology
• Bore: It is defined as cylinder diameter or piston
face diameter; piston face diameter is same as
cylinder diameter ( minus small clearance).
• Swept volume / Displacement volume: Volume

displaced by the piston as it travels through one
stroke.
– Swept volume is defined as stroke times bore.
– Displacement can be given for one cylinder or
entire engine (one cylinder times number of
cylinders).
28
Engine Terminology
• Clearance volume
It is the minimum volume of the cylinder
available for the charge (air or air fuel
mixture) when the piston reaches at its
outermost point (top dead center or outer
dead center) during compression stroke of
the cycle.
– Minimum volume of combustion
chamber with piston at TDC.
29
Engine Terminology
• Compression ratio:
-It is the ratio of total volume to
clearance volume of the cylinder is the
compression ratio of the engine.
-Typically compression ratio for
SI engines varies form 8 to 12 and for
CI engines it varies from 12 to 24.
30
Working of four stroke SI engine
31
Four stroke SI engine
Suction stroke Compression stroke Power stroke Exhaust stroke
Fig. Four stroke petrol engine

33
Figure 4: Suction stroke
Four strokes of SI Engine Cycle :
Suction / Intake stroke: Intake of air fuel

mixture in cylinder through intake manifold.
– The piston travel from TDC to BDC

with the intake valve open and exhaust
valve closed.
– This creates an increasing volume in
the combustion chamber, which in
turns creates a vacuum.
34
Four strokes of SI Engine Cycle
Suction / Intake stroke:

-The resulting pressure differential through
the intake system from atmospheric
pressure on the outside to the vacuum on
the inside causes air to be pushed into the
cylinder.
- As the air passes through the intake
system, fuel is added to it in the desired
amount by means of fuel injectors or a
carburetor.
35
36
Figure 5: Compression Stroke
• Compression stroke:
• When the piston reaches BDC, the intake
valve closes and the piston travels back to
TDC with all valves closed.
– This compresses air fuel mixture, raising
both the pressure and temperature in
the cylinder.
– Near the end of the compression stroke
the spark plug is fired and the
combustion is initiated. 37
38
Figure 6: Expansion/Power stroke.
• Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a
very short but finite length of time with the piston
near TDC
• It starts near the end of the compression stroke
slightly before TDC and lasts into the power
stroke slightly after TDC.
– Combustion changes the composition of the
gas mixture to that of exhaust products and
increases the temperature in the cylinder to a
high value.
– This in turn increases the pressure in the
cylinder to a high value.
39
• Expansion stroke / Power stroke : With all

valves closed the high pressure created by
the combustion process pushes the piston
away from the TDC.
– This is the stroke which produces work
output of the engine cycle.
– As the piston travels from TDC to BDC,
cylinder volume is increased, causing
pressure and temperature to drop.
40
• Exhaust Blowdown : Late in the power
stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and
exhaust blowdown occurs.
– Pressure and temperature in the cylinder

are still high relative to the surroundings at
this point, and a pressure differential is
created through the exhaust system which
is open to atmospheric pressure.
41
– This pressure differential causes much of
the hot exhaust gas to be pushed out of
the cylinder and through the exhaust
system when the piston is near BDC.
– This exhaust gas carries away a high
amount of enthalpy, which lowers the
cycle thermal efficiency.
– Opening the exhaust valve before BDC
reduces the work obtained but is required
because of the finite time needed for
exhaust blowdown. 42
Figure 7: Exhaust stroke
43
• Exhaust stroke: By the time piston reaches
BDC, exhaust blowdown is complete, but the
cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at
approximately atmospheric pressure.
– With the exhaust valve remaining open, the
piston travels from BDC to TDC in the
exhaust stroke.
– This pushes most of the remaining exhaust
gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust
system at about atmospheric pressure,
leaving only that trapped in the clearance
volume when the piston reaches TDC. 44
– Near the end of the exhaust stroke before
TDC, the intake valve starts to open, so
that it is fully open by TDC when the new
intake stroke starts the next cycle.
– Near TDC the exhaust valve starts to
close and finally is fully closed sometime
after TDC.
– This period when both the intake valve
and exhaust valve are open is called valve
overlap, it can be clearly seen in valve
timing chart given below.
45
46
Working of two strokes SI
engine
47
Two-Stroke Engines
48
Two-Stroke Engine
Exhaust
port
Inlet port
Upstroke Downstroke 49
Applications
• Two stroke engines are found on:

– Weed trimmers
– Snowmobiles
– Older dirt bikes
– Chainsaws
– Nitro R/C Cars
– Small outboards
– Older Jet skis
50
The Basics of two strokes SI engine
• Two stroke engines operate on the same principles as
a four stroke engine.
– Intake:- Fuel mixture is drawn into crankcase during
upstroke
– Compression:-The mixture is compressed in the
crankcase during downstroke and again during upstroke
before combustion
– Combustion:- fuel is recompressed and ignited in
cylinder during upstroke
– Exhaust:- burned mixture is forced out by fresh mixture
being forced in during downstroke
Piston fires once every revolution.
No traditional valves like a four-stroke.
Piston serves as a “valve” by covering the ports.
51
Two-Stroke Engine
Exhaust
port
Inlet port
Upstroke Downstroke 52
Upstroke (compression)
• One-way valve opens and fuel mixture is

drawn into crankcase
• Transfer port is covered
• Fuel mixture is compressed (again) and
ignited
• Piston covers exhaust port during
compression
53
Downstroke (Combustion)
• Combustion forces piston down compressing

fuel mixture in crankcase
• Intake port is covered and valve is forced
closed
• Transfer port is uncovered forcing fuel
mixture into cylinder
• This fuel mixture pushes the exhaust out the
exhaust port
54
Advantages of two stroke engine
• Less parts = Lighter
• Fires once every revolution = 2 x power of

four stroke
• Cheaper, less complex and easier to work on
• Can work in any orientation (upside down,

sideways)
55
Disadvantages two stroke engine
No dedicated lubrication system (not
as durable)
Not fuel efficient and require

expensive oil to be mixed with gas.
Produce a lot of pollution due to

burning of gas and oil.
56
Compression Ignition (CI) Engine
57
Fig- 9: Four strokes of ideal Diesel cycle. 58
Fig-10: Suction stroke 59
Fig-11: Compression stroke 60
Fig-12: Fuel injection and combustion followed by
Expansion stroke . 61
Figure 13: Exhaust stroke followed by exhaust blowdown.
62
Four strokes of CI Engine Cycle :
Intake/Suction Stroke : The same as the intake
stroke in an SI engine with one major difference :
no fuel is added to the incoming air, refer Fig-10.
• Compression Stroke : The same as in an SI
engine except that only air is compressed and
compression is to higher pressures and
temperature, refer Fig-11.
– Late in the compression stroke fuel is injected
directly into the combustion chamber, where it
mixes with very hot air.
– This causes the fuel to evaporate and self
ignite, causing combustion to start.
63
Four strokes of CI Engine Cycle :
• Combustion is fully developed by TDC and
continues at about constant pressure until fuel
injection is complete and the piston has started
towards BDC, refer Fig-12.
• Expansion/Power stroke : The power stroke
continues as combustion ends and the piston
travels towards BDC, refer figure 12.
– Exhaust blow down same as with an SI
engine.
• Exhaust stroke : Same as with an SI engine,
refer Fig-13.
64
Advantages of two stroke engine over
four stroke engine
1. Two stroke engine produces twice power as
compared to the four stroke engine of the
same size theoretically. In actual practice it
is 1.7 to 1.8 times due to loss of power in
compressing the charge and effective stroke
is less than actual stroke.
2. For the same power two stroke engines are
much lighter, less bulky and occupies less
space as compared to four stroke engine.
65
Advantages of two stroke engine over
four stroke engine
3. It provides mechanical simplicity as valves, rocker

arms, pushrods, cams, camshafts are not required.
Therefore it has greater mechanical efficiency due
to less friction.
4. The two stroke engines are much easier to start.
5. A crankcase compression and valve less type 2-
stroke engines can run in either direction hence
suitable for marine applications.
6. The initial cost of two stroke is much less.
66
Disadvantages of two stroke engine over
four stroke engine
1. As the compression ratio of 2- stroke engine is

less than 4-stroke engine it has less
thermodynamic efficiency.
2. As the fuel efficiency of 2- stroke engine less than

4- stroke engine due to overlapping of ports, the
specific fuel consumption is higher.
3. As compared to 4-stroke engine power strokes will
be twice, which results in additional cooling
requirements.
67
Disadvantages of two stroke engine over
four stroke engine
4. The consumption of the lubricating oil is
sufficiently large due to high operating
temperatures.
5. Sudden release of gases makes the
exhaust noisier.
6. The turning moment of 2-stroke engine is
non-uniform compared to 4-stroke engine
requires a heavier flywheel and stronger
foundation.
68
Comparison of SI and CI engines
Sr. Points SI Engine CI Engine
No.
1 Suction Mixture of Only air
petrol and air
2 Basic Carburetor is Fuel pump is used to
elements and employed to increase pressure and
functions supply charge injector is employed
to inject fuel at the
end of compression
stroke
3 Pressure at 10-15 bar 50-75 bar

the end of
compression
69
No.
4 Ignition Spark Compression
5 Basic cycle Otto Cycle- Diesel cycle-
Constant volume Constant pressure
cycle cycle
6 Compression 6-10 14-22
ratio
7 Starting Easy Difficult
8 Weight and Low weight and High weight and
initial cost cheap costlier
9 Running cost High due to fuel Less due to fuel cost
cost 70

No.
10 Maintenance Less High
cost
11 Thermal About 30% About 40%
efficiency
12 Speed High (5000 rpm) Low (2000 rpm)
13 Governing Quantity Quality
14 Applications Light duty Heavy duty
applications/ applications/
vehicles vehicles
71
Turbines
S V Wagh
1
Introduction
• “Turbines” is Latin in origin and implies that
which spins or whirls around.
• A turbo machine is a rotating device that extracts

energy from or adds energy to fluids.
• Energy is transferred to or from a continuously

flowing fluid by the dynamic action of moving
blades or rotors.
2
Introduction
• Early examples are wind mills and water mills.
• Turbines are classified as:
– Steam turbines
– Hydraulic turbines
– Gas turbines
3
Steam Turbines
• It is a prime mover in which the heat energy of

steam transformed into mechanical energy in the
form of rotational motion.
Heat energy kinetic energy mechanical energy of rotation.
• Used as prime mover to drive the electrical

generators in thermal power plants, propelling of
ships, to drive uniform speed machines like
centrifugal gas compressors, textile and sugar
industry machineries.
4
Steam turbines
• Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes
ranging from small <0.75 kW units used as
mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and
other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500 MW
turbines used to generate electricity.
• Basic types of Steam turbines:
– Impulse turbine Ex: De Laval turbine and

– Reaction turbine Ex: Pasrson’s turbine
5
Impulse turbine
6
Basic principle of impulse steam turbine
7
Principle of Impulse turbine
• Steam initially expanded in nozzle from
high pressure to low pressure.
• If high velocity steam from nozzle

impinges onto a curved blade
 change in direction of steam

change in momentum
 force, centrifugal in nature.
8
Principle of Impulse turbine
• Steam exerts force on curved surface of
blades. The blades move in the direction of
the force.
• A number of blades fixed on periphery of a

disc (rotor). The successive movement of
blades sets the rotor in continuous motion.
• Rotation of rotor makes all blades on rim of

rotor to get exposed to steam jet in
succession. 9
Reaction turbine
10
Parson’s reaction turbine
11
Principle of reaction turbine
• Here, steam not expanded initially in

nozzle.
• Gradual pressure drop over the fixed
and moving blades.
• The fixed blades act as nozzles in which
the velocity of the steam is increased
also steam is correctly directed onto the
moving blades.
12
Principle of reaction turbine
• Steam also expands in the moving
blades with consequent pressure drop
and velocity increase.
• This expansion in the moving blades
gives an extra reaction force to the
moving blades.
• Therefore total driving force is sum of
centrifugal force and reaction force.
13
Reaction turbine contd…
• The arrangement of blades facilitate the
drop in pressure of steam on fixed blades as
well as on moving blades.
• The pressure of steam decreases while
passing through moving blades and specific
volume increases therefore the height of the
blades are increased along the flow
direction of steam.
• This type of turbine is very commonly used
in thermal power plants.
14
In the impulse
turbine, steam
expands in the
nozzle and its
pressure doesn’t
alter as it moves
over the blades
while in reaction
turbine, pressure
drops gradually and
steam expands
continuously as it
passes over the
blades.
15
Hydraulic turbines
16
Hydropower plant
17
Classification of Hydraulic turbines
•According to type of energy at inlet
Impulse turbine- Pelton wheel
Reaction turbine- Francis turbine
•According to direction of flow through runner
Tangential flow turbine- Pelton wheel
Radial flow turbine- Francis
Axial flow turbine- Kaplan turbine
Mixed flow turbine- Modern Francis
turbine
( Flow is radially at inlet & axially at outlet) 18
Classification of Hydraulic turbines
• According to head at the inlet of turbine
High head turbine- Pelton Turbine
Medium head turbine- Francis turbine
Low head turbine- Kaplan turbine
• According to quantity of water available
High discharge- Kaplan turbine
Medium discharge-Francis turbine
Low discharge - Pelton wheel
• According to the specific speed of turbine
Low specific speed turbine- Pelton turbine
Medium specific speed turbine- Francis turbine
High specific speed turbine- Kaplan turbine 19
Selection of turbines
• Typical range of heads

 Kaplan 2 < H < 40 (H = head in meters)
 Francis 10 < H < 350
 Pelton 50 < H < 1300
• Typical ranges of specific speeds in MKS

 Kaplan Low specific speeds (10 to 25)
 Francis Medium specific speed (60 to 299)
 Pelton High specific speed (300 to 1000)
20
Specific speed of the turbine
21
Tangential flow turbine- Pelton wheel
22
Radial flow turbine- Francis turbine
23
Kaplan turbine diagram (Axial flow turbine)
24
Pelton wheel (Impulse Turbine)
25
Pelton wheel (Impulse Turbine)
26
Essential component parts of a Pelton Wheel
• Essential component parts of a Pelton Wheel

are
– Guide mechanism consisting of a spear rod
and spear valve and deflector
– Bucket and shaft carrying the buckets
– Water tight casing
– Brake nozzle
– Governor
27
Pelton wheel – Impulse Turbine
• Tangential Flow Impulse Turbine used for high

heads of water.
• Requires low discharge and low specific speed as
compared to other turbines.
• The water strikes the bucket along the tangent of the
runner.
The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is
only Kinetic Energy.
The pressure at the inlet and outlet is atmospheric
pressure.
28
Pelton wheel
• The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of
the water flowing through the penstock.
At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes
out in the form of a jet and strikes the
buckets (vanes) of the runner.
• Pelton Wheel Turbine is used for High

Heads, low discharge and low specific
speed.
29
Pelton wheel
30
Reaction Turbine
31
Reaction Turbine
1. Francis Turbine
2. Kaplan Turbine
32
Francis Turbine
33
Reaction Turbine - Francis Turbine
Fig. Francis Turbine 34

Francis Turbine
35
Fig. Francis Turbine
Reaction Turbine - Francis Turbine
36
Francis Turbine
• Francis Turbine is the first hydraulic turbine with
radial inflow.
• Francis Turbine is a reaction turbine.
• Reaction Turbines have some primary features which
differentiate them from Impulse Turbines.
• The major part of pressure drop occurs in the turbine
itself, unlike the impulse turbine where complete
pressure drop takes place up to the entry point.
• In Francis Turbine water flow is radial into the turbine
and exits the Turbine axially.
• Water pressure decreases as it passes through the
turbine imparting reaction on the turbine blades
37
making the turbine rotate.
Working of Francis Turbine
•Francis Turbines are generally
installed with their axis vertical.
•Water with medium head
(pressure) enters the turbine
through the spiral casing
surrounding the guide vanes.
•The water looses a part of its
pressure in the volute (spiral
casing) to maintain its speed.
•Then water passes through
guide vanes where it is directed
to strike the blades on the
runner at optimum angles. 38
.
Working of Francis Turbine
• As the water flows through the runner its
pressure and angular momentum reduces.
• This reduction imparts reaction on the runner
and power is transferred to the turbine shaft.
• If the turbine is operating at the design
conditions the water leaves the runner in axial
direction.
• Water exits the turbine through the draft tube,
which acts as a diffuser and reduces the exit
velocity of the flow to recover maximum
energy from the flowing water. 39
Francis Turbine
40
Francis Turbine
41
Kaplan Turbine
42
Kaplan Turbine
43
Fig. Kaplan Turbine
Kaplan turbine diagram (Axial flow turbine)
44
Kaplan Turbine
• Axial flow reaction turbine.
• It works under low head and
high discharge.
• Usually fixed with vertical shafts.
• All component parts like spiral
casing, guide mechanism are
similar to those of a Francis
turbine.
• The runner vanes are adjustable
in a Kaplan turbine.
• Adjustable blades allow work
with low performance. For
example in small hydro power 45
plants
Kaplan turbine
• Because Kaplans
have a very flat flow
to efficiency curve
they are particularly
suited to sites on
rivers where the
amount of available
water varies greatly.
• For example in small
hydro power plants. 46
Kaplan Turbine
Viktor Kaplan (1876-1934)

Comparison- Francis & Kaplan turbine
Francis turbine Kaplan turbine
• Radially inward flow or • Purely axial flow turbine
mixed flow turbine
• Medium head turbine • Low head turbine
• Horizontal or vertical • Only vertical shaft.
shaft
• Large number of runner • Small number of runner
vanes (16 to 24 ) vanes ( 3 to 8)
• Non- adjustable runner • Adjustable runner vanes

vanes. 48
Gas turbine
49
Gas turbine
• A gas turbine is a machine delivering mechanical
power .
• Gas turbine uses a gaseous working fluid.
• The mechanical power generated can be used by,
for example, an industrial device.
The outgoing gaseous fluid can be used to
generate thrust.
In the gas turbine, there is a continuous flow of the
working fluid.
• Applications:
– Aircraft propulsion - Marine propulsion
– M-1 tanks - At stationery power plants
– Oil and gas industry 50
Basic Components Gas Turbine
51
Open cycle gas turbine
52
Open cycle gas turbine
Fig. Open cycle gas turbine

53
Basic Components of Open cycle gas turbine
 Air Compressor- Draws in air &

compresses it
 Combustion Chamber- Fuel pumped
in and ignited to burn with compressed
air.
 Gas turbine- Hot gases converted to
work, Can drive compressor & external
load
 Compressor & turbine mounted on a
common shaft.
 Generator- 54
Working of open cycle gas turbine
• Air drawn in compressor compressed gas passes
to a combustion chamber
• Fuel injected in combustion chamber  combustion
of fuel + air takes place at constant volume with the
help of a spark plug.
• Resulting hot gases expand through turbine and exit
to atmosphere, hence open gas cycle.
To get positive from unit, the turbine must develop
more gross output than is required to drive the
compressor and to overcome mechanical losses in
the drive. 55
Closed cycle gas turbine
56
Fig. Closed cycle gas turbine 57

In closed cycle constant pressure gas turbine
unit, the compressed fluid coming out of
compressor is heated in the heat exchanger
by some source of heat (coal, oil or nuclear)
at constant pressure and then high pressure,
high temperature gas develops work passing
through a turbine.
The gas coming out of turbine is cooled to its

original temperature in the air cooler using an
external cooling source before passing into
the compressor again . 58
Gas turbine
59
Household refrigerator
S V Wagh
1
Introduction
• Refrigeration
It is the process of obtaining and maintaining a
controlled space temperature below atmospheric
temperature.
Heat from the cold space is pumped and
rejected to atmosphere.
• Air-conditioning
it is the process of simultaneously controlling
properties of air such as temperature, humidity,
purity and its motion.
2
Applications of refrigeration
– Manufacturing of ice
– Preservation of perishable articles like food, fruits,

vegetables, medicines in storage/transportation.
– Cooling of liquids in chemical process plants.
– Air conditioning for human comfort
– Cooling of water/beverages
– Liquification of gases like nitrogen, hydrogen
– Process industries
3
Systems of refrigeration
Various refrigeration systems working over a

cycle are:
1. Air refrigeration cycle
2. Vapour compression cycle
3. Vapour absorption cycle
4
Systems of refrigeration
Vapour compression refrigeration system
• Most popular and widely used
• Working substance is a refrigerant like
 R- 11
 R- 12
 R- 22
The refrigerant used alternately undergoes a
phase change from vapour to liquid and liquid to
vapour during the cycle without leaving the
system. 5
• System consists of following

components:
Compressor
Condenser
Liquid receiver
Expansion valve and
Evaporator
6
Vapour compression refrigeration cycle
7
• Compressor:
 Compressor is the heart of the refrigeration system .
 When Freon gas passes through a compressor it gets highly
compressed i.e. pressurized and its temperature also
becomes very high.
 As it leaves the compressor, Low pressure vapour from
evaporator compressed to high pressure super heated
vapour.
 Since compression work done on vapour, its temperature
increases.
• Condenser:
 Here, high pressure High temp vapour cooled at constant
pressure by rejecting heat to condenser cooling medium 
converts hot vapour into liquid collected in liquid receiver.8
• Expansion valve:
 High Pressure liquid from receiver pumped to an expansion
valve which regulates the flow of liquid into evaporator.
 Also reduces pressure of liquid low pressure low temp
liquid refrigerant enters evaporator.
• Evaporator:
 Low pressure, low temp liquid refrigerant passes
through evaporator coils where it absorbs latent heat
from chamber and converts into vapour.
 Then it is gaining passed to compressor and cycle is
repeated.
 Refrigeration cycle of the refrigerant keeps on
repeating indefinitely till your refrigerator is running.
 Since the refrigerant vapor is compressed in this cycle,
it is also called as Vapor Compression Cycle. 9
10
11
 Used for preserving food by keeping it cool.
 Food lasts longer when kept at temperature just above
freezing temperature.
Parts of household refrigerator are:
1) Refrigerant: Refrigerant flows through all the internal parts
of the refrigerator.
It carries out the cooling effect in the evaporator.
2) Compressor: The compressor is located at the back of the

refrigerator and in the bottom area.
It takes in the refrigerant from the evaporator and
discharges it at high pressure and temperature.
Driven by the electric motor and is the major power
12
consuming device of the refrigerator.
3) Condenser:
Thin coil of copper tubing located at the back of the
refrigerator.
The refrigerant from compressor enters the condenser where
it is cooled by the atmospheric air, losing heat absorbed by it
in the evaporator and the compressor.
To increase the heat transfer rate of the condenser, it is
finned externally.
4) Expansive valve/ capillary tube:
The refrigerant leaving the condenser enters the expansion
device, which is the capillary tube in case of the domestic
refrigerators.
It is thin copper tubing made up of number of turns of the
copper coil. When refrigerant passed through the capillary its
pressure and temperature drops down suddenly. 13
5) Evaporator/chiller/freezer:
Refrigerant at very low pressure and temperature
enters the freezer.
Evaporator is the heat exchanger made up of
several turns of copper/aluminum tubing.
Refrigerant absorbs the heat from the substance to
be cooled in the evaporator, gets evaporated and it
enters the compressor.
This cycle keeps on repeating.
14
6) Temperature control device or thermostat:

To control the temperature inside the refrigerator
there is thermostat, whose sensor is connected to
the evaporator.
The thermostat setting can be done by the round
knob inside the refrigerator compartment.
When the set temperature is reached inside the
refrigerator , thermostat stops the electric supply to
the compressor and compressor stops and when
the temperature falls below certain level it restarts
the supply to the compressor.
15
7) Defrost system:
It helps removing the excess ice from the surface of
the evaporator.
The defrost system can be operated manually by
the thermostat button or there is automatic system
comprising of the electric heater and the timer.
8) Accumulator: If throttling action of capillary tube
not rapid enough to maintain pace with changing
load, chances that some refrigerant may leave
evaporator in liquid condition.
It is a safety device, prevents liquid refrigerant from
flowing into compressor. 16
• Refrigerant tubing: Passageway for circulation of

refrigerant, in liquid/vapour form.
• Cabinet: Space where food to be cooled is stored.
Cabinet walls insulated, which prevents heat
transfer.
Precautions during usage of refrigerator

 Should be placed at least 15-20 cm away from wall.
 Hot fluids should not be stored in.
 Stabilized electrical supply necessary to avoid
overloading of compressor. 17
Centrifugal and Reciprocating pump
S V Wagh
COEP Technological University, Pune
1
Centrifugal pump
2
Centrifugal pump
• The hydraulic machines which converts

mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
are called pumps.
• The hydraulic energy is the form of
pressure.
• If the mechanical energy is converted
into hydraulic energy by means of
centrifugal force acting on the fluid the
machine is called as centrifugal pump.
3
Construction of Centrifugal pump
Fig. Centrifugal pump 4

Strainer
5
Strainer and Foot valve
6
Impeller
7
Fig. Centrifugal pump
8
9
10
11
Construction of Centrifugal pump
12
Main parts of centrifugal pump.
The following are the main parts of

centrifugal pump.
1.Impeller
2.Casing
3.Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer
4.Delivery pipe.
13
1. Impeller
• The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is

called impeller.
• It consists of a series of backward curved
vanes.
• The impeller is mounted on a shaft of an
electric motor.
14
2. Casing
• It is an air-tight passage surrounding the
impeller and is designed such a way that the
kinetic energy of the water discharged at the
outlet of the impeller is converted into
pressure energy before the water leaves the
casing
15
2. Casing
• It is of spiral type in which area of flow
increases gradually.
• The increase in flow decreases the velocity
of flow.
• The decrease in velocity increase the
pressure of the water flowing through the
casing.
• In case of volute casing, the efficiency of
the pump increases slightly. 16
3. Suction pipe with a foot-valve and a
strainer
• A pipe whose one end is connected to the
inlet of the pump and the other end dips into
water in a sump is known as suction pipe.
• A foot valve which is a non-return (one way)
type valve is fitted at the lower end of the
suction pipe and opens only in the upward
direction.
• A strainer is also fitted at the lower end of the
suction pipe. 17
4. Delivery pipe
• A pipe whose one end is connected
to the outlet of the pump and the
other end delivers the water at a
required height is known as delivery
pipe.
18
"Head"
• Head is a term for expressing feet of water column
• Head can also be converted to pressure
Reservoir 100 feet

of Fluid
43.3 PSI
Pressure
Gauge
19
Centrifugal pump- Priming
• In a centrifugal pump, pressure is developed

by the impeller in rotation.
• The impeller should be completely filled with
water to develop maximum pressure.
• However, if the water leaks out, the impeller
runs in air and produces negligible pressure.
Hence the pump cannot suck water.
• To overcome the problem, the pump is filled
with water which is called as priming.
20
Centrifugal pump-Working
• That is the flow is in the radial outward
direction.
• The centrifugal pump works on the
principle of forced vortex flow which
means that when a certain mass of
liquid is rotated by an external torque,
the rise in pressure head of the rotating
liquid takes place. 21
Centrifugal pump-Working
• The rise in pressure head at any point of the
rotating liquid is proportional to the square
of the tangential velocity at that point.
• Thus at the outlet of the impeller where
radius is more, the rise in pressure head will
be more and the liquid will be discharged at
the outlet with a high pressure head.
• Due to this high pressure head, the liquid
can be lifted to a high level.
22
Reciprocating pump
23
Reciprocating pump
• Pumps convert mechanical energy in the

form of pressure energy.
• The mechanical energy is converted into

hydraulic energy by sucking the liquid into a
cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating
which exerts thrust on the liquid and
increases the hydraulic energy the pump is
called reciprocating pump.
24
Reciprocating pump
Fig. Reciprocating pump 25

Main parts of Reciprocating pump
The following are the main parts of

reciprocating pump
1. A cylinder with a piston rod, connecting
rod and a crank
2. Suction pipe
3. Delivery pipe
4. Suction valve and delivery valve
26
Reciprocating pump
27
28
Reciprocating pump
29
Reciprocating pump
30
Reciprocating pump
31
Reciprocating pump
32
Reciprocating pump
33
Reciprocating pump-Working
• A single acting reciprocating pump consists

of piston and cylinder arrangement.
• The movement of the piston is obtained by
connecting rod and crank.
• The crank is rotated by means of electric
motor.
• The suction and delivery valves are the non-
return valves which allows the water to flow
in one direction only.
34
Centrifugal and Reciprocating pump-comparison
S.N. Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating pump
1 Smooth non- Pulsating flow
pulsating flow
2 Simple construction Complicated construction
3 Compact, requires Occupies larger space
less space
4 Inexpensive and Expensive and difficult to
easy to maintain maintain
5 Low initial cost High initial cost
6 No excessive High pressure when
pressure when discharge valve is closed
discharge valve is , may cause damage to
closed pump 35
Centrifugal and Reciprocating pump-comparison
S.N Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating pump
7 Max. suction lift 4.5 m Max. suction lift above 4.5
m
8 Uniform torque Non-uniform torque
9 Installation is easy Installation is difficult
10 Low weight Weight is considerable
11 Can handle high Possibility of valve
viscous fluids-oils, blockage
sewage waste etc
12 It can create can produce very high
substantial pressure pressure up to 800 kg/cm2
36

Energy Conversion Devices

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Energy conversion devices

It deals with the study of behavior & application of

A basic pneumatic system consist of a source of

viii. For pneumatic conveying of

viii. For pneumatic gauging, inspection

An air compressor is a mechanical

This source is free of cost, safe, flexible

Air compressor has very few parts

• Air compressors are classified according to

(a) Positive displacement compressors work on the

(b) Dynamic compressors works on the

Fig. Classification of air compressor 9

• According to prime mover

Fig. Double stage reciprocating Air compressors 13

These are piston & diaphragm type, vane type,

The principle of operation is same but

A reciprocating air compressor consist

The piston receives power from electric

The compression of air is done by first

Fig. Single stage reciprocating air compressor 18

In this type the entire compression is carried out

 Single stage air compressor develop pressure upto 7 bar.

 For higher pressures multistage compressors are suitable

• It can not handle high pressure ratio

Fig. Cross-sectional view of double stage reciprocating air compressor

It consist of two cylinders –

The fresh air is drawn inside the L.P. cylinder

In high pressure cylinder this pressurised air is

Lower initial cost

• Number of moving parts are more

• Higher maintenance cost

• Heavy foundation is required as it has

• Cannot run at full capacity

• High pressure air is used for driving air

Fig. Centrifugal air compressor

It consist of a rotating impeller which rotates at

An impeller fitted inside casing force the air to the

 The compressed air leaves the compressor at its

 These compressors are used for continuous,

• These are also used in IC engine

• In gas turbine plants

• It can provide extremely high output

Fig: Axial flow compressor 37

Internal Combustion Engine

• Internal combustion (IC) engine

• Refrigerator and air conditioner

• Boiler and properties of steam

It can be defined as any engine that converts

Examples of heat engines

• On the basis of how thermal energy is

• Internal combustion engine and

• In an Internal combustion engine, combustion

– Petrol engine is an example of internal

• In an External combustion engine, working

– Steam engine is an example of

2. According to nature of combustion

3. According to cooling system used

4. According to ignition system used

6. According to nature of governing system used