ABSTRACT

The transfer of energy from a source to a receiver has traditionally

necessitated the use of a physical connection. Indeed, electrical grids and
power outlets span nearly the entire globe and deliver power to billions of
people worldwide. Recently, there has been much interest into the area of
wireless power transfer (WPT), that is, the transmission of power without the
need for a physical connection. WPT is an extremely useful technology that
has numerous applications and benefits. Cell phones, laptops and other
mobile devices could function without ever having to be plugged in, cars could
drive on highways burning no fossil fuels; wireless power even has the
potential to solve much of the renewable energy issues we face.
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION:
Wireless power transfer (WPT) or wireless energy transmission is the
transmission of electrical power from a power source to a consuming device
without using discrete manmade conductors. It is a generic term that refers to a
number of different power transmission technologies that use time-
varying electromagnetic fields. Wireless transmission is useful to power electrical
devices in cases where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or are
not possible. In wireless power transfer, a transmitter device connected to a power
source, such as the mains power line, transmits power by electromagnetic
fields across an intervening space to one or more receiver devices, where it is
converted back to electric power and utilized.
Wireless power techniques fall into two categories, non-radiative and
radiative. In near-field or non-radiativetechniques, power is transferred over short
distances by magnetic fields using inductive coupling between coils of wire or in a
few devices by electric fields using capacitive coupling between electrodes.[5]
[8]
Applications of this type are electric toothbrush chargers, RFID tags, smartcards,
and chargers for implantable medical devices like artificial cardiac pacemakers,
and inductive powering or charging of electric vehicles like trains or buses. A
current focus is to develop wireless systems to charge mobile and handheld
computing devices such as cellphones, digital music players and portable
computers without being tethered to a wall plug.

Overview

Generic block diagram of a wireless power system

"Wireless power transmission" is a collective term that refers to a number of
different technologies for transmitting power by means of time-
varying electromagnetic fields. The technologies, listed in the table below, differ in
the distance over which they can transmit power efficiently, whether the
transmitter must be aimed (directed) at the receiver, and in the type of
electromagnetic energy they use: time varying electric fields, magnetic fields, radio
waves, microwaves, or infrared or visible light waves.
In general a wireless power system consists of a "transmitter" device connected to
a source of power such as mains power lines, which converts the power to a time-
varying electromagnetic field, and one or more "receiver" devices which receive
the power and convert it back to DC or AC electric power which is consumed by
an electrical load. In the transmitter the input power is converted to an
oscillating electromagnetic field by some type of "antenna" device. The word
"antenna" is used loosely here; it may be a coil of wire which generates a magnetic
field, a metal plate which generates an electric field, an antenna which radiates
radio waves, or a laser which generates light. A similar antenna or coupling device
in the receiver converts the oscillating fields to an electric current. An important
parameter which determines the type of waves is the frequency f in hertz of the
oscillations. The frequency determines the wavelength λ = c/f of the waves which
carry the energy across the gap, where c is the velocity of light.
Wireless power uses the same fields and waves as wireless communication devices
like radio, another familiar technology which involves power transmitted without
wires by electromagnetic fields, used in cell phones, radio and television
broadcasting, and Wi-Fi. In radio communication the goal is the transmission of
information, so the amount of power reaching the receiver is unimportant as long
as it is enough that the signal to noise ratio is high enough that the information can
be received intelligibly. In wireless communication technologies generally only
tiny amounts of power reach the receiver. By contrast, in wireless power, the
amount of power received is the important thing, so the efficiency (fraction of
transmitted power that is received) is the more significant parameter. For this
reason wireless power technologies are more limited by distance than wireless
communication technologies
Resonant inductive coupling

Resonant inductive coupling (electrodynamic coupling, evanescent wave

coupling or strongly coupled magnetic resonance) is a form of inductive coupling
in which power is transferred by magnetic fields (Bbetween two resonant
circuits (tuned circuits), one in the transmitter and one in the receiver Each
resonant circuit consists of a coil of wire connected to a capacitor, or a self-
resonant coil or other resonator with internal capacitance. The two are tuned to
resonate at the same resonant frequency. The resonance between the coils can
greatly increase coupling and power transfer, analogously to the way a
vibrating tuning fork can induce sympathetic vibration in a distant fork tuned to the
same pitch. Nikola Tesla first discovered resonant coupling during his pioneering
experiments in wireless power transfer around the turn of the 20th century, [37][38]
[39]
but the possibilities of using resonant coupling to increase transmission range
has only recently been explored.[40] In 2007 a team led by Marin Soljačić at MIT
used two coupled tuned circuits each made of a 25 cm self-resonant coil of wire at
10 MHz to achieve the transmission of 60 W of power over a distance of 2 meters
(6.6 ft) (8 times the coil diameter) at around 40% efficiency.
The concept behind resonant inductive coupling is that high Q
factor resonators exchange energy at a much higher rate than they lose energy due
to internal damping. Therefore, by using resonance, the same amount of power can
be transferred at greater distances, using the much weaker magnetic fields out in
the peripheral regions ("tails") of the near fields (these are sometimes
called evanescent fields). Resonant inductive coupling can achieve high efficiency
at ranges of 4 to 10 times the coil diameter (Dant). This is called "mid-range"
transfer, in contrast to the "short range" of non-resonant inductive transfer, which
can achieve similar efficiencies only when the coils are adjacent. Another
advantage is that resonant circuits interact with each other so much more strongly
than they do with non-resonant objects that power losses due to absorption in stray
nearby objects are negligible. A drawback of resonant coupling is that at close
ranges when the two resonant circuits are tightly coupled, the resonant frequency
of the system is no longer constant but "splits" into two resonant peaks, so the
maximum power transfer no longer occurs at the original resonant frequency and
the oscillator frequency must be tuned to the new resonance peak.
Resonant technology is currently being widely incorporated in modern inductive
wireless power systems.[32] One of the possibilities envisioned for this technology
is area wireless power coverage. A coil in the wall or ceiling of a room might be
able to wirelessly power lights and mobile devices anywhere in the room, with
reasonable efficiency. An environmental and economic benefit of wirelessly
powering small devices such as clocks, radios, music players and remote
controls is that it could drastically reduce the 6 billion batteries disposed of each
year, a large source of toxic waste and groundwater contamination.
Benefits of Wireless Power
 Reduce costs associated with maintaining direct connectors
 Greater convenience for the charging of everyday electronic devices
 Safe power transfer to applications that need to remain sterile or
hermetically sealed
 Electronics can be fully enclosed, reducing the risk of corrosion due to
elements such as oxygen and water.
 Robust and consistent power delivery to rotating, highly mobile industrial
equipment
 Delivers reliable power transfer to mission critical systems in wet, dirty and
moving environments.
VOLTAGE CONVERTER
A voltage converter changes the voltage of an electrical power source and is
usually combined with other components to create a power supply. The term
"voltage converter" is sometimes used as a generic term for a power supply. A
voltage converter or a power supply may be called a "transformer" even if it does
not contain an actual transformer as the term is used in electronics.
A common use of the term voltage converter is for a device that allows
appliances made for the voltage of one geographical region to operate from the
power outlets of another area.[1] Most single phase alternating current electrical
outlets in the world supply power at 210 to 230 volts or at 100 to 125 volts.
Converters usually can only double or halve the voltage, but some can do both.
Often these are sold with plug end adaptors that provide physical
compatibility of normally-incompatible plugs and sockets.
There are a number of methods for converting voltage. For Alternating
current (AC) a transformer can be used to decrease or increase the voltage. The
common power supplies for small electronics usually have a transformer that drops
the voltage down to relatively small voltage ranging from 4.5 to 12 volts, a full-
wave rectifier to convert the AC to a pulsed Direct Current and some additional
components to flatten the wave. Some devices have only a transformer in the
external power supply with any rectifier or additional power conditioning provided
inside the appliance.
Voltage converters sold for use in cars with 12 volt Direct Current outlets
almost always have no transformer and instead use a Zener diode to drop the DC
voltage with a relatively large power loss as heat. Converting a low DC voltage to
a high DC voltage requires conversion to AC, the use of a transformer to increase
the voltage and then a rectifier and conditioning circuit to convert it back to DC.
Going through an AC step can also be used to drop voltage. For example one
might use an inverter to produce 110 AC current from a car's electrical system and
then use the conventional power supply that came with the device.
There are two types of voltage converters, step up and step down. Step up converts
from 110 volts to 230 volts and step down will convert from 230 volts to 110 volts.
Most voltage converters convert both ways.
DC to DC converter
A DC to DC converter is a circuit which converts a source of direct current
(DC) from one voltage level to another. It is a class of power converter. DC to DC
converters are important in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones and
laptop computers, which are supplied with power from batteries primarily. Such
electronic devices often contain several sub-circuits, each with its own voltage
level requirement different than that supplied by the battery or an external supply
(sometimes higher or lower than the supply voltage, and possibly even negative
voltage). Additionally, the battery voltage declines as its stored power is drained.
Switched DC to DC converters offer a method to increase voltage from a partially
lowered battery voltage thereby saving space instead of using multiple batteries to
accomplish the same thing.

Conversion methods
Linear regulators can output a lower, but not a higher, voltage from the
input. They are very inefficient if the voltage drop is large and the current high as
they dissipate as heat power equal to the product of the output current and the
voltage drop; consequently they are not normally used for large-drop high-current
applications.
The inefficiency wastes power and requires higher-rated, and consequently
more expensive and larger, components. The heat dissipated by high-power
supplies is a problem in itself as it must be removed from the circuitry to prevent
unacceptable temperature rises.
They are practical if the current is low, the power dissipated being small,
although it may still be a large fraction of the total power consumed. They are
often used as part of a simple regulated power supply for higher currents: a
transformer generates a voltage which, when rectified, is a little higher than that
needed to bias the linear regulator. The linear regulator drops the excess voltage,
reducing hum-generating ripple current and providing a constant output voltage
independent of normal fluctuations of the unregulated input voltage from the
transformer / bridge rectifier circuit and of the load current.
Linear regulators are inexpensive, reliable if good heat sinking is used and
much simpler than switching regulators. As part of a power supply they may
require a transformer, which is larger for a given power level than that required by
a switch-mode power supply. Linear regulators can provide a very low-noise
output voltage, and are very suitable for powering noise-sensitive low-power
analog and radio frequency circuits. A popular design approach is to use an LDO,
Low Drop-out Regulator that provides a local "point of load" DC supply to a low
power circuit.

Switched-mode conversion
Electronic switch-mode DC to DC converters convert one DC voltage level
to another, by storing the input energy temporarily and then releasing that energy
to the output at a different voltage. The storage may be in either magnetic field
storage components (inductors, transformers) or electric field storage components
(capacitors). This conversion method is more power efficient (often 75% to 98%)
than linear voltage regulation (which dissipates unwanted power as heat). This
efficiency is beneficial to increasing the running time of battery operated devices.
The efficiency has increased in since the late 1980's due to the use of power FETs,
which are able to switch at high frequency more efficiently than power bipolar
transistors, which have more switching losses and require a more complex drive
circuit. Another important innovation in DC-DC converters is the use of
synchronous switching which replaces the flywheel diode with a power FET with
low "On" resistance, there by reducing switching losses.
Drawbacks of switching converters include complexity, electronic noise
(EMI / RFI) and to some extent cost, although this has come down with advances
in chip design.
DC to DC converters are now available as integrated circuits needing
minimal additional components. DC to DC converters are also available as a
complete hybrid circuit component, ready for use within an electronic assembly.

Magnetic
In these DC to DC converters, energy is periodically stored into and released
from a magnetic field in an inductor or a transformer, typically in the range from
300 kHz to 500 MHz. By adjusting the duty cycle of the charging voltage, that is
the ratio of on/off time, the amount of power transferred can be controlled.
Usually, this is done to control the output voltage, though it could be done to
control the input current, the output current, or maintaining a constant power.
Transformer based converters may provide isolation between the input and the
output. In general, the term "DC to DC converter" refers to one of these switching
converters. These circuits are the heart of a switched-mode power supply. Many
topologies exist. This table shows the most common.
In addition, each topology may be:
 Hard switched - transistors switch quickly while exposed to both full
voltage and full current
  Resonant - an LC circuit shapes the voltage across the transistor and current
through it so that the transistor switches when either the voltage or the
current is zero

Magnetic DC to DC converters may be operated in two modes, according to the

current in its main magnetic component (inductor or transformer):
 Continuous - the current fluctuates but never goes down to zero
 Discontinuous - the current fluctuates during the cycle, going down to zero
at or before the end of each cycle
A converter may be designed to operate in Continuous mode at high power, and
in Discontinuous mode at low power.,
The Half Bridge and Flyback topologies are similar in that energy stored in the
magnetic core needs to be dissipated so that the core does not saturate. Power
transmission in a flyback circuit is limited by the amount of energy that can be
stored in the core, while forward circuits are usually limited by the I/V
characteristics of the switches.
Mosfet switches can tolerate simultaneous full current and voltage (although
thermal stress and electromigration can shorten the MTBF), bipolar switches
generally don't so require the use of a snubber (or two).

Capacitive
Switched capacitor converters rely on alternately connecting capacitors to
the input and output in differing topologies. For example, a switched-capacitor
reducing converter might charge two capacitors in series and then discharge them
in parallel. This would produce an output voltage of half the input voltage, but at
twice the current (minus various inefficiencies). Because they operate on discrete
quantities of charge, these are also sometimes referred to as charge pump
converters. They are typically used in applications requiring relatively small
amounts of current, as at higher current loads the increased efficiency and smaller
size of switch-mode converters makes them a better choice.[citation needed] They are
also used at extremely high voltages, as magnetics would break down at such
voltages.
Electrochemical
A further means of DC to DC conversion in the kW to many MW range is
presented by using redox flow batteries such as the vanadium redox battery,
although this technique has not been applied commercially to date.
Step-down DC/DC converter input ripple and noise
This application note discusses the proper methods for measuring input and
output noise of a high frequency DC/DC converter. Without proper measurement
techniques, the high frequency noise component can easily be overestimated.
When necessary, simple methods are available to reduce input noise and the impact
it may have on other devices.
When a step-down converter shares a common input voltage with other
devices, the input noise generated by the step-down converter may be sufficient to
cause interference with the other devices. Simple filter methods can be used to
reduce the input noise, and simple models can be developed characterise the
circuit. Two circuit models&#mdash;one for the fundamental switching frequency
ripple component and one for the high frequency noise&#mdash; simplify the
analyses. In most cases, a ceramic bypass capacitor placed close to devices that
share the common input voltage is sufficient. A ferrite bead placed between the
converter input and other devices powered from the same source attenuates the
converter input noise.
Class D:
The purpose of a radio frequency power amplifier is to deliver, with
reasonable efficiency, a sinusoidal signal having low harmonics and other
spurious components. Rf power amplifiers are classified by the operation of their
output transistors. Classes A to C uses transistors in the active region, so they are
generally unsuitable for use in power converters, where efficiency is far more
important than signal purity.
To increase efficiency, the transistors may instead be operated as
switches. Class D is a two-switch topology in which the switches conduct on
alternate half cycles, each with a conduction angle approaching 180°. A series
resonant tank converts the square voltage waveform into a sinusoidal load current.
Literature review:
 Nabae, I. Takahashi, and H. Akagi, “A new neutral-point-clamped PWM
inverter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. IA-17, no. 5, pp. 518–523, Sep. 1981.
A new neutral-point-clamped pulsewidth modulation (PWM) inverter composed of
main switching devices which operate as switches for PWM and auxiliary
switching devices to clamp the output terminal potential to the neutral point
potential has been developed. This inverter output contains less harmonic content
as compared with that of a conventional type. Two inverters are compared
analytically and experimentally. In addition, a new PWM technique suitable for an
ac drive system is applied to this inverter. The neutral-point-clamped PWM
inverter adopting the new PWM technique shows an excellent drive system
efficiency, including motor efficiency, and is appropriate for a wide-range
variable-speed drive system.

 F. Zhang, F. Z. Peng, and Z. Qian, “Study of the multilevel converters in

DC-DC applications,” in Proc. IEEE 35th Annu. Power Electron. Spec.
Conf., Jun. 2004, pp. 1702–1706, vol. 2.
Multilevel converters have been demonstrated to have many advantages such as
low harmonic, low voltage stress, and high power capability. However, most of the
researches are focused on high power AC-DC and DC-AC applications. This paper
presents several multilevel DC-DC converters, which can be used in automotive
applications as well as in high power applications. Based on the diode-clamp,
flying-capacitor, and cascaded multilevel inverters, their correlative DC-DC
converters are derived.

 D. Ma et al., “Single-inductor multiple-output switching converters with

time-multiplexing control in discontinuous conduction mode,” IEEE J.
Solid-State Circuits, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 89–100, Jan. 2003.
An integrated single-inductor dual-output boost converter is presented. This
converter adopts time-multiplexing control in providing two independent supply
voltages (3.0 and 3.6 V) using only one 1-/spl mu/H off-chip inductor and a single
control loop. This converter is analyzed and compared with existing counterparts
in the aspects of integration, architecture, control scheme, and system stability.
Implementation of the power stage, the controller, and the peripheral functional
blocks is discussed.
CHAPTER

A grid-tied electrical system, also called tied to grid or grid tie system, is a semi-
autonomous electrical generation or grid energy storage system which links to the
mains to feed excess capacity back to the local mains electrical grid. When
insufficient electricity is available, electricity drawn from the mains grid can make
up the shortfall. Conversely when excess electricity is available, it is sent to the
mains grid. When the Utility or network operator restricts the amount of energy
that goes into the grid, it is possible to prevent any input into the grid by installing
Export Limiting devices.

When batteries are used for storage, the system is called battery-to-grid (B2G),
which includes vehicle-to-grid (V2G).

How it works
Grid-tied Inverter

Direct Current (DC) electricity from sources such as hydro, wind or solar is passed
to an inverter which is grid tied. The inverter monitors the alternating current
mains supply frequency and generates electricity that is phase matched to the
mains. When the grid fails to accept power during a "black out", most inverters can
continue to provide courtesy power.

Battery-to-grid

A key concept of this system is the possibility of creating an electrical micro-

system that is not dependent on the grid-tie to provide a high level quality of
service. If the mains supply of the region is unreliable, the local generation system
can be used to power important equipment.

Battery-to-grid can also spare the use of fossil fuel power plants to supply energy
during peak loads on the public electric grid. Regions that charge based on time of
use metering may benefit by using stored battery power during prime time.

Environmentally friendly

Local generation can be from an environmentally friendly source such as pico

hydro, solar panels or a wind turbine. Individuals can choose to install their own
system if an environmentally friendly mains provider is not available in their
location.

Small scale start

A micro generation facility can be started with a very small system such as a home
wind power generation, photovoltaic (solar cells) generation, or micro combined
heat and power (Micro-CHP)[1] system.

Sell to and buy from mains

 Excess electricity can be sold to mains.

 Electrical shortfall can be bought from mains.

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) describes a system in which plug-in electric vehicles, such

as battery electric vehicles (BEV), plug-in hybrids (PHEV) or hydrogen fuel cell
electric vehicles (FCEV), communicate with the power grid to sell demand
response services by either returning electricity to the grid or by throttling their
charging rate.[1][2][3] V2G storage capabilities can enable EVs to store and discharge
electricity generated from renewable energy sources such as solar and wind, with
output that fluctuates depending on weather and time of day.[4]

V2G can be used with gridable vehicles, that is, plug-in electric vehicles (BEV and
PHEV), with grid capacity. Since at any given time 95 percent of cars are parked,
the batteries in electric vehicles could be used to let electricity flow from the car to
the electric distribution network and back. A 2015 report on potential earnings
associated with V2G found that with proper regulatory support, vehicle owners
could earn $454, $394, and $318 per year depending on whether their average
daily drive was 32, 64, or 97 km (20, 40, or 60 miles), respectively.

Batteries have a finite number of charging cycles, as well as a shelf-life, therefore

using vehicles as grid storage can impact battery longevity. Studies that cycle
batteries two or more times per day have shown large decreases in capacity and
greatly shortened life. However, battery capacity is a complex function of factors
such as battery chemistry, charging and discharging rate, temperature, state of
charge and age. Most studies with slower discharge rates show only a few percent
of additional degradation while one study has suggested that using vehicles for grid
storage could improve longevity.[6]

Sometimes the modulation of charging of a fleet of electric vehicles by an

aggregator to offer services to the grid but without actual electrical flow from the
vehicles to the grid is called unidirectional V2G, as opposed to the bidirectional
V2G that is generally discussed in this article.[7][8]

Applications

Peak load leveling]

The concept allows V2G vehicles to provide power to help balance loads by
"valley filling"[9] (charging at night when demand is low) and "peak shaving"
(sending power back to the grid when demand is high, see duck curve).[10] Peak
load leveling can enable new ways for utilities to provide regulation
services (keeping voltage and frequency stable) and provide spinning
reserves (meet sudden demands for power). These services coupled with "smart-
meters" would allow V2G vehicles to give power back to the grid and in return,
receive monetary benefits based on how much power given back to the grid.[11] In
its current development, it has been proposed that such use of electric vehicles
could buffer renewable power sources such as wind power for example, by storing
excess energy produced during windy periods and providing it back to the grid
during high load periods, thus effectively stabilizing the intermittency of wind
power. Some see this application of vehicle-to-grid technology as an approach to
help renewable energy become a base load electricity technology.

It has been proposed that public utilities would not have to build as many natural
gas or coal-fired power plants to meet peak demand or as an insurance policy
against power outages.[12] Since demand can be measured locally by a simple
frequency measurement, dynamic load leveling can be provided as needed.
[13]
Carbitrage, a portmanteau of 'car' and 'arbitrage', is sometimes used to refer to
the minimum price of electricity at which a vehicle would discharge its battery.[14]

Backup power[edit]

Modern electric vehicles can generally store in their batteries more than an average
home's daily energy demand. Even without a PHEV's gas generation capabilities
such a vehicle could be used for emergency power for several days (for example,
lighting, home appliances, etc.). This would be an example of Vehicle-to-home
transmission (V2H). As such they may be seen as a complementary technology for
intermittent renewable power resources such as wind or solar electric.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCV) with tanks containing up to 5.6 kg of hydrogen
can deliver more than 90 kWh of electricity.[15]

Types of V2G]

Unidirectional V2G or V1G]

Many of the grid-scale benefits of V2G can be accomplished with unidirectional

V2G, also known as V1G or "smart charging". The California Independent System
Operator (CAISO) defines V1G as "unidirectional managed charging services" and
defines the four levels of Vehicle-Grid Interface (VGI), which encompasses all of
the ways that EVs can provide grid services, as follows:[16]

1. Unidirectional power flow (V1G) with one resource and unified actors
2. V1G with aggregated resources

3. V1G with fragmented actor objectives

4. Bidirectional power flow (V2G)

V1G involves varying the time or rate at which an electric vehicle is charged in
order to provide ancillary services to the grid, while V2G also includes reverse
power flow. V1G includes applications such as timing vehicles to charge in the
middle of the day to absorb excess solar generation, or varying the charge rate of
electric vehicles to provide frequency response services or load balancing services.

V1G may be the best option to begin integrating EVs as controllable loads onto the
electric grid due to technical issues that currently exist with regards to the
feasibility of V2G. V2G requires specialized hardware (especially bi-directional
inverters), has fairly high losses and limited round-trip efficiency, and may
contribute to EV battery degradation due to increased energy throughput.
Additionally, revenues from V2G in an SCE pilot project were lower than the costs
of administering the project,[17] indicating that V2G still has a ways to go before
being economically feasible.

Bidirectional local V2G (V2H , V2B, V2X

Vehicle-to-home (V2H) or vehicle-to-building (V2B) or vehicle-to-everything

(V2X) do not typically directly affect grid performance but creates a balance
within the local environment.[18] The electric vehicle is used as a residential back-
up power supply during periods of power outage or for increasing self-
consumption of energy produced on-site (demand charge avoidance).

Unlike more mature V1G solutions, V2X has not yet reached market deployment,
apart from Japan where commercial V2H solutions have been available since 2012
as back-up a solution in case of electricity black-out.[19][20]

Bidirectional V2G

With V2G, the electric vehicles could be equipped to actually provide electricity to
the grid. The utility or transmission system operator may be willing to purchase
energy from customers during periods of peak demand[21], or to use the EV battery
capacity for providing ancillary services[22], such as balancing and frequency
control, including primary frequency regulation and secondary reserve. Thus, V2G
is in most applications deemed to have higher potential commercial value than
V2B or V2H.

Efficiency

Most modern battery electric vehicles use lithium-ion cells that can achieve round-
trip efficiency greater than 90%.[23] The efficiency of the battery depends on factors
like charge rate, charge state, battery state of health, and temperature.[24][25]
The majority of losses, however, are in system components other than the battery.
Power electronics, such as inverters, typically dominate overall losses.[26] A study
found overall round-trip efficiency for V2G system in the range of 53% to 62%'.
[27]
Another study reports an efficiency of about 70%.[28] The overall efficiency
however depends on several factors and can vary widely.[26]

Implementation by country

A study conducted in 2012 by the Idaho National Laboratory[29] revealed the

following estimations and future plans for V2G in various countries. It is important
to note that this is difficult to quantify because the technology is still in its nascent
stage, and is therefore difficult to reliably predict adoption of the technology
around the world. The following list is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather to
give an idea of the scope of development and progress in these areas around the
world.

United StatesPJM Interconnection has envisioned using US Postal Service trucks,

school buses and garbage trucks that remain unused overnight for grid connection.
[citation needed]
This could generate millions of dollars because these companies aid in
storing and stabilizing some of the national grid's energy. The United States was
projected to have one million electric vehicles on the road between 2015 and 2019.
Studies indicate that 160 new power plants will need to be built by 2020 to
compensate for electric vehicles if integration with the grid does not move forward.
[citation needed]

In North America, at least two major school-bus manufacturers—Blue Bird and

Lion—are working on proving the benefits of electrification and vehicle-to-grid
technology. As school buses in the U.S. currently use $3.2B of diesel a year, their
electrification can help stabilize the electrical grid, lessen the need for new power
plants, and reduce kids’ exposure to cancer-causing exhaust.[30]

In 2017, at the University of California San Diego, V2G technology provider

Nuvve launched a pilot program called INVENT, funded by the California Energy
Commission, with the installation of 50 V2G bi-directional charging stations
around the campus.[31] The program expanded in 2018 to include a fleet of EVs for
its free nighttime shuttle service, Triton Rides.[32]

In 2018, Nissan launched a pilot program under the Nissan Energy Share initiative
in partnership with vehicle-to-grid systems company Fermata Energy seeking to
use bi-directional charging technology to partially power Nissan North America's
headquarters in Franklin, Tn.[33] In 2020 Fermata Energy’s bidirectional electric
vehicle charging system became the first to be certified to the North American
safety standard, UL 9741, the Standard for Bidirectional Electric Vehicle (EV)
Charging System Equipment.[34]

Japan

In order to meet the 2030 target of 10 percent of Japan's energy being generated by
renewable resources, a cost of $71.1 billion will be required for the upgrades of
existing grid infrastructure. The Japanese charging infrastructure market is
projected to grow from $118.6 million to $1.2 billion between 2015 and 2020. [citation
needed]
Starting in 2012, Nissan plans to bring to market a kit compatible with the
LEAF EV that will be able to provide power back into a Japanese home. Currently,
there is a prototype being tested in Japan. Average Japanese homes use 10 to 12
KWh/day, and with the LEAF's 24 KWh battery capacity, this kit could potentially
provide up to two days of power.[citation needed] Production in additional markets will
follow upon Nissan's ability to properly complete adaptations.
In November 2018 in Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture, Toyota Tsusho Corporation
and Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc initiated charging and discharging
demonstrations with storage batteries of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid
vehicles using V2G technology. The demonstration examines how to excel the
ability of V2G systems to balance demand and supply of electricity is and what
impacts V2G has on the power grid. In addition to ordinary usage of EVs/PHVs
such as by transportation, the group is producing new values of EVs/PHVs by
providing V2G services even when EVs/PHVs are parked. Two bi-directional
charging stations, connected to a V2G aggregation server managed by Nuvve
Corporation, have been installed at a parking lot in Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture
to conduct the demonstration test. The group aims to assess the capacity of
EVs/PHVs to balance out demand and supply of electrical power by charging
EVs/PHVs and supplying electrical power to the grid from EVs/PHVs.[35]

Denmark]

Denmark is one of the world's largest wind-based power generators.[36] Initially,

Denmark's goal is to replace 10% of all vehicles with PEVs, with an ultimate goal
of a complete replacement to follow. The Edison Project implements a new set of
goals that will allow enough turbines to be built to accommodate 50% of total
power while using V2G to prevent negative impacts to the grid. Because of the
unpredictability of wind, the Edison Project plans to use PEVs while they are
plugged into the grid to store additional wind energy that the grid cannot handle.
Then, during peak energy use hours, or when the wind is calm, the power stored in
these PEVs will be fed back into the grid. To aid in the acceptance of EVs, policies
have been enforced that create a tax differential between zero emission cars and
traditional automobiles. The Danish PEV market value is expected to grow from
$50 to $380 million between 2015 and 2020. PEV developmental progress and
advancements pertaining to the use of renewable energy resources will make
Denmark a market leader with respect to V2G innovation (ZigBee 2010).

Following the Edison project, the Nikola project was started[37] which focused on
demonstrating the V2G technology in a lab setting, located at the Risø Campus
(DTU). DTU is a partner along with Nuvve and Nissan. The Nikola project
completed in 2016, laying the groundwork for Parker, which uses a fleet of EVs to
demonstrate the technology in a real-life setting. This project is partnered by DTU,
[38]
Insero, Nuvve, Nissan and Frederiksberg Forsyning (Danish DSO in
Copenhagen). Besides demonstrating the technology the project also aims to clear
the path for V2G-integration with other OEMs as well as calculating the business
case for several types of V2G, such as Adaptive charging, overload protection,
peak shaving, emergency backup and frequency balancing. In the project the
partners explored the most viable commercial opportunities by systematically
testing and demonstrating V2G services across car brands. Here, economic and
regulatory barriers were identified as well as the economic and technical impacts
of the applications on the power system and markets.[39] The project started in
August 2016 and ended in September 2018.

United Kingdom

The V2G market in the UK will be stimulated by aggressive smart grid and PEV
rollouts. Starting in January 2011, programs and strategies to assist in PEV have
been implemented. The UK has begun devising strategies to increase the speed of
adoption of EVs. This includes providing universal high-speed internet for use
with smart grid meters, because most V2G-capable PEVs will not coordinate with
the larger grid without it. The "Electric Delivery Plan for London" states that by
2015, there will be 500 on-road charging stations; 2,000 stations off-road in car
parks; and 22,000 privately owned stations installed. Local grid substations will
need to be upgraded for drivers who cannot park on their own property. By 2020 in
the UK, every residential home will have been offered a smart meter, and about 1.7
million PEVs should be on the road. The UK's electric vehicle market value is
projected to grow from $0.1 to $1.3 billion between 2015 and 2020 (ZigBee 2010).

In 2018, EDF Energy announced a partnership with a leading green technology

company, Nuvve, to install up to 1,500 Vehicle to Grid (V2G) chargers in the UK.
The chargers will be offered to EDF Energy’s business customers and will be used
at its own sites to provide up to 15 MW of additional energy storage capacity.
That’s the equivalent amount of energy required to power 4,000 homes. The stored
electricity will be made available for sale on the energy markets or for supporting
grid flexibility at times of peak energy use. EDF Energy is the largest electricity
supplier to UK businesses and its partnership with Nuvve could see the largest
deployment of V2G chargers so far in this country.

In fall 2019, a consortium called Vehicle to Grid Britain (V2GB) released a

research report on the potential of V2G technologies.

Research

Edison

Denmark's Edison project, an abbreviation for 'Electric vehicles in a Distributed

and Integrated market using Sustainable energy and Open Networks' was a
partially state funded research project on the island of Bornholm in Eastern
Denmark. The consortium of IBM, Siemens the hardware and software developer
EURISCO, Denmark's largest energy company Ørsted (formerly DONG Energy),
the regional energy company Østkraft, the Technical University of Denmark and
the Danish Energy Association, explored how to balance the unpredictable
electricity loads generated by Denmark's many wind farms, currently generating
approximately 20 percent of the country's total electricity production, by using
electric vehicles (EV) and their accumulators. The aim of the project is to develop
infrastructure that enables EVs to intelligently communicate with the grid to
determine when charging, and ultimately discharging, can take place.[43] At least
one rebuild V2G capable Toyota Scion will be used in the project.[44] The project is
key in Denmark's ambitions to expand its wind-power generation to 50% by 2020.
[45]
According to a source of British newspaper The Guardian 'It's never been tried
at this scale' previously.[46] The project concluded in 2013.[47]

Southwest Research Institute

In 2014, Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) developed the first vehicle-to-grid

aggregation system qualified by the Electric Reliability Council of
Texas (ERCOT). The system allows for owners of electric delivery truck fleets to
make money by assisting in managing the grid frequency. When the electric grid
frequency drops below 60 Hertz, the system suspends vehicle charging which
removes the load on the grid thus allowing the frequency to rise to a normal level.
The system is the first of its kind because it operates autonomously.[48]

The system was originally developed as part of the Smart Power Infrastructure
Demonstration for Energy Reliability and Security (SPIDERS) Phase II program,
led by Burns and McDonnell Engineering Company, Inc. The goals of the
SPIDERS program are to increase energy security in the event of power loss from
a physical or cyber disruption, provide emergency power, and manage the grid
more efficiently.[49] In November 2012, SwRI was awarded a $7 million contract
from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to demonstrate the integration of vehicle-
to-grid technologies as a source for emergency power at Fort Carson, Colorado.
[50]
In 2013, SwRI researchers tested five DC fast-charge stations at the army post.
The system passed integration and acceptance testing in August 2013.[51]
Delft University of Technology

Prof. Dr. Ad van Wijk, Vincent Oldenbroek and Dr. Carla Robledo, researchers
at Delft University of Technology, in 2016 conducted research on V2G technology
with hydrogen FCEVs. Both experimental work with V2G FCEVs and techno-
economic scenario studies for 100% renewable integrated energy and transport
systems are done, using only hydrogen and electricity as energy carriers.[52] They
modified a Hyundai ix35 FCEV together with Hyundai R&D so it can deliver up to
10 kW DC Power[3] while maintaining road access permit. They developed
together with the company Accenda b.v. a V2G unit converting the DC power of
the FCEV into 3-phase AC power and injecting it into the Dutch national
electricity grid.[3] The Future Energy Systems Group also recently did tests with
their V2G FCEVs whether it could offer frequency reserves. Based on the positive
outcome of the tests an MSc thesis was published looking into the technical and
economic feasibility assessment of a hydrogen and FCEV based Car Park as Power
Plant offering frequency reserves.[53]

University of Delaware

Willett Kempton, Suresh Advani, and Ajay Prasad are the researchers at
the University of Delaware who are currently conducting research on the V2G
technology, with Dr. Kempton being the lead on the project. Dr. Kempton has
published a number of articles on the technology and the concept, many of which
can be found on the V2G project page. The group is involved in researching the
technology itself, as well as its performance when used on the grid. In addition to
the technical research, the team has worked with Dr. Meryl Gardner, a marketing
professor in the Alfred Lerner College of Business and Economic at the University
of Delaware, to develop marketing strategies for both consumer and corporate fleet
adoption. A 2006 Toyota Scion xB car was modified for testing in 2007.
In 2010, Kempton and Gregory Poilasne co-founded Nuvve, a V2G solutions
company. The company has formed a number of industry partnerships and
implemented V2G pilot projects on five continents worldwide.

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

At Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Dr. Samveg Saxena currently serves

as the project lead for Vehicle-to-Grid Simulator (V2G-Sim).[58] V2G-Sim is a
simulation platform tool used to model spatial and temporal driving and charging
behavior of individual plug-in electric vehicles on the electric grid. Its models are
used to investigate the challenges and opportunities of V2G services, such as
modulation of charging time and charging rate for peak demand
response and utility frequency regulation. V2G-Sim has also been used to research
the potential of plug-in electric vehicles for renewable energy integration.
Preliminary findings using V2G-Sim have shown controlled V2G service can
provide peak-shaving and valley-filling services to balance daily electric load and
mitigate the duck curve. On the contrary, uncontrolled vehicle charging was shown
to exacerbate the duck curve. The study also found that even at 20 percent fade in
capacity, EV batteries still met the needs of 85 percent of drivers.[59]

In another research initiative at Lawrence Berkeley Lab using V2G-Sim, V2G

services were shown to have minor battery degradation impacts on electric vehicles
as compared to cycling losses and calendar aging.[60] In this study, three electric
vehicles with different daily driving itineraries were modelled over a ten-year time
horizon, with and without V2G services. Assuming daily V2G service from 7PM
to 9PM at a charging rate of 1.440 kW, the capacity losses of the electric vehicles
due to V2G over ten years were 2.68%, 2.66%, and 2.62%.

Nissan and Enel

In May 2016, Nissan and Enel power company announced a collaborative V2G
trial project in the United Kingdom, the first of its kind in the country.[61] The trial
comprises 100 V2G charging units to be used by Nissan Leaf and e-NV200 electric
van users. The project claims electric vehicle owners will be able to sell stored
energy back to the grid at a profit.

One notable V2G project in the United States is at the University of Delaware,
where a V2G team headed by Dr. Willett Kempton has been conducting on-going
research. An early operational implementation in Europe was conducted via the
German government-funded MeRegioMobil project at the "KIT Smart Energy
Home" of Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in cooperation with Opel as vehicle
partner and utility EnBW providing grid expertise. Their goals are to educate the
public about the environmental and economic benefits of V2G and enhance the
product market. Other investigators are the Pacific Gas and Electric
Company, Xcel Energy, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and, in
the United Kingdom, the University of Warwick.[63]

University of Warwick

WMG and Jaguar Land Rover collaborated with the Energy and Electrical Systems
group of the university. Dr Kotub Uddin analysed lithium ion batteries from
commercially available EVs over a two year period. He created a model of battery
degradation and discovered that some patterns of vehicle-to-grid storage were able
to significantly increase the longevity of the vehicle's battery over conventional
charging strategies, while permitting them to be driven in normal ways. [64]

Skepticism

There is some skepticism among experts about the feasibility of V2G and several
studies have questioned the concept's economic rationale. For example, a 2015
study[65] found that economic analyses favorable to V2G fail to include many of the
less obvious costs associated with its implementation. When these less obvious
costs are included, the study finds that V2G represents an economically inefficient
solution.

The more a battery is used the sooner it needs replacing. Replacement cost is
approximately 1/3 the cost of the electric car. Over their lifespan, batteries degrade
progressively with reduced capacity, cycle life, and safety due to chemical changes
to the electrodes. Capacity loss/fade is expressed as a percentage of initial capacity
after a number of cycles (e.g., 30% loss after 1,000 cycles). Cycling loss is due to
usage and depends on both the maximum state of charge and the depth of
discharge.JB Straubel, CTO of Tesla Inc., discounts V2G because battery wear
outweighs economic benefit. He also prefers recycling over re-use for grid once
batteries have reached the end of their useful car life.[68] A 2017 study found
decreasing capacity,[69][70] and a 2012 hybrid-EV study found minor benefit.

Another common criticism is related to the overall efficiency of the process.

Charging a battery system and returning that energy from the battery to the grid,
which includes "inverting" the DC power back to AC inevitably incurs some
losses. This needs to be factored against potential cost savings, along with
increased emissions if the original source of power is fossil based. This cycle of
energy efficiency may be compared with the 70–80% efficiency of large-
scale pumped-storage hydroelectricity,[72] which is however limited by geography,
water resources and environment.

Additionally, in order for V2G to work, it must be on a large scale basis. Power
companies must be willing to adopt the technology in order to allow vehicles to
give power back to the power grid.[10] With vehicles giving power back to the grid,
the aforementioned "smart-meters" would have to be in place in order to measure
the amount of power being transferred to the grid

Vehicles

There are several electric vehicles that have been specially modified or are
designed to be compatible with V2G. Hyundai ix35 FCEV from Delft University
of Technology is modified with a 10 kW DC V2G output.[15] Two vehicles that
have a theoretical V2G capability include the Nissan Leaf and Nissan e-NV200.[73]
CHAPTER

SIMULATION

Introduction:

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates

computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation.Typical
uses include

 Math and computation

 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development, including graphical user interface building

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing
problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the
time it would take to write a program in a scalar non interactive language such as C
or Fortran.

The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally
written to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and
EISPACK projects. Today, MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK and
BLAS libraries, embedding the state of the art in software for matrix computation

MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In
university environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and
advanced courses in mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB
is the tool of choice for high-productivity research, development, and analysis.
MATLAB features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called
toolboxes .Very important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to
learn and apply specialized technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections
of MATLAB functions (M-files) that extend the MATLAB environment to solve
particular classes of problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available include
signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets,
simulation, and many others.

SimPowerSystems:

SimPowerSystems and other products of the Physical Modeling product family

work together with Simulink® to model electrical, mechanical, and control
systems. SimPower Systems operates in the Simulink environment. Therefore,
before starting this user's guide, you should be familiar with Simulink. For help
with Simulink, see the Simulink documentation. Or, if you apply Simulink to
signal processing and communications tasks (as opposed to control system design
tasks), see the Signal Processing Blockset documentation.

The Role of Simulation in Design:

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and

electromechanical devices like motors and generators. Engineers working in this
discipline are constantly improving the performance of the systems. Requirements
for drastically increased efficiency have forced power system designers to use
power electronic devices and sophisticated control system concepts that tax
traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating the analyst's role is
the fact that the system is often so nonlinear that the only way to understand it is
through simulation .Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or
other devices is not the only use of power systems. A common attribute of these
systems is their use of power electronics and control systems to achieve their
performance objectives. SimPower Systems is a modern design tool that allows
scientists and engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power
systems. SimPower Systems uses the Simulink environment, allowing you to build
a model using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can you draw the circuit
topology rapidly, but your analysis of the circuit can include its interactions with
mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible because all the
electrical parts of the simulation interact with the extensive Simulink modeling
library. Since Simulink uses MATLAB® as its computational engine, designers
can also use MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink blocksets. SimPower Systems and
Sim Mechanics share a special Physical Modeling block and connection line
interface.

SimPower Systems Libraries

The libraries contain models of typical power equipment such as transformers,

lines, machines, and power electronics. These models are proven ones coming
from textbooks, and their validity is based on the experience of the Power Systems
Testing and Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Québec, a large North American
utility located in Canada, and also on the experience of Evolve de Technologies
superior and Universities Laval. The capabilities of SimPower Systems for
modeling a typical electrical system are illustrated in demonstration files. And for
users who want to refresh their knowledge of power system theory, there are also
self-learning case studies. The SimPower Systems main library, power lib,
organizes its blocks into libraries according to their behavior. The powerlib library
window displays the block library icons and names. Double-click a library icon to
open the library and access the blocks. The main SimPower Systems powerlib
library window also contains the Powergui block that opens a graphical user
interface for the steady-state analysis of electrical circuits.

Building the Electrical Circuit with powerlib Library:

The graphical user interface makes use of the Simulink functionality to

interconnect various electrical components. The electrical components are grouped
in a library called powerlib.

1.Open the SimPower Systems library by entering the following command at the
MATLAB prompt.

This command displays a Simulink window showing icons of different block

libraries.
You can open these libraries to produce the windows containing the blocks to be
copied into your circuit. Each component is represented by a special icon having
one or several inputs and outputs corresponding to the different terminals of the
component:

2.From the File menu of the powerlib window,open a new window to contain your
first circuit and save it as circuit1.

3.Open the Electrical Sources library and copy the AC Voltage Source block into
the circuit1 window. C components have disappeared so that the icon now shows a
single resistor.

Interfacing the Electrical Circuit with Simulink:

The Voltage Measurement block acts as an interface between the

SimPowerSystems blocks and the Simulink blocks. For the system shown above,
you implemented such an interface from the electrical system to the Simulink
system. The Voltage Measurement block converts the measured voltages into
Simulink signals.Similarly, the Current Measurement block from the
Measurements library of powerlib can be used to convert any measured current
into a Simulink signal.

Measuring Voltages and Currents:

When you measure a current using a Current Measurement block, the positive
direction of current is indicated on the block icon (positive current flowing from +
terminal to – terminal). Similarly, when you measure a voltage using a Voltage
Measurement block, the measured voltage is the voltage of the + terminal with
respect to the – terminal. However, when voltages and currents of blocks from the
Elements library are measured using the Multimeter block, the voltage and current
polarities are not immediately obvious because blocks might have been rotated and
there are no signs indicating polarities on the block icons.

Basic Principles of Connecting Capacitors and Inductors

when you connect capacitor elements:

Together with voltage sources, or inductor elements in series with current sources.
When you start the simulation, SimPower Systems will signal an error if one of the
following two connection errors are present in your diagram:

You have connected a voltage source in parallel with a capacitor, or a series of

capacitor elements in series, like in the two examples below .
To fix this problem, you can add a small resistance in series between the voltage
source and the capacitors. You have connected a current source in series with an
inductor, or a series of inductors connected in parallel, like in the example below.
To fix this problem, you can add a large resistance in parallel with the inductor and
the capacitors.

Add simulation results