STATISTICAL ANALYSIS WITH SOFTWARE APPLICATION

Learning Objectives:

 Understand and explain the process of statistics

 Distinguish qualitative and Quantitative variables
 Differentiate discrete and continuous variable and level of measurement
 Understand data collection and its sources
 Know how to use the methods of collecting primary and secondary data
 Practice basic sampling design and identify sources of error in sampling
 Determine appropriate sampling size and perform sampling in an organize
manner
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
summarizing, and analyzing information to draw
conclusions or answer questions. In addition, statistics
is about providing a measure of confidence
in any conclusions.

The information referred to the definition is the data. According to

the Merriam Webster dictionary, data are “factual information
used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation”.
Terms and Definitions
Universe is the set of all entities under study.

Population is the set of all possible values of the variable.

Individual is a person or object that is a member of the population

being studied.

Sample is the subset of the population.

Statistic is a numerical summary of a sample.

Descriptive statistics consist of organizing and summarizing data.
Descriptive statistics describe data through numerical summaries,
tables, and graphs.

Inferential statistics uses methods that take a result from a sample,

extend it to the population, and measure the reliability of the result.

A parameter is a numerical summary of a population.

Example: Consider the Scenario.

You are walking down the street and notice that a person walking in
front of you drops PHP100. Nobody seems to notice the PHP100
except you. Since you could keep the money without anyone
knowing, would you keep the money or return it to the owner?
Suppose you wanted to use this scenario as a gauge of the morality
of students at your school by determining the percent of students
who would return the money.

How might you do this?

You could attempt to present the scenario to every student at the

school, but this would be difficult or impossible if the student body is
large. A second possibility is to present the scenario to 50 students
and use the results to make a statement about all the students at the
school.
In the PHP100 study presented, the population is all the students at
the school. Each student is an individual. The sample is the 50
students selected to participate in the study.

Suppose 39 of the 50 students stated that they would return the

money to the owner. We could present this result by saying that the
percent of students in the survey who would return the money to the
owner is 78%.
This is an example of a descriptive statistic because it
describes the results of the sample without making any general
conclusions about the population. So 78% is a statistic
because it is a numerical summary based on a sample.

• how to describe data in inferential statistics?

Inferential statistics includes a level of confidence in the

results.
So rather than saying that 78% of all students would return the
money, we might say that we are 95% confident that between
74% and 82% of all students would return the money.

One goal of inferential statistics is to use statistics to estimate

parameters.
Take Note!

If the entire population is studied, then inferential statistics is

not necessary, because descriptive statistics will provide all the
information that we need regarding the population.

Process of Statistics

1. Identify the research objective.

2. Collect the information needed to answer the questions.
3. Organize and summarize the information.
4. Draw conclusion from the information.
1. Identify the research objective.

A researcher must determine the question(s) he or she wants

answered. The question(s) must clearly identify the population
that is to be studied. Identify the research objective.
2. Collect the information needed to answer the questions.

Conducting research on an entire population is often difficult

and expensive, so we typically look at a sample. This step is vital
to the statistical process, because if the data are not collected
correctly, the conclusions drawn are meaningless. Do not
overlook the importance of appropriate data collection.
Example:

A research objective is presented. For each research objective, identify the

population and sample in the study.

1. The Philippine Mental Health Associations contacts 1,028 teenagers who

are 13 to 17 years of age and live in Antipolo City and asked whether or not
they had been prescribed medications for any mental disorders, such as
depression or anxiety.

Population: Teenagers 13 to 17 years of age who live in Antipolo City

Sample: 1,028 teenagers 13 to 17 years of age who live in Antipolo City

3. Organize and summarize the information. Descriptive statistics allow
the researcher to obtain an overview of the data and can help determine
the type of statistical methods the researcher should use.

4. Draw conclusion from the information. In this step the information

collected from the sample is generalized to the population. Inferential
statistics uses methods that takes results obtained from a sample,
extends them to the population, and measures the reliability of the
result.
Exercise:

1. A badminton player wants to know his average score for the past 10
games.

2. A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the average lifetime of batteries

by testing a sample of 50 batteries.

3. Janine wants to determine the variability of her six exam scores in

Algebra.
4. A shipping company wishes to estimate the number of passengers
traveling via their ships next year using their data on the number of
passengers in the past three years.

5. A politician wants to determine the total number of votes his rival

obtained in the past election based on his copies of the tally sheet of
electoral returns.
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
VARIABLES
Variables are the characteristics of the individuals within the
population.

For example, recently my mother and I planted a tomato

plant in our backyard. We collected information about the
tomatoes harvested from the plant which is the the weight
of their fruits.
Identify the following :
Individual is ____________
Varible is ______________
Variables can be classified into two groups:

1. Qualitative variables is variable that yields categorical responses. It

is a word or a code that represents a class or category.

2. Quantitative variables takes on numerical values representing an

amount or quantity.
Qualitative Variables Quantitative Variables
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS

A discrete variable is quantitative A continuous variable is a quantitative

variable that either a finite variable that has an infinite number of
number of possible values or a possible values that are not countable.
countable number of possible If you measure to get the value of a
values. If you count to get the quantitative variable, it is continuous.
value of a quantitative variable, it
is discrete.
 Determine whether the following quantitative variables are
discrete or continuous.

1. The number of heads obtained after flipping a coin five times.

2. The number of cars that arrive at a McDonald’s drive-through

between 12:00 P.M and 1:00 P.M.
3. The distance of a 2005 Toyota Prius can travel in city conditions with a full
tank of gas.

4. Number of words correctly spelled.

5. Time of a runner to finish one lap.

 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

It is important to know which type of scale is represented by your

data since different statistics are appropriate for different scales of
measurement. A characteristic may be measured using nominal,
ordinal, interval and ration scales.
Level of Measurement
1. Nominal Level - This is the first level of measurement and it is
characterized by data that consist of names, labels or categories only.
The data cannot be arranged in ordering scheme. Nominal scales have
no numerical value.

Example:

Method of payment (cash, check, debit card,

credit card)
2. Ordinal Level - This involves data that may be arranged in some order,
but differences between data values either cannot be determined. An
ordinal scale puts the subjects in order from highest to lowest, from
most to least. Although ordinal scales indicate that some subjects are
higher, or lower than others, they do not indicate how much higher or
how much better.

Example:

- Food Preferences
- Rank of a Military officer
- Social Economic Class (First, Middle, Lower)
3. Interval Level - This is a measurement level not only classifies and order
the measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each
interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval
to high interval.

Example:

 Temperature on Fahrenheit/Celsius
 Thermometer
 Trait anxiety (e.g., high anxious vs. low anxious)
4. Ratio Level - A ratio scale represents the highest, most precise,
level of measurement. It has the properties of the interval level of
measurement and the ratios of the values of the variable have
meaning. A value of zero means the absence of the quantity.
Arithmetic operations such as multiplication and division can be
performed on the values of the variable.

Example:
 Height and weight
 Time
 Distance and speed
 DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information

on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that
enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes.
 SOURCES OF DATA

Primary Sources - Provide a first-hand account of an event or time period

and are considered to be authoritative. They represent original thinking,
reports on discoveries or events, or they can share new information.
Ex:
Surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaires,
focus groups, interviews,
Secondary Sources - offer an analysis, interpretation or a restatement of
primary sources and are considered to be persuasive . They often involve
generalisation, synthesis, interpretation, commentary or evaluation in an
attempt to convince the reader of the creator's argument.

Ex.
books, journals, articles, web pages, blogs

The primary data can be collected by:

1. Direct personal interviews

2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method
The secondary data can be collected by the following five methods:

1. Published report on newspaper and periodicals.

2. Financial Data reported in annual reports.

3. Records maintained by the institution.

4. Internal reports of the government departments.

5. Information from official publications.

 Take Note!
• Always investigate the validity and reliability of the data by
examining the collection method employed by your source.

• Do not use inappropriate data for your research.

SAMPLE SIZE
“How many participants should be chosen for a survey”?

The sample size is typically denoted by n and it is always a positive integer.

Take Note!

- Representativeness, not size, is the

more important consideration.

- Use no less than 30 subjects if

possible.

- If you use complex statistics, you

may need a minimum of 100 or more
in your sample (varies with method).
Criteria need to be specified to determine the appropriate sample size:

Level of Precision Confidence Interval Degree of Variability

is the range in It is statistical The more heterogeneous a

which the true measure of the population is, the larger
value of the number of times the sample size is required
population is out of 100 that to get an optimum level
estimated to be results can be of precision
expected to be
 sampling within a specified
error range.
 Slovin’s Formula

 is used to calculate the sample size n given the population size and
error. It is computed as

Where:
N is the total population.
e is the level of precision.

Example:
A researcher plans to conduct a survey about food preference of BS Stat
students. If the population of students is 1000, find the sample
size if the error is 5%.
Example:
A researcher plans to conduct a survey about food preference of BS Stat
students. If the population of students is 1000, find the sample
size if the error is 5%.
 Search for Sample size Calculator
Sampling Procedure

- Identify the population.

- Determine if population is accessible.
- Select a sampling method.
- Choose a sample that is representative of the population.
- Ask the question, can I generalize to the general population from
the accessible population?
 Two Type of Samples

1. Probability Sample

- Samples are obtained using some objective chance mechanism, thus

involving randomization.

- They require the use of a complete listing of the elements of the

universe called the sampling frame.

- The probabilities of selection are known, they are generally referred to

as random samples.

- They allow drawing of valid generalizations

about the universe/population.
2. Non - probability Sample

- Samples are obtained haphazardly, selected purposively or are taken as

volunteers.

- The probabilities of selection are unknown.

- They should not be used for statistical inference.

Basic Sampling Technique of Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

- Most basic method of drawing a probability sample.

- Assigns equal probabilities of selection to each possible sample.
• Systematic Random Sampling

- It is obtained by selecting every kth individual from the population.

- The first individual selected corresponds to a random number between 1 to
k.

Compute for the sampling interval

Example:

We want to select a sample of 50 students

from 500 students under this method kth item
and picked up from the sampling frame.
• Stratified Random Sampling

- It is obtained by separating the population into non-overlapping

groups called strata and then obtaining a simple random sample
from each stratum.

- The individuals within each stratum should be homogeneous (or

similar) in some way.
Example:

A sample of 50 students is to be drawn from a population consisting of

500 students belonging to two institutions A and B. The number of
students in the institution A is 200 and the institution B is 300. How will
you draw the sample using proportional allocation?
Obtaining a Cluster Sample

1. Divide the population into non-overlapping

clusters.

2. Number the clusters in the population from 1

to N.

3. Select n distinct numbers from 1 to N using a

randomization mechanism. The selected clusters
are the clusters associated with the
selected numbers.

4. The sample will consist of all the elements in

the selected clusters.
Obtaining a Multi-Stage Sampling

1. Organize the sampling process into stages

where the unit of analysis is systematically
grouped.

2. Select a sampling technique for each

stage.

3. Systematically apply the sampling

technique to each stage until the unit of
analysis has been selected.
Basic Sampling Technique of Non_x0002_Probability Sampling

Accidental Sampling - There is no system of selection but only those

whom the researcher or interviewer meets by chance.

Quota Sampling - There is specified number of persons of certain types

is included in the sample.

Convenience Sampling - It is a process of picking out people in the

most convenient and fastest way to get reactions immediately. This
method can be done by telephone interview to get the immediate
reactions of a certain group of sample for a certain issue.
Purposive Sampling - It is based on certain criteria laid down by the
researcher. People who satisfy the criteria are interviewed. It is
used to determine the target population of those who will be taken for
the study.

Judgement Sampling - selects sample in accordance with an expert’s

judgment.
Sources of Errors in Sampling

1. Non-sampling Error Sources of Non-Sampling Error

- Errors that result from the survey 1. Non-responses

process. 2. Interviewer Error
3. Misrepresented Answers
- Any errors that cannot be attributed 4. Data entry errors
to the sample-to-sample variability. 5. Questionnaire Design
6. Wording of Questions
7. Selection Bias
2. Sampling Error

- Error that results from taking one sample instead of examining the
whole population.

- Error that results from using sampling to

estimate information regarding a population.
Thank You!