Module 1: Introduction to Statistics

Chapter Goals
• Create an initial image of the field of statistics.
• Introduce several basic vocabulary words used in studying
statistics: population, variable, statistic.
• Learn how to obtain sample data.
What is Statistics?
Statistics: The science of collecting, describing, and
interpreting data.

Two areas of statistics:

Descriptive Statistics: collection, presentation, and
description of sample data.
Inferential Statistics: making decisions and drawing
conclusions about populations.
Example: A recent study examined the math and
verbal SAT scores of high school seniors across the
country. Which of the following statements are
descriptive in nature and which are inferential.
• The mean math SAT score was 492.
• The mean verbal SAT score was 475.
• Students in the Northeast scored higher in math
but lower in verbal.
• 80% of all students taking the exam were headed
for college.
• 32% of the students scored above 610 on the
verbal SAT.
• The math SAT scores are higher than they were 10
years ago.
Types of Inferential Statistics
Parametric: these tools are used if the data were:
quantitative/numerical, drawn from randomly select
sample, and normally distributed.
Non-Parametric: these tools are used if data were:
qualitative/categorical, drawn from sample chosen
through nonprobability sampling, and not normally
distributed.
Basic Research Process
Defining Basic Terms
Population: A collection, or set, of individuals or objects or
events whose properties are to be analyzed.
Two kinds of populations: finite or infinite.

Sample: A subset of the population.

Variable: A characteristic about each individual element of a
population or sample.
Data (singular): The value of the variable associated with one
element of a population or sample. This value may be a number, a
word, or a symbol.
Data (plural): The set of values collected for the variable from each
of the elements belonging to the sample.
Experiment: A planned activity whose results yield a set of data.
Parameter: A numerical value summarizing all the data of an entire
population.
Statistic: A numerical value summarizing the sample data.
Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the
average age of faculty. Identify the basic terms in this
situation.

The population is the age of all faculty members at the

college.
A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we
might select 10 faculty members and determine their age.
The variable is the “age” of each faculty member.
One data would be the age of a specific faculty member.
The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The experiment would be the method used to select the
ages forming the sample and determining the actual age of
each faculty member in the sample.
The parameter of interest is the “average” age of all faculty
at the college.
The statistic is the “average” age for all faculty in the sample.
Two kinds of variables:
Qualitative, or Attribute, or Categorical,
Variable: A variable that categorizes or
describes an element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations, such as
addition and averaging, are not meaningful
for data resulting from a qualitative variable.
Quantitative, or Numerical, or Countable
Variable: A variable that quantifies an
element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations such as
addition and averaging, are meaningful for
data resulting from a quantitative variable.
Example: Identify each of the following examples as
attribute (qualitative) or numerical (quantitative)
variables.

1. The residence hall for each student in a statistics

class.
2. The amount of gasoline pumped by the next 10
customers at the local Unimart.
3. The amount of radon in the basement of each of 25
homes in a new development.
4. The color of the baseball cap worn by each of 20
students.
5. The length of time to complete a mathematics
homework assignment.
6. The state in which each truck is registered when
stopped and inspected at a weigh station.
Scales of Measurement
Categorical Countable
(Qualitative) (Quantitative)

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Nominal Scale: A qualitative variable that categorizes (or
describes, or names) an element of a population.

Ordinal Scale: A qualitative variable that incorporates an ordered

position or ranking.

Interval Scale: A quantitative variable that can assume a

countable number of values. Intuitively, a discrete variable can
assume values corresponding to isolated points along a line
interval. That is, there is a gap between any two values.

Ratio Scale: A quantitative variable that can assume an

uncountable number of values. Intuitively, a continuous variable
can assume any value along a line interval, including every
possible value between any two values.
Note:
1. In many cases, a discrete and continuous
variable may be distinguished by determining
whether the variables are related to a count or
a measurement.
2. Discrete variables are usually associated with
counting. If the variable cannot be further
subdivided, it is a clue that you are probably
dealing with a discrete variable.
3. Continuous variables are usually associated
with measurements. The values of discrete
variables are only limited by your ability to
measure them.
Example: Identify each of the following as
examples of qualitative or numerical variables:
1. The temperature in Barrow, Alaska at 12:00 pm
on any given day.
2. The make of automobile driven by each faculty
member.
3. Whether or not a 6 volt lantern battery is
defective.
4. The weight of a lead pencil.
5. The length of time billed for a long distance
telephone call.
6. The brand of cereal children eat for breakfast.
7. The type of book taken out of the library by an
adult.
Example: Identify each of the following as
examples of (1) nominal, (2) ordinal, (3) discrete, or
(4) continuous variables:
1. The length of time until a pain reliever begins to
work.
2. The number of chocolate chips in a cookie.
3. The number of colors used in a statistics textbook.
4. The brand of refrigerator in a home.
5. The overall satisfaction rating of a new car.
6. The number of files on a computer’s hard disk.
7. The pH level of the water in a swimming pool.
8. The number of staples in a stapler.
Dependent and Independent Variable:

Dependent Variable: The variable that is affected

by the independent variable.

Independent Variable: The data that affects the

dependent variable.
1.3: Measure and Variability
• No matter what the response variable: there will always be
variability in the data.
• One of the primary objectives of statistics: measuring and
characterizing variability.
• Controlling (or reducing) variability in a manufacturing
process: statistical process control.
Example: A supplier fills cans of soda marked 12
ounces. How much soda does each can really
contain?

• It is very unlikely any one can contains exactly 12

ounces of soda.
• There is variability in any process.
• Some cans contain a little more than 12 ounces,
and some cans contain a little less.
• On the average, there are 12 ounces in each
can.
• The supplier hopes there is little variability in the
process, that most cans contain close to 12
ounces of soda.
1.4: Data Collection
• First problem a statistician faces: how to obtain the data.
• It is important to obtain good, or representative, data.
• Inferences are made based on statistics obtained from
the data.
• Inferences can only be as good as the data.
Methods used to collect data:

Experiment: The investigator controls or modifies

the environment and observes the effect on the
variable under study.

Survey: Data are obtained by sampling some of

the population of interest. The investigator does
not modify the environment.

Census: A 100% survey. Every element of the

population is listed. Seldom used: difficult and
time-consuming to compile, and expensive.
Process of data collection:

1.Define the objectives of the survey or

experiment.
Example: Estimate the average life of an
electronic component.
2.Define the variable and population of interest.
Example: Length of time for anesthesia to wear
off after surgery.
3.Defining the data-collection and data-measuring
schemes. This includes sampling procedures,
sample size, and the data-measuring device
(questionnaire, scale, ruler, etc.).
4.Determine the appropriate descriptive or
inferential data-analysis techniques.
Sampling Frame: A list of the elements belonging to
the population from which the sample will be
drawn.

Note: It is important that the sampling frame be

representative of the population.

Sample Design: The process of selecting sample

elements from the sampling frame.

Note: There are many different types of sample

designs. Usually they all fit into two categories:
judgment samples and probability samples.
Biased Sampling Method: A sampling method that
produces data which systematically differs from
the sampled population. An unbiased sampling
method is one that is not biased.

Sampling methods that often result in biased

samples:
1. Convenience sample: sample selected from
elements of a population that are easily
accessible.
2. Volunteer sample: sample collected from those
elements of the population which chose to
contribute the needed information on their own
initiative.
Judgment Samples: Samples that are selected on
the basis of being “typical.”
Items are selected that are representative of the
population. The validity of the results from a
judgment sample reflects the soundness of the
collector’s judgment.

Probability Samples: Samples in which the

elements to be selected are drawn on the basis of
probability. Each element in a population has a
certain probability of being selected as part of the
sample.
Random Samples: A sample selected in such a way
that every element in the population has a equal
probability of being chosen. Equivalently, all
samples of size n have an equal chance of being
selected. Random samples are obtained either by
sampling with replacement from a finite population
or by sampling without replacement from an infinite
population.

Note:
1. Inherent in the concept of randomness: the next result (or
occurrence) is not predictable.
2. Proper procedure for selecting a random sample: use a
random number generator or a table of random numbers.
Example: An employer is interested in the time it
takes each employee to commute to work each
morning. A random sample of 35 employees will
be selected and their commuting time will be
recorded.

There are 2712 employees.

Each employee is numbered: 0001, 0002, 0003, etc.
up to 2712.
Using four-digit random numbers, a sample is
identified: 1315, 0987, 1125, etc.
Systematic Sample: A sample in which every kth
item of the sampling frame is selected, starting
from the first element which is randomly selected
from the first k elements.

Note: The systematic technique is easy to execute.

However, it has some inherent dangers when the
sampling frame is repetitive or cyclical in nature. In
these situations the results may not approximate a
simple random sample.

Stratified Random Sample: A sample obtained by

stratifying the sampling frame and then selecting a
fixed number of items from each of the strata by
means of a simple random sampling technique.
Proportional Sample (or Quota Sample): A sample
obtained by stratifying the sampling frame and
then selecting a number of items in proportion to
the size of the strata (or by quota) from each strata
by means of a simple random sampling technique.

Cluster Sample: A sample obtained by stratifying

the sampling frame and then selecting some or all
of the items from some of, but not all, the strata.
proportional