Institut Universitaire et Stratégique de l’Estuaire

Estuary Academic and Strategic Institute(IUEs/Insam)

sous la tutelle académique des Universités de Buéa, de Douala et de Dschang

DEPARTMENT OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

COURSE: COMPUTER NETWORK

THIRD SEMESTER

LECTURER: Mr. KENGAH WALTER BAHYOH

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 THE GENERAL OBJECTIVE OF THIS COURSE
This specialty trains senior technicians who, with the help of their capability to study the
needs of the society, Design, manage and administer computer networks in order to enable file sharing
and communication.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF THIS COURSE

At the end of this course, the students should be able to:
1. Understand Transmission problems encountered in a network
2. Understand the function of networking hardware and software
3. Manage communication on a network
4. Understand the Architecture of computer network
5. Understand the Criteria used to choose a network
6. Understand protocols (LAN: Ethernet, Token ring )
7. Understand Public networks (PSTN etc)
8. Understand the layers of OSI Model

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CHAP ONEBASIC CONCEPTS COMPUTER NETWORK
General objectives of this chapter
At the end of this chapter the students should be able to understand and apply some basic concept
of computer networks
Specific objectives of this chapter
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
- Understand basics of the various types network technologies in the area of
computers, Local Area Network (LAN) and different components of computer
network
- explain the features and the use of computer network and data communication
- describe the OSI model and its 7 layers
- Give some network security problems and eventual solutions

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CHAPTER ONE: BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS
Today computer is available in many offices and homes and therefore there is a need to share data
and programs among various computers. With the advancement of data communication facilities the
communication between computers has increased and thus it has extended the power of computer
beyond the computer room. Now a user sitting at one place can communicate with computers of any
remote site through communication channel. The aim of this lesson is to introduce you the various
aspects of computer network and data communication.

DEFINITION AND NETWORKBASICS

Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A network is a set of interconnected
objects (roads, computers …) with something to share. A computer network is therefore a group of
interconnected computer systems sharing resources and interacting using a shared communications
link. All networks must have the following:
- A resource to share (resource)
- A pathway to transfer data (transmission medium)
- A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols)
I.2- BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK
Specifically, networks are about sharing three things: information, resources, and applications.

 Sharing information: networks allow users to communicate with each other in various ways:
email, chat, forums, etc.
 Sharing resources: Certain computer resources, such as printers or hard drives, can be set up
so that network users can share them. Sharing hard drives involves also sharing of files and
folders. A network can be used to share an Internet connection.
 Sharing applications: several users can work together on a single business application.
Apart from sharing, other benefits of a computer network are:
 Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout the
network.
 Reducing of cost: Instead of buying a printer for each computer of a big network, a single
printer can be shared, and then cost is considerably reduced

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 I.3- DOWNSIDES (SHORTCOMMINGS) OF NETWORKING
Although networks are one of the best things that ever happened to computers, not everything about
networks is rosy. The following sections describe some disadvantages of using a network:
 Viruses: If a virus is introduced to the network, either intentionally or unintentionally, it will
rapidly spread around all of the workstations and could start to cause havoc to peoples' files
or to the efficient working of the network.
 Network failure: If the file server fails then no-one on the network can access any files or
folders. This means that nobody can do any work. For an organization, this would be
extremely costly and disruptive.
Slow service: As more users log onto the network and request files, send things to be printed and
open more software applications, the network can start to slow down.
 Cost: Building a network isn't cheap.

NETWORKING HARDWARE
Networking hardware, also known as network equipment or computer networking devices, are electronic
devices which are required for communication and interaction between devices on a computer network.
Specifically, they mediate data transmission in a computer network. Units which are the last receiver or generate
data are called hosts, end systems or data terminal equipment. Below are some popular network devices:

1) Network Interface Card (NIC)

In the list of the networking devices, NIC stands on the first place. Without this device, networking cannot be
done. This is also known as network adapter card, Ethernet Card and LAN card. NIC allows a networking
device to communicate with the other networking device.
NIC converts the data packets between two different data transmission technologies. A PC uses parallel data
transmission technology to transmit the data between its internal parts while the media that provides
connectivity between different PCs uses serial data transmission technology. A NIC converts parallel data
stream into the serial data stream and the serial data stream into the parallel data stream.

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Typically all modern PCs have the integrated NICs in the motherboards. If additional NICs are required, they
are also available as add-on devices separately.
For desktop or server system, they are available in the adapter form which can be plugged into the available
slots of the motherboard. For laptop or other small size devices, they are available in the PCMCIA (Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association) card form which can be inserted into the PCMCIA slot.
Types of NICs
There are two types of NICs.
Media Specific: - LAN card are used according to the media type. Different types of the NICs are used to
connect the different types of media. To connect a specific media type, we must have to use a NIC which is
particularly made for that type of media.
Network Design Specific: - A specific network design needs a specific LAN card. For example FDDI, Token
Ring and Ethernet have their own distinctive type of NIC cards. They cannot use other types of NIC cards.
Following figure illustrates some common types of NICs.

2) Hub
Hub is a centralized device that connects multiple devices in a single LAN
network. When Hub receives the data signals from a connected device on any of its
port, except that port, it forwards those signals to all other connected devices from
the remaining ports. Usually, Hub has one or more uplink ports that are used to
connect it with another Hub.

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 There are two types of the Hub.
Passive Hub: - It forwards data signals in the same format in which it receives them. It does not change the
data signal in any manner.
Active Hub: - It also works same as the passive Hub works. But before forwarding the data signals, it amplifies
them. Due to this added feature, the active Hub is also known as the repeater.
Intelligent Hub :- It work like active hubs and include remote management capabilities. They also provide
flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the
hub and to configure each port in the hub.

1. Bridge
A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of
source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs
working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges
Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the
bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of
the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge
learning.
Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by source station and the frame
specifies which route to follow. The hot can discover frame by sending a special frame called discovery frame,
which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to destination.

2. Switch
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a
multiport device that improves network efficiency. The switch maintains
limited routing information about nodes in the internal network, and it allows
connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually
connected using switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses
of incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.

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 Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual circuit capability.
Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more difficult to examine with network
monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some of the best capabilities of routers and hubs
combined. A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer
switch is one that can operate at both layers, which means that it can operate as both a switch and a router. A
multilayer switch is a high-performance device that supports the same routing protocols as routers.

Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are used to prevent
malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt. Switch port security is important so be sure to secure
switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping, ARP inspection and MAC address filtering.

3. Routers
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer
device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on
which they make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

4. Gateway

Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session

layers of the OSI model. At the Transport layer and
above, there are numerous protocols and standards from
different vendors; gateways are used to deal with them.
Gateways provide translation between networking
technologies such as Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

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(TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its own routing
algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name service, and network administration procedures and policies.

8. Brouter – It is also known as bridging router is a device which combines features of both bridge and router.
It can work either at data link layer or at network layer. Working as router, it is capable of routing packets
across networks and working as bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.
9) Modem
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone lines. Thus,
digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies and transmitted to a
modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a
digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer. The digital data is usually transferred to or
from the modem over a serial line through an industry standard interface, RS-232. Many telephone companies
offer DSL services, and many cable operators use modems as end terminals for identification and recognition
of home and personal users. Modems work on both the Physical and Data Link layers.

10) Firewall
A firewall is a device, or a piece of software that is placed between your computer and the rest of the network
(where the hackers are!)
If you wish to protect your whole LAN from hackers out on the Internet, you would place a firewall between
the LAN and the Internet connection. A firewall blocks unauthorised connections being made to your
computer or LAN. Normal data is allowed through the firewall (e.g. e-mails or web pages) but all other data is
blocked.

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 11) Proxy Server
A proxy server is a computer setup to share a resource, usually an Internet connection.
Other computers can request a web page via the proxy server. The proxy server will then get the page using its
Internet connection, and pass it back to the computer who asked for it.
Proxy servers are often used instead of router since additional software can be easily installed on the
computer such as anti-virus, web filtering etc.

12) Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over
the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When
the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port
device.

CLASSIFICATION OF
COMPUTER NETWORK

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Computer networks can be classify in different ways: according to the geographical area covered, the
architecture used or type of connection
ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF CONNECTION

According to the type of connection, there exist two types of connections. Wired connection and
wireless connection
Wired connection

A wired network is when you physically connect your computer or other compatible device to your
Super Hub with an Ethernet cable. The best thing about a wired connection is the reliability and speed
it gives you (wired is faster than wireless). This makes it ideal for things that use a lot of bandwidth,
like playing online games on your Xbox.
Wireless connection

A wireless network, as its name would suggest, is a network of computers and computer peripherals
that are connected to each other without wires.
Advantages
 It is easier to add or move workstations.
 It is easier to provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable.
 Installation is fast and easy, and it can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and
ceilings.
 Access to the network can be from anywhere within range of an access point.
Disadvantages
 As the number of computers using the network increases, the data transfer rate to each
computer will decrease accordingly.
 As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless cards and/or access points.
 Security is more difficult to guarantee and requires configuration.
 Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point.

ACCORDING GEOGRAPHICAL AREA COVERED

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According to the geographical area covered, there exist three main types of network: LAN, MAN and
WAN

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a computer network that spans only a small geographical area such as an office, home
building or closed buildings. A LAN is useful to share resources like files, printers, games and other
application. The infrastructure in a LAN is private. The distance between computers in a LAN cannot
be more than 15 Km. Ex: A school network
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a network of computers spread over a city or closed cities. It may be a single network such
as a cable television network, or it may be many LANS connected together. A MAN may be operated
by one organization (with several offices in one city) or be shared and used by several organizations in
the same city. It can be either a private network or a public network. Ex: A network of all the agencies
of CAMCCUL in Bamenda
Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a system of interconnecting many computer over a large geographical area such as states,
countries or even the whole world. These kind of networks use telephone lines, satellite link and other
long-range communication technologies to connect. Such networks are design to serve an area of
hundreds kilometres such as national telephone network. For instance a company like Express Union
with agencies at Fundong, Bamenda, Douala, Bafoussam, Yaoundé use a WAN to connect all its
agencies. Although a WAN may be owned or rented by private business, it is usually a public network,
designed to connect LANs or MANs together. The most known and the largest WAN is Internet.

ACCORDING TO THE ARCHTECTURE USED

According to the strategy used there exist two main types of network: Client/Server network and Peer
to Peer (P2P) network:
Client/server networks

Computers that perform a service on behalf of other network devices are called servers. There are

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several types of servers. For example, a computer that provides other network nodes with access to
network storage devices is called a file server. Print servers provide other network nodes with access
to network printers. Computers that use the services of a server are called clients. Networks in which
servers control access to network storage and other network resources are called client/server
networks. In a Client/server network, the role of the server is to provide services demanded by client
computers

Peer-to-peer networks

Computers that perform similar functions on a network are called peers. Networks in which no single,
centralized computer controls network functions are called peer-to-peer networks. The idea of peer-to-
peer networking is that each computer on the network can be both a server and a client. Since any
computer on the network can share a resource for other to use. Users can configure their computers so
that they can share directories or printers with other users on the network. All computers are considered
to have equal, or peer, status.
Comparison between Peer to Peer network and Client/Server network

Strategy Advantages Disadvantages

· Heavy processing power can be localized when needed. · Administrative tasks not
Client/Server

· Overall installation costs are less than a hierarchical entirely centralized.

network. · Expensive to add nodes.
· Servers provide clients with access to shared printers,
·network storage
Relatively (including
inexpensive sharedapplications),
to implement, can oftennetwork
be · Decentralized
security features,
implemented and other
on existing network resources.
equipment. administration.
P2P

· Potentially, all resources can be made available over a · Security can be difficult to
network. control
· Processing power can be localized to the point of need.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.)
of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology means the

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physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology
refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design. Topology can
be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network, for it not correspond to the actual physical
design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a
circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring topology.

III.1 Physical Topology

It is the physical configuration of a network that determines how the network's computers are
connected. Common configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star
topology, tree topology and hybrid topology.
III.1.1- Bus Topology
Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In this type of topology, all the nodes (computers
as well as servers) are connected to the single cable, by the help of interface connectors. This central
cable is the backbone of the network and is known as Bus. Every workstation communicates with the
other device through this Bus. A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations
connected to bus cable. Although the message is broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose
MAC address or IP address matches, accepts it. A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to
prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be used to extend it.

Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology

1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.

2) Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
3) Bus topology costs very less.
4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.

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Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology

1) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
2) Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e. bus)
encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
3) It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
4) Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
5) Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it increases.
6) It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
7) Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source.

III.2- Ring Topology

In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in
such a way that they make a closed loop. Each workstation is
connected to two other components on either side, and it
communicates with these two adjacent neighbors. Data travels
around the network, in one direction. Sending and receiving of
data takes place by the help of TOKEN. Token contains a piece
of information which along with data is sent by the source
computer.
Advantages of Ring Topology

1) This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it
receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision.
2) Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus
topology.
3) There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
4) Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
5) Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

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1) Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. This
makes it slower than Star topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.

III.3- Star Topology

In Star topology, all the components of network are
connected to a central device which may be a hub, a
router or a switch. All the data on the star topology passes
through the central device before reaching the intended
destination. This later acts as a junction to connect
different nodes present in Star Network, and at the same
time it manages and controls whole of the network.
Advantages of Star Topology

1) As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t necessarily get
transmitted to all the workstations.
2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology nodes can be added or removed easily
without affecting rest of the network.
3) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4) Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time it’s easy to detect
the failure and troubleshoot it.
Disadvantages of Star Topology

1) If the central device fails whole network goes down.

2) The use of an extra central device increases the overall cost of the network.
3) Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in
such topology is depended on capacity of central device.
III.4- Tree Topology
Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus
Topology. In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks

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are connected using Bus. This main cable seems like a main stem of a
tree, and other star networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded
Star Topology. Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of
topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
2. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily managed and
maintained.
3. Error detection and correction is easy.
4. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

5. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks whole
network is crippled.
6. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
7. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

III.5- Mesh topology

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are interconnected
with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes. In
fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1) Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This
topology can withstand high traffic.
2) Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting
other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

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1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network is
tough.
III.6 Hybrid topology
Similarly in this type of topology we integrate two or
more different topologies to form a resultant topology
which has good points (as well as weaknesses) of all the
constituent basic topologies rather than having
characteristics of one specific topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

1) Reliable : Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of
topology.
2) Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without disturbing
existing architecture.
3) Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the organization and by
optimizing the available resources.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1) Complexity of Design: It’s not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2) Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These hubs are
different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different
architectures and should be function even if a part of network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot of
cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.
Logical topology
The logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topologies. Logical
topologies are bound to network protocols and describe how data is moved across the network.
Different network access existing are: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA and Token Passing

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 a) CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)

Ethernet uses CSMA/CD to manage media access, as defined in the IEEE 802.3 specification. Devices
that have data to transmit listen for an opening on the line before transmitting (Carrier Sense) and
when a device detects an opening, it transmits its data. However, several devices may simultaneously
sense that the line is clear and they may all transmit at the same time. If this happens, the data packets
collide and the data is lost. This is called a collision.
Using the CSMA/CD protocol, the devices will each detect that a collision has occurred (collision
detection) and each of them will wait a random amount of time before retransmitting. The likelihood of
two or more devices randomly selecting the same delay is almost zero, so retransmission is likely to be
successful.
b) CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)

With CSMA/CA, a device listens for an opportunity to transmit its data in a similar fashion to
CSMA/CD. However, when a device senses an opening, it first transmits a signal notifying other
devices that it is transmitting before actually sending the data. This means data packets will never
collide, although warning packets might. Unfortunately, CSMA/CA creates a significant overhead as it
adds unnecessary traffic to the network, slowing everything down. CSMA/CA was commonly used by
older AppleTalk networks, but nowadays most Apple systems can use Ethernet hardware and use of
CSMA/CA has declined. One area where CSMA/CA continues to be used is in wireless networks.
c) Token Passing

In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA the chances of collisions are there. As the number of hosts in the
network increases, the chances of collisions also will become more. In token passing, when a host want
to transmit data, it should hold the token, which is an empty packet. The token is circling the network
in a very high speed. If any workstation wants to send data, it should wait for the token. When the
token has reached the workstation, the workstation can take the token from the network, fill it with
data, mark the token as being used and place the token back to the network.

COMMUNICATION OVER NETWORK

What is data communication?
A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that facilitates

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intersystem exchange of information between different devices.
Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of wired or
wireless transmission medium. It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the
preservation of data during the transfer process.
Characteristics of data communication
For data communication to be effective, the following three fundamental characteristics should be
considered:
 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct or the intended destination.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error-free).
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.

IV.2- Data Communication Components

There are five basic components in a data communication system

 Message: The message is the information that is to be communicated.

 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
 Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message from
the sender to the receiver.
 Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. Both
the sender and the receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate data.
IV.3- Data Transmission Mode
Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are
three types of transmission modes—simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex
1) Simplex: The information flows in one direction across the circuit, with no capability to
support response in the other direction.
2) Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each communicating device can receive and transmit
information, but not at the same time.
3) Full-duplex: allows both communicating devices to transmit and receive data
simultaneously. A full-duplex mode can be compared to a two-way road with traffic flowing
in both directions.

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 IV.4- Data Communication Measurement
The measurement of the quantity of data that can be passed over a communication link in a given time
is done in terms of bandwidth. On digital circuits, bandwidth is measured in bits per second (bps). In
the digital context, the level of bandwidth falls into three categories.
 Narrowband: In narrowband, there is a single transmission channel of 64 Kbps or less. There
can be a number of 64 Kbps channels (N × 64 Kbps), but total capacity is not more than 1.544
Mbps.
 Wideband: In wideband, the bandwidth lies between 1.544 Mbps (also called T1 line) and 45
Mbps (T3 line).
 Broadband: The bandwidth capacity is equal to 45 Mbps. Broadcast television, cable television,
microwave and satellite are examples of broadband technologies.

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 Analog and Digital Data Transmission
The major role of the physical medium is to move the data from one communicating device to another.
Depending on the form of signal used, data transmission can be analog data transmission or digital
data transmission.
 Analog Signals: Values on analog devices
are (normally) infinitely variable. A
speedometer that shows a car's speed by
means of a dial is an analog device. The
hand on that dial moves smoothly around
the dial and can take any value that the
car's engine can create.
 Digital Signals: Digital signals and objects
deal in the realm of the discrete or finite,
meaning there is a limited set of values they can
be. That could mean just two total possible
values, 255, 4,294,967,296, or anything as long as
it’s not ∞ (infinity).
Serial and Parallel Communication
The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent
with each clock tick.

Data Transmission Method

While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are two subclasses of serial
transmission: asynchronous, synchronous.
 With asynchronous transmission signal timing is not required; signals are sent in an
agreed pattern of bits and if both ends are agreed on the pattern then communication can
take place.
 With synchronous transmission is data transfer method in which a continuous stream of
data signals is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure
that the transmitter and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another. The data
is sent in blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals.

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 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
A transmission medium (plural transmission media) refers to the physical media through
which communication signals (data and information) can be transmitted from one point to
another media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer
communications:
- Guided Media (or Bounded Media, or Wired Media)
- Unguided Media (or unbounded Media, or Wireless Media)
V.1- Guided Media
Guided media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These
are also called Bounded media. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high
speed, good security and low cost. However, some time they cannot be used due distance
communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission.
These are: coaxial cable, twisted pair cable and Fiber optic cables
a) Twisted-Pair Wiring

Twisted-pair wiring refers to a type of cable composed of four (or more) copper wires twisted
around each other within a plastic sheath. The wires are twisted to reduce outside electrical
interference. The RJ-45 connectors on twisted-pair cables resemble large telephone connectors.
Twisted-pair cables come in two varieties: Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) and unshielded
Twisted Pair (UTP).
→ Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) UTP cable is the most common type of
telecommunication medium in use today and is generally the best option for school
networks. It is most suited for both data and voice transmission and hence is commonly
used in telephone systems. The cable has four pairs of wire inside the jacket. An UTP
cost less than STP easily available. There are five levels of data cabling
- Cat 1: These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
- Cat 2: These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
- Cat 3: These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
- Cat 4: These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
- Cat 5: This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.

→ A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency

23
 interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical
interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded
twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

b) Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables have a single central conductor, which is made up of solid wire (usually copper).
This conductor is surrounded by an insulator over which a sleeve of metal mesh is woven to
block any outside interference. This metal mesh is again shielded by an outer covering of a thick
material (usually PVC) known as jacket. Coaxial cable is very robust and is commonly used in
Cable TV network. As compared to twisted pairs, it also offers higher bandwidth. A coaxial
cable is capable of transmitting data at a rate of 10 Mbps.

c) Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber optic (or optical fiber) refers to the technology associated with the transmission of
information as light impulses along a glass wire or fiber. Optical fiber cable can transmit data over long
distances with little loss in data integrity. In addition, because data are transferred as a pulse of light,
optical fiber is not subject to interference. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much
longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly
greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video
conferencing and interactive services. however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers
to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig 4: bounded media

ICT Page 15 of 24 24
 V.2- Unbounded Transmission Media
Unguided media facilitate data transmission through the Earth's atmosphere (air, water or vacuum) at a
much faster rate and provide wide area coverage. The data signals are not guided or bound to a fixed
channel to follow. Some commonly used unguided media of transmission include radio frequency (RF)
propagation, microwave transmission, satellite transmission, infrared wave transmission, Bluetooth
and Wi-Fi.
a) Radio Frequency Propagation

In radio frequency propagation, the signal is carried over carrier

waves (waves, which carry signals over them), which have
frequencies in the range of radio frequency spectrum. There are
three types of radio frequency propagation—ground wave,
ionospheric and line of sight.

b) Microwave Transmission
Microwave transmission use microwave signals that
travel at a higher frequency and are popularly
used for transmitting
data over long distances. Microwave communication uses parabolic antennas (satellite TV dish
antennas) that are mounted on the tower, which could be tens of kilometers away, but in line of sight.
Due to long distances, repeaters are used at regular intervals in between the transmitter and the receiver
to boost the signals

c) Infrared Wave Transmission

Infrared frequencies are just below the visible light spectrum. These are the high- frequency waves used
for short-range communication. The waves are cheap, directional and can be easily built; however, the
waves do not pass through solid objects. Infrared waves are used in TV remotes, garage doors and
wireless speakers. Computer machines in an office can easily be connected to a wireless LAN using
infrared waves

25
 d) Satellite Transmission

Satellite transmission is similar to microwave

transmission except instead of transmission
involving another nearby microwave dish antenna,
it involves a satellite many miles up in space. The
communication is carried through uplinks and
downlinks. The uplink transmits the data to the
satellite and downlink receives the data from the
satellite. Uplinks and downlinks are also called
earth stations because they are located on the
Earth.
e) Bluetooth transmission

The Bluetooth technology is used to create a personal area

network (PAN) or piconet that lets electronic devices such
as computers, cell phones, PDAs and wireless keyboards to
communicate with each other within the range of 10 m. It
uses radio signals that are omnidirectional, that is, signals
travel in all directions from the source. Hence, the
communicating devices need not be aligned with each
other.
f) Wi-Fi transmission

The term Wi-Fi, which stands for Wireless Fidelity is widely

used for creating wireless LANs and also for providing
wireless Internet access. To create wireless LAN, the devices
in the network such as computer, laptop and PDA should be
equipped with wireless network interface card (NIC) to send
and receive Wi-Fi signals. A WI-Fi-enabled device should be
within a specific range (i.e. up to 50 m) from the network to
connect.

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Media Type Bandwidth Performance: Typical Error Rate Transfer rate
Twisted-pair (LAN) 1MHz Poor to fair (10–5) 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps
Coaxial cable (LAN) 1GHz Good (10–7 to 10–9) 10 Mbps – 1 Gbps
Microwave (WAN) 100GHz Good (10–9) 6 Mbps – 54 Mbps
Satellite (WAN) 100GHz Good (10–9) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Fiber (WAN) 75THz Great (10–11 to 10–13) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Table 2: Traditional Transmission Media Characteristics

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

A communication protocol is a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. If one
computer is sending information to another and they both follow the same protocol, the message gets
through; regardless of what types of machines they are and on what operating systems they are running.
As long as the machines have software that can manage the protocol, communication is possible.
Network protocol
A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The
key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.

Protocol Full meaning Its job

FTP File Transfer Protocol Allows file transfer between two computers
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol used in the web service
Protocol
TCP Transmission Control A reliable connection oriented protocol used to control the
Protocol management of application level services between computers.
IP Internet Protocol identifier of each computer or communication devices on the
network and internet.
ARP Address resolution enables the packaging of IP data into ethernet package
protocol
ICMP Internet control provides management and error reporting to help manage the
message protocol process of sending data between computers.

27
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer An Internet protocol for transferring e-mail.
Protocol
POP post office protocol Transfert of e-mail, used to synchronize messages
 Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to
be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation.
 Timing: Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent.
Some important protocols are:

Telnet Telephone Network A method of opening a user session on a remote host.

PPP Point-to-Point Data transfer using modem
Protocol
UDP User Datagram An unreliable connection less protocol used to control the
Protocol management of application level services between computers.
DHCP Dynamic host is a method of assigning and controlling the IP addresses of
configuration protocol computers on a given network

The OSI Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a standard
reference model for communication between two end
users in a network. In 1983, the International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) published a
document called 'The Basic Reference Model for Open
Systems Interconnection', which visualizes network
protocols as a seven separate but related layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, session,
presentation and application layers.

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:

28
  Upper Layers: The upper layers of the OSI model consist of the application,
presentation and session layers. Primarily, these layers deal with application issues and
are implemented only in the software.
 Lower Layers: The lower layers of the OSI model comprise the transport,
network, data link, and physical layers. These layers handle the data transport
issues. The physical layer and data link layer are implemented in both hardware
and software. The network and transport are generally implemented only in
software.

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the
network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of
Physical
sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical
(Layer 1)
aspects
Protocols: Fast Ethernet, ATM Data Unit: Bit
Data Link Device:
Physical Hubs, Repeaters,
addressing, Cables
Provides and Connectors
low-level error detection and correction. For example if a
(Layer 2) packet is corrupted this layer is responsible for retransmitting the packet.
Protocols: PPP, FDDI, Token ring, Ethernet, SLIP
Device: NIC, Token Ring switches, Bridges
Data Unit: Frame
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as
virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are
functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling,
Network
congestion control and packet sequencing.
(Layer 3)
Protocols: IPv4, IPV6, IPX, OSPF, NWlink, NetBEUI, ICMP, ARP, RARP
Data Unit:provides
This layer Packet, Datagram
transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data
Transport transfer.
(Layer 4) Protocols: TCP, SPX and UDP
Device: Router, gateway Data Unit: Segments

29
 This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The
Session session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and
(Layer 5) dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection
coordination.
Protocols: NetBIOS
This layer works Device:
to transform datagateway Data
into the form that the Unit: data layer can accept.
application
This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom
Presentation
from compatibility problems. It is also called the syntax layer.
(Layer 6)
Protocol: SSL, WEP, WPA, Kerberos Device: Gateway

This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are
identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are
considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is
application-specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail,
Application
and other network software services.
(Layer 7)
Protocol: DHCP, DNS, FTP, HTTP, IMAP4, NNTP, POP3, SMTP, SNMP, SSH,
TELNET and NTP
Device: PC Data Unit: Data

LAN TECHNOLOGIES
Each computer in a LAN can effectively send and receive any information addressed to it. This
information is in the form of data 'packets'. The standards followed to regularize the
transmission of
packets, are called LAN standards. There are many LAN standards as Ethernet, Token Ring , FDDI etc.
Usually LAN standards differ due to their media access technology and the physical transmission
medium.

VII.1- Ethernet Media Standards

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineer) 802 Standards comprises a family of
networking standards that cover the physical layer specifications of technologies. Ethernet, Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet are the LAN technologies most commonly used today. They are

30
identified by three-part names, which is also known as Media Standard. An example of Media Standard
is 10BASE-T.
 The first part of the Media Standard specifies the transmission speed (10, in this case
specifies 10 Mbps)
 The second part of the name "BASE" specifies that the Ethernet signal is a Baseband
signal.
 The final part of the Ethernet Media Standard specifies the kind of cable used. Here T
specifies twisted-pair cable. The following table shows the common Ethernet Media
Standards.
Name Cable Type Connector Maximum Length Speed
10Base-T Category 3 or better RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 10 mbps
UTP cable
10Base-FL Fiber optic cable ST, SC, LC, MT-RJ 2000 meters 10 mbps
100Base-TX Cat 5 twisted pair RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 100 mbps
100Base-FX Fiber Optic ST, SC, LC, MT-RJ 2000 meters 100 mbps
1000Base-T CAT5e or higher RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 1 gbps

Note: X represents a higher grade of connection, and 100BaseTX is twisted-pair cabling that can
use either UTP or STP at 100 Mbps. With fibre-optic cable such as 100BaseFX, the speed is
quicker than standard 10BaseF. The ―L‖ stands for ―Long‖ in long wave length lasers and "S"
stands for Short Wave Length.
VII.3- LAN protocols
a) Ethernet / fast Ethernet
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses called CSMA/CD method.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over
wireless access points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to 1000
Mbps. To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed a new
standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet.
Advantages of Ethernet are: Low cost components, Easy to install, Easy to troubleshoot
b) Local Talk

Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh
computers. The method used by Local Talk is CSMA/CA. The Local Talk protocol allows for

31
linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage of Local
Talk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.
c) Token Ring

The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used
involves token-passing. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair
or fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the
increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.

d) FDDI

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) uses a dual ring physical

topology. The access method used by FDDI involves token-passing.
Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a
break occurs, the system keeps information moving by automatically
using portions of the second ring to create a new complete ring. A
major advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fiber optic cable
at 100 Mbps.
e) ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a speed of 155
Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size; whereas,
other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media such as video,
CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work with fiber optic
as well as twisted pair cable.

Protocol Cable Speed Topology Method

Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, 10 Mbps Linear Bus, Star, CSMA/CD
Fiber Tree
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps Star CSMA/CD

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 LocalTalk Twisted Pair .23 Mbps Linear Bus or Star CSMA/CA
Token Ring Twisted Pair 4 Mbps - 16 Mbps Star-Wired Ring Token passing
FDDI Fiber 100 Mbps Dual ring Token passing
ATM Twisted Pair, Fiber 155-2488 Mbps Bus, Star, Tree
Table Compare the Network Protocols

NETWORKING DEVICES
Networking hardware, also known as network equipment or computer networking devices, are
electronic devices which are required for communication and interaction between devices on a computer
network. Specifically, they mediate data transmission in a computer network. Units which are the last
receiver or generate data are called hosts, end systems or data terminal equipment. Below are some
popular network devices:

3) Network Interface Card (NIC)

In the list of the networking devices, NIC stands on the first place. Without this device, networking
cannot be done. This is also known as network adapter card, Ethernet Card and LAN card. NIC allows a
networking device to communicate with the other networking device.
NIC converts the data packets between two different data transmission technologies. A PC uses parallel
data transmission technology to transmit the data between its internal parts while the media that provides
connectivity between different PCs uses serial data transmission technology. A NIC converts parallel
data stream into the serial data stream and the serial data stream into the parallel data stream.

33
Typically all modern PCs have the integrated NICs in the motherboards. If additional NICs are required,
they are also available as add-on devices separately.
For desktop or server system, they are available in the adapter form which can be plugged into the
available slots of the motherboard. For laptop or other small size devices, they are available in the
PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) card form which can be inserted
into the PCMCIA slot.
Types of NICs
There are two types of NICs.
Media Specific: - LAN card are used according to the media type. Different types of the NICs are used to
connect the different types of media. To connect a specific media type, we must have to use a NIC which
is particularly made for that type of media.
Network Design Specific: - A specific network design needs a specific LAN card. For example FDDI,
Token Ring and Ethernet have their own distinctive type of NIC cards. They cannot use other types of
NIC cards.
Following figure illustrates some common types of NICs.

4) Hub
Hub is a centralized device that connects multiple devices in a single LAN
network. When Hub receives the data signals from a connected device on
any of its port, except that port, it forwards those signals to all other

34
connected devices from the remaining ports. Usually, Hub has one or more uplink ports that are used
to connect it with another Hub.
There are two types of the Hub.
Passive Hub: - It forwards data signals in the same format in which it receives them. It does not
change the data signal in any manner.
Active Hub: - It also works same as the passive Hub works. But before forwarding the data signals, it
amplifies them. Due to this added feature, the active Hub is also known as the repeater.
Intelligent Hub :- It work like active hubs and include remote management capabilities. They also
provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic
passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

8. Bridge
A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater,
with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading
the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also
used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single
output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges
Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
the
bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of
the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and
bridge learning.
Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by source station and
the frame specifies which route to follow. The hot can discover frame by sending a special frame
called discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to
destination.

9. Switch

35
 Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that
improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in
the internal network, and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs
are usually connected using switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of
incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.
Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual circuit
capability. Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more difficult
to examine with network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some of the
best capabilities of routers and hubs combined. A switch can work at either the Data Link layer
or the Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers,
which means that it can operate as both a switch and a router. A multilayer switch is a high-
performance device that supports the same routing protocols as routers.
Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are used to
prevent malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt. Switch port security is important so
be sure to secure switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping, ARP inspection
and MAC address filtering.
10. Routers
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. Router is
mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

11. Gateway

36
 Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the
OSI model. At the Transport layer and above, there are numerous
protocols and standards from different vendors; gateways are used to
deal with them. Gateways provide translation between networking
technologies such as Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its
own routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name service, and network administration
procedures and policies.

8. Brouter – It is also known as bridging router is a device which combines features of both bridge and
router. It can work either at data link layer or at network layer. Working as router, it is capable of routing
packets across networks and working as bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.

9) Modem
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone lines.
Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies and
transmitted to a modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem performs the reverse
transformation and provides a digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer. The
digital data is usually transferred to or from the modem over a serial line through an industry standard
interface, RS-232. Many telephone companies offer DSL services, and many cable operators use
modems as end terminals for identification and recognition of home and personal users. Modems work
on both the Physical and Data Link layers.

10) Firewall
A firewall is a device, or a piece of software that is
placed between your computer and

37
the rest of the network (where the hackers are!)
If you wish to protect your whole LAN from hackers out on the Internet, you would place a firewall
between the LAN and the Internet connection. A firewall blocks unauthorised connections being
made to your computer or LAN. Normal data is allowed through the firewall (e.g. e-mails or web pages)
but all other data is blocked.

11) Proxy Server

A proxy server is a computer setup to share a resource, usually an Internet connection.
Other computers can request a web page via the proxy server. The proxy server will then get the page
using its Internet connection, and pass it back to the computer who asked for it.
Proxy servers are often used instead of router since additional software can be easily installed on the
computer such as anti-virus, web filtering etc.

12) Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before
the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not
amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the
original strength. It is a 2 port device.

38
 EXERCISES
Q #1) What is a Network?
Answer: Network is defined as a set of devices connected to each other using a physical transmission
medium.
For Example, A computer network is a group of computers connected with each other to communicate
and share information and resources like hardware, data, and software. In a network, nodes are used to
connect two or more networks.

Q #2) What is a Node?

Answer: Two or more computers are connected directly by an optical fiber or any other cable. A node is
a point where a connection is established. It is a network component that is used to send, receive and
forward the electronic information.
A device connected to a network is also termed as Node. Let’s consider that in a network there are 2
computers, 2 printers, and a server are connected, then we can say that there are five nodes on the
network.

Q #3) What is Network Topology?

Answer: Network topology is a physical layout of the computer network and it defines how the
computers, devices, cables, etc are connected to each other.

Q #4) What are Routers?

Answer: The router is a network device that connects two or more network segments. It is used to
transfer information from the source to the destination.
Routers send the information in terms of data packets and when these data packets are forwarded from
one router to another router then the router reads the network address in the packets and identifies the
destination network.

Q #5) What is the OSI reference model?

Answer: Open System Interconnection, the name itself suggests that it is a reference model that defines
how applications can communicate with each other over a networking system.
It also helps to understand the relationship between networks and defines the process of communication
in a network.

39
CHAP TWO:
General objectives of this chapter
At the end of this chapter the students should be able to understand and apply some basic concept
of computer networks
Specific objectives of this chapter
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
- Understand how to secure computer networks
- Understand the principle of routing.
- Understand the principle of switching
- Detect and resolve network problems

40
 CHAP II: MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNICATION IN A NETWORK
Before learning the control mechanisms that can be implemented to protect a network from errors,
you should realize that there are human errors and network errors. Human errors, such as a mistake in
typing a number, usually are controlled through the application program. Network errors, such as those
that occur during transmission, are controlled by the network hardware and software.

NETWORK SECURITY
Network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network administrator to
prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a
computer network and network-accessible resources.

Network Security Problems

Network security problems can be divided roughly into four intertwined areas: secrecy, authentication,
nonrepudiation and integrity control.

1. Secrecy: This is also called confidentiality, and has to do with keeping information out of the hands
of unauthorized users.
2. Authentication: this deal with determining whom you are talking to before revealing sensitive
information or entering into a business deal.
3. Nonrepudiation: This deals with signatures: How does amazon.ca prove that Kartik indeed placed
an order for a book, which Kartik claims he never placed?
4. Integrity of service: How does one ensure that the message received was really the one sent, and not
something that a malicious adversary modified in transit or concocted?

Types of attacks over a network

We classify the attacks that compromise network security as passive attacks and active attacks.

a)Passive Attacks: These attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of, transmissions.
The goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted. Passive attacks are very
difficult to detect since they do not involve the alteration of the data. Two types of passive attacks
are:
 release of message contents where an eavesdropper tries to learn the contents of what is being

41
 transmitted. This can be prevented by encryption
traffic analysis: where the opponent tries to observe the pattern, frequency and length of messages
being exchanged which could be used in guessing the nature of the communication that is taking
place.
b) Active Attacks: Active attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a
false stream. It is difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely because to do so would require
physical protection of all communications facilities and paths at all times. Instead, the goal is to
detect them and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by them.

Data compression and data encryption

In other to send data easily through a network, it is required to compress it in other to reduce space for
storage and bandwidth for transmission. Data compression is the process of converting data from a
large format into a smaller format, usually by the means of an algorithm. Some popular examples of
data compression techniques include:

a) Graphic Interchange Format (GIF): This is a widely used compression format that is used for
storing and transferring graphic images in relatively small files over computer network such as
Internet
b) Joint Picture Expert Group (JPEG): This is a popular file compression format for storing and
transferring colour photograph and high quality images in relatively small files over computer
network such as Internet
c) Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG): This is a standard file compression format for storing
and transferring digital audio and video (moving images) in relatively small files over computer
network
d) Huffman coding: This is a lossless compression technique in which the characters in a data file
are converted to a binary code, where the most common characters in the file have the shortest
binary code, and the least common have the longest.
e) Run-length encoding: This a compression technique that is designed for compressing, long,
repetitive character strings in a piece of text, as well as compressing byte of a monochrome image
file.

An important characteristic feature in any coding scheme is the compression ratio. It is the ratio of a
compressed file to the original uncompressed file. There are two basic form of data compression:

42
 lossless compression and lossy compression.
- Lossless compression is the form of compression in which the original data can be restores exactly.(ex:
zip)
- Lossy compression is the form of compression in which the original data cannot be restored exactly
due to loss of some of its elements (ex: mp3)
Data encryption refers to mathematical calculations and algorithmic schemes that transform plaintext
into cyphertext, a form that is non-readable to unauthorized parties. The recipient of an encrypted
message uses a key which triggers the algorithm mechanism to decrypt the data, transforming it to the
original plaintext version.

ERROR CONTROL IN DATA LINK LAYER

Data-link layer uses the techniques of error control simply to ensure and confirm that all the data frames
or packets, i.e. bit streams of data, are transmitted or transferred from sender to receiver with certain
accuracy. Using or providing error control at this data link layer is an optimization, it was never
requirement. Error control is basically process in data link layer of detecting or identifying and re-
transmitting data frames that might be lost or corrupted during transmission.

Ways of doing Error Control :

There are basically two ways of doing Error control as given below :

Ways of Error Control

1. Error Detection :
Error detection, as name suggests, simply means detection or identification of errors. These errors
may cause due to noise or any other impairments during transmission from transmitter to the
receiver, in communication system. It is class of technique for detecting garbled i.e. unclear and
distorted data or message.

43
 2. Error Correction :
Error correction, as name suggests, simply means correction or solving or fixing of errors. It
simply means reconstruction and rehabilitation of original data that is error-free. But error
correction method is very costly and is very hard.
Various Techniques for Error Control:
There are various techniques of error control as given below :

Techniques of Error Control

1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ :
Stop-and-Wait ARQ is also known as alternating bit protocol. It is one of simplest flow and error
control techniques or mechanisms. This mechanism is generally required in telecommunications
to transmit data or information among two connected devices. Receiver simply indicates its
readiness to receive data for each frame. In these, sender sends information or data packet to
receiver. Sender then stops and waits for ACK (Acknowledgment) from receiver. Further, if ACK
does not arrive within given time period i.e., time-out, sender then again resends frame and waits
for ACK. But, if sender receives ACK, then it will transmi next data packet to receiver and then
again wait for ACK fro receiver. This process to stop and wait continues until sender has no data
frame or packet to send.
2. Sliding Window ARQ :
This technique is generally used for continuous transmission error control. It is further
categorized into two categories as given below :

 Go-Back-N ARQ :
Go-Back-N ARQ is form of ARQ protocol in which transmission process continues to send or

44
 transmit total number of frames that are specified by window size even without receiving an ACK
(Acknowledgement) packet from the receiver. It uses sliding window flow control protocol. If no
errors occur, then operation is identical to sliding window.
 Selective Repeat ARQ :
Selective Repeat ARQ is also form of ARQ protocol in which only suspected or damaged or lost
data frames are only retransmitted. This technique is similar to Go-Back-N ARQ though much
more efficient than the Go-Back-N ARQ technique due to reason that it reduces number of
retransmission. In this, the sender only retransmits frames for which NAK is received. But this
technique is used less because of more complexity at sender and receiver and each frame must be
needed to acknowledged individually.

FLOW CONTROL IN DATA LINK LAYER

Flow control is basically technique that gives permission to two of stations that are working and
processing at different speeds to just communicate with one another. Flow control in Data Link Layer
simply restricts and coordinates number of frames or amount of data sender can send just before it waits
for an acknowledgment from receiver. Flow control is actually set of procedures that explains sender
about how much data or frames it can transfer or transmit before data overwhelms receiver.
The receiving device also contains only limited amount of speed and memory to store data. This is why
receiving device should be able to tell or inform the sender about stopping the transmission or
transferring of data on temporary basis before it reaches limit. It also needs buffer, large block of memory
for just storing data or frames until they are processed.
Approaches to Flow Control :
Flow Control is classified into two categories –

 Feedback – based Flow Control :

In this control technique, sender simply transmits data or information or frame to receiver, then
receiver transmits data back to sender and also allows sender to transmit more amount of data or

45
 tell sender about how receiver is processing or doing. This simply means that sender transmits
data or frames after it has received acknowledgments from user.
 Rate – based Flow Control :
In this control technique, usually when sender sends or transfer data at faster speed to receiver and
receiver is not being able to receive data at the speed, then mechanism known as built-in
mechanism in protocol will just limit or restricts overall rate at which data or information is being
transferred or transmitted by sender without any feedback or acknowledgment from receiver.

Techniques of Flow Control in Data Link Layer :

There are basically two types of techniques being developed to control the flow of data –

1. Stop-and-Wait Flow Control :

This method is the easiest and simplest form of flow control. In this method, basically message or data is
broken down into various multiple frames, and then receiver indicates its readiness to receive frame of
data. When acknowledgment is received, then only sender will send or transfer the next frame.
This process is continued until sender transmits EOT (End of Transmission) frame. In this method, only
one of frames can be in transmission at a time. It leads to inefficiency i.e. less productivity if propagation
delay is very much longer than the transmission delay.
Advantages –
 This method is very easiest and simple and each of the frames is checked and acknowledged well.
 It can also be used for noisy channels.
 This method is also very accurate.
Disadvantages –
 This method is fairly slow.
 In this, only one packet or frame can be sent at a time.

46
  It is very inefficient and makes the transmission process very slow.

2. Sliding Window Flow Control :

This method is required where reliable in-order delivery of packets or frames is very much needed like in
data link layer. It is point to point protocol that assumes that none of the other entity tries to communicate
until current data or frame transfer gets completed. In this method, sender transmits or sends various
frames or packets before receiving any acknowledgment.
In this method, both the sender and receiver agree upon total number of data frames after which
acknowledgment is needed to be transmitted. Data Link Layer requires and uses this method that simply
allows sender to have more than one unacknowledged packet ―in-flight‖ at a time. This increases and
improves network throughput.
Advantages –
 It performs much better than stop-and-wait flow control.
 This method increases efficiency.
 Multiples frames can be sent one after another.
Disadvantages –
 The main issue is complexity at the sender and receiver due to the transferring of multiple frames.
 The receiver might receive data frames or packets out the sequence.
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ROUTING
When a device has multiple paths to reach a destination, it always selects one path by preferring it over
others. This selection process is termed as Routing. Routing is done by special network devices called
routers or it can be done by means of software processes. The software based routers have limited
functionality and limited scope.
A router is always configured with some default route. A default route tells the router where to forward a
packet if there is no route found for specific destination. In case there are multiple path existing to reach
the same destination, router can make decision based on the following information:
 Hop Count
 Bandwidth
 Metric

47
  Prefix-length
 Delay
Routes can be statically configured or dynamically learnt. One route can be configured to be preferred
over others.
Unicast routing
Most of the traffic on the internet and intranets known as unicast data or unicast traffic is sent with
specified destination. Routing unicast data over the internet is called unicast routing. It is the simplest
form of routing because the destination is already known. Hence the router just has to look up the routing
table and forward the packet to next hop.

Broadcast routing
By default, the broadcast packets are not routed and forwarded by the routers on any network. Routers
create broadcast domains. But it can be configured to forward broadcasts in some special cases. A
broadcast message is destined to all network devices.
Broadcast routing can be done in two ways (algorithm):
 A router creates a data packet and then sends it to each host one by one. In this case, the router
creates multiple copies of single data packet with different destination addresses. All packets are
sent as unicast but because they are sent to all, it simulates as if router is broadcasting.
This method consumes lots of bandwidth and router must destination address of each node.
 Secondly, when router receives a packet that is to be broadcasted, it simply floods those packets
out of all interfaces. All routers are configured in the same way.

48
This method is easy on router's CPU but may cause the problem of duplicate packets received from peer
routers.
Reverse path forwarding is a technique, in which router knows in advance about its predecessor from
where it should receive broadcast. This technique is used to detect and discard duplicates.

Multicast Routing
Multicast routing is special case of broadcast routing with significance difference and challenges. In
broadcast routing, packets are sent to all nodes even if they do not want it. But in Multicast routing, the
data is sent to only nodes which wants to receive the packets.

The router must know that there are nodes, which wish to receive multicast packets (or stream) then only
it should forward. Multicast routing works spanning tree protocol to avoid looping.
Multicast routing also uses reverse path Forwarding technique, to detect and discard duplicates and loops.

Anycast Routing

49
Anycast packet forwarding is a mechanism where multiple hosts can have same logical address. When a
packet destined to this logical address is received, it is sent to the host which is nearest in routing
topology.

Anycast routing is done with help of DNS server. Whenever an Anycast packet is received it is enquired
with DNS to where to send it. DNS provides the IP address which is the nearest IP configured on it.

SWITCHING
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it is
called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad level,
switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous handshaking
is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need to
pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on that circuit.
After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be turned down
immediately.
Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called circuit
switching. There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels and no other data is
permitted. In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so that the data transfer
can take place.

50
Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to go
through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit

Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of circuit
switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is established over the
network.

Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message
switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its entirety.
A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until there are
resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having enough resource to
accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.

51
This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole path is
blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching. Message switching has
the following drawbacks:
 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available, message
switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.
Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire message is
broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is added in the header of
each packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take much
resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.

Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be multiplexed over
the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching enables the user to
differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and forwarded according to their priority
to provide quality of service.

NETWORK STANDARDS
PROTOCOLS & Standards Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
 Syntax
 Semantics

52
 Timing
An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form the standards organizations
and are responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining the standards. The intent is that all data
communications equipment manufacturers and users comply with these standards. The primary standards
organizations for data communication are:
1. International Standard Organization (ISO) ISO is the international organization for standardization
on a wide range of subjects. It is comprised mainly of members from the standards committee of various
governments throughout the world. It is even responsible for developing models which provides high
level of system compatibility, quality enhancement, improved productivity and reduced costs. The ISO is
also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other standards organizations.
2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector(ITU-T) ITU-T is one of the
four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in Geneva, Switzerland. It
has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem interfacing and data transmission over
telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over public digital networks, email and directory
services; the I and Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its extension Broadband
ISDN. ITU-T membership consists of government authorities and representatives from many countries
and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations.
3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) IEEE is an international professional
organization founded in United States and is compromised of electronics, computer and communications
engineers. It is currently the world’s largest professional society with over 200,000 members. It develops
communication and information processing standards with the underlying goal of advancing theory,
creativity, and product quality in any field related to electrical engineering.
4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ANSI is the official standards agency for the United
States and is the U.S voting representative for the ISO. ANSI is a completely private, non-profit
organization comprised of equipment manufacturers and users of data processing equipment and services.
ANSI membership is comprised of people form professional societies, industry associations,
governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.
5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA) EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and
recommends industrial standards. EIA activities include standards development, increasing public
awareness, and lobbying and it is responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series of
standards for data and communications.

53
EXERCISES
Q #6) What are the layers in OSI Reference Models? Describe each layer briefly.
Answer: Given below are the seven layers of OSI Reference Models:
a) Physical Layer (Layer 1): It converts data bits into electrical impulses or radio signals. Example:
Ethernet.
b) Data Link Layer (Layer 2): At the Data Link layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits
and it provides a node to node data transfer. This layer also detects the errors that occurred at Layer 1.
c) Network Layer (Layer 3): This layer transfers variable length data sequence from one node to
another node in the same network. This variable-length data sequence is also known as “Datagrams”.
d) Transport Layer (Layer 4): It transfers data between nodes and also provides acknowledgment of
successful data transmission. It keeps track of transmission and sends the segments again if the
transmission fails.

Q #12) What is a Firewall?

Answer: Firewall is a network security system that is used to protect computer networks from
unauthorized access. It prevents malicious access from outside to the computer network. A firewall can
also be built to grant limited access to outside users.
The firewall consists of a hardware device, software program or a combined configuration of both. All
the messages that route through the firewall are examined by specific security criteria and the messages
which meet the criteria are successfully traversed through the network or else those messages are
blocked.

Q #13) What is DNS?

Answer: Domain Name Server (DNS), in a non-professional language and we can call it an Internet’s
phone book. All the public IP addresses and their hostnames are stored in the DNS and later it translates
into a corresponding IP address.

Q #18) What is NIC?

Answer: NIC stands for Network Interface Card. It is also known as Network Adapter or Ethernet Card.
It is in the form of an add-in card and is installed on a computer so that the computer can be connected to
a network.

Q #26) Differentiate Communication and Transmission?

Answer: Through Transmission the data gets transferred from source to destination (only one way). It is
treated as the physical movement of data.
Communication means the process of sending and receiving data between two media (data is transferred
between source and destination in both ways).

54
CHAP TWO:
General objectives of this chapter
At the end of this chapter the students should be able to understand and apply some basic concept
of computer networks
Specific objectives of this chapter
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
- Understand number systems
- Understand IPAddressin
- Understand subnetting

55
 CHAPTER III: NETWORK ADRESSING NUMBER SYSTEM
Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system architecture,
every value that you are saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined number
system.
Computer architecture supports following number systems.
 Binary number system
 Octal number system
 Decimal number system
 Hexadecimal (hex) number
system BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value) represents
with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is 2, because it has only
two digits.

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value) represents with
0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number system is 8, because it has only 8
digits.

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value) represents with
0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal number system is 10, because it has
only 10 digits.

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to F. Every
number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F in this number system. The base
of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Here A is 10, B is 11, C is
12, D is 14, E is 15 and F is 16.

56
 Number system Base(Radix) Used digits Example
Binary 2 0,1 (11110000)2
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (360)8
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (240)10
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, (F0)16
9, A,B,C,D,E,F

CONVERSIONS
DECIMAL TO OTHER

1. DECIMAL TO BINARY

Decimal Number System to Other Base

To convert Number system from Decimal Number System to Any Other Base is quite easy; you
have to follow just two steps:
A) Divide the Number (Decimal Number) by the base of target base system (in which you want to
convert the number: Binary (2), octal (8) and Hexadecimal (16)).
B) Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least Signification Bit (LSB) to Step last as a Most
Significant Bit (MSB).

Decimal to Binary Conversion Result

57
 Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Binary Number is
(11000000111001)
2

2. DECIMAL TO OCTAL

Decimal to Octal Conversion Result

Decimal Number is :
(12345)10
Octal Number
is
(30071)8

58
3. DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion Result
Example 1
Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Hexadecimal Number
is
(3039)16

Example 2 Hexadecimal Number

Decimal Number is : (725)10 is
(2D5)16
Convert
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
to its
equivalent... A,
B, C, D, E, F

BINARY TO OTHER
A) Multiply the digit with 2(with place value exponent). Eventually add all the multiplication
becomes the Decimal number.
1. BINARY TO DECIMAL

2. BINARY TO OCTAL

59
An easy way to convert from binary to octal is to group binary digits into sets of three, starting with
the least significant (rightmost) digits.

Binary: 11100101 11 100 101

= 011 100 101 Pad the most significant digits with zeros if
necessary to complete a group of three.
Then, look up each group in a table:

Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary 011 100 101

Octal
= = 3 4 5 = 345
oct

3. BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
An equally easy way to convert from binary to hexadecimal is to group binary digits into sets of four,
starting with the least significant (rightmost) digits.

Binary: 11100101 = 1110 0101

Then, look up each group in a table:

Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 100 100 101 101 110 1101 111 111

Hexadecimal: 80 91 A
0 B
1 C
0 D E
0 F
1

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal E 5 = E5
= hex

60
OCTAL TO OTHER

1. OCTAL TO BINARY
Converting from octal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to octal. Simply look up each
octal digit to obtain the equivalent group of three binary digits.

Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 000 001 01 01 10 10 11 11
0 1 0 1 0 1
Octal = 3 4 5
Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101
binary
2. OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL

When converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first convert the octal number into
binary and then from binary into hexadecimal. For example, to convert 345 octal into hex:
(from the previous example)

Octal = 3 4 5

Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101

binary

Drop any leading zeros or pad with leading zeros to get groups of four binary digits (bits):
Binary 011100101 = 1110 0101

Then, look up the groups in a table to convert to hexadecimal digits.

Binary: 000 000 001 001 010 010 011 011

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

61
 Binary: 100 100 101 101 110 110 111 1111
0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex

Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals binary 011100101 equals
hexadecimal E5.

3. OCTAL TO DECIMAL
The conversion can also be performed in the conventional mathematical way, by showing each digit
place as an increasing power of 8.

345 octal = (3 * 82) + (4 * 81) + (5 * 80) = (3 * 64) + (4 * 8) + (5 * 1) = 229 decimal

HEXADECIMAL TO OTHER
1. HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
Converting from hexadecimal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to hexadecimal. Simply
look up each hexadecimal digit to obtain the equivalent group of four binary digits.
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 000 000 001 001 010 010 011 0111
Hexadecimal: 80 91 A
0 B
1 C
0 D
1 E
0 F

Binary: 100 100 101 101 110 110 111 1111

0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Hexadecimal A 2 D E
Binary
= = 1010 0010 1101 1110 = 1010001011011110
binary

62
 2. HEXADECIMAL TO OCTAL
1's complement

The 1's complement of a number is found by changing all 1's to 0's and all 0's to 1's. This is called as
taking complement or 1's complement. Example of 1's Complement is as follows.

Binary Addition

It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. There are four rules of binary addition.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in the given column
and a carry of 1 over to the next column.

Example − Addition

63
 2's complement

The 2's complement of binary number is obtained by adding 1 to the Least Significant Bit
(LSB) of 1's complement of the number.

2's complement = 1's complement + 1

Example of 2's Complement is as
follows.

IP ADDRESSING

1- What is an IP address?
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection
on an IP network. An IP address version 4 (IPv4) is a 32 bit binary number usually
represented as 4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as
octets) separated by decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation.
Example: 140.179.220.200
It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form. 140.179.220.200
becomes

64
 10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000

Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying
the node. The Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to
the network address and which part belongs to the node address.

2- Address Classes
The Internet community originally defined five address classes to accommodate
networks of varying sizes. Microsoft TCP/IP supports class A, B, and C addresses
assigned to hosts. The class of address defines which bits are used for the network ID
and which bits are used for the host ID. It also defines the possible number of networks
and the number of hosts per network.

Class 1st Octet 1st Octet Network/Host Default Subnet Number of Hosts per Network
Decimal High ID Mask Networks (Usable Addresses)
Range Order (N=Network,
A 1 – 126* 0
Bits N.H.H.H
H=Host) 255.0.0.0 126 (27 – 2) 16,777,214 (224 – 2)
B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382 (214 – 2) 65,534 (216 – 2)
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150 (221 – 2) 254 (28 – 2)
D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting
E 240 – 254 1111 Experimental; used for research

Note:
 Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback
and diagnostic functions.
 Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses. The four high-order bits in a
class D address are always set to binary 1110. The remaining bits are for the address
that interested hosts recognize.
 Class E is an experimental address that is reserved for future use. The high-order bits in
a class E address are set to 1111.
 All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 1. All 1's in the network ID are reserved
for use as an IP broadcast address.
 All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 0. All 0's in the network ID are used to denote a
specific host on the local network and are not routed.

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 Private IP Addresses: There are addresses used in the private networks

Class Private Networks Subnet Mask Address Range

A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

4 – Addressing
Unicast Addressing Mode
In this mode, data is sent only to one destined host. The Destination Address field contains 32-
bit IP address of the destination host. Here the client sends data to the targeted server −

Broadcast Addressing Mode

In this mode, the packet is addressed to all the hosts in a network segment. The Destination
Address field contains a special broadcast address, i.e. 255.255.255.255. When a host sees this
packet on the network, it is bound to process it. Here the client sends a packet, which is entertained
by all the Servers −

66
 Multicast Addressing Mode
This mode is a mix of the previous two modes, i.e. the packet sent is neither destined to a single host nor
all the hosts on the segment. In this packet, the Destination Address contains a special address which
starts with 224.x.x.x and can be entertained by more than one host.

Here a server sends packets which are entertained by more than one servers. Every network has one IP
address reserved for the Network Number which represents the network and one IP address reserved for
the Broadcast Address, which represents all the hosts in that network.
Hierarchical Addressing Scheme
IPv4 uses hierarchical addressing scheme. An IP address, which is 32-bits in length, is divided into two
or three parts as depicted −

A single IP address can contain information about the network and its sub-network and ultimately the
host. This scheme enables the IP Address to be hierarchical where a network can have many sub-
networks which in turn can have many hosts.
Subnet Mask
The 32-bit IP address contains information about the host and its network. It is very necessary to
distinguish both. For this, routers use Subnet Mask, which is as long as the size of the network address in
the IP address. Subnet Mask is also 32 bits long. If the IP address in binary is ANDed with its Subnet
Mask, the result yields the Network address. For example, say the IP Address is 192.168.1.152 and the
Subnet Mask is 255.255.255.0 then −

67
This way the Subnet Mask helps extract the Network ID and the Host from an IP Address. It can be
identified now that 192.168.1.0 is the Network number and 192.168.1.152 is the host on that network.

Binary Representation
The positional value method is the simplest form of converting binary from decimal value. IP address is
32 bit value which is divided into 4 octets. A binary octet contains 8 bits and the value of each bit can be
determined by the position of bit value '1' in the octet.

Positional value of bits is determined by 2 raised to power (position – 1), that is the value of a bit 1 at
position 6 is 2^(6-1) that is 2^5 that is 32. The total value of the octet is determined by adding up the
positional value of bits. The value of 11000000 is 128+64 = 192. Some examples are shown in the table
below −

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5- Address Classes
Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses to be used efficiently in various
situations as per the requirement of hosts per network. Broadly, the IPv4 Addressing system is divided
into five classes of IP Addresses. All the five classes are identified by the first octet of IP Address.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is responsible for assigning IP addresses.
The first octet referred here is the left most of all. The octets numbered as follows depicting dotted
decimal notation of IP Address −

The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by this formula −

When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because they cannot be assigned to
hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.
Class A Address
The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet ranges from 1 – 127, i.e.

Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only. The IP range 127.x.x.x is
reserved for loopback IP addresses.
The default subnet mask for Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that Class A addressing can
have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2).
Class A IP address format is thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class B Address
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set to 10, i.e.

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Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is
255.255.x.x.
Class B has 16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses.
Class B IP address format is: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class C Address
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is −

Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is
255.255.255.x.
Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses.
Class C IP address format is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
Class D Address
Very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110, giving a range of −

Class D has IP address range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is reserved for Multicasting. In
multicasting data is not destined for a particular host, that is why there is no need to extract host address
from the IP address, and Class D does not have any subnet mask.
Class E Address
This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D or Study. IP addresses in this class
ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Like Class D, this class too is not equipped with any subnet
mask.

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Introduction to Subnetting
The classes of networks do not provide much flexibility in designing a network. Each class of network
only provides for a fixed number of networks (125, 16,382 or 2,097,150) and a fixed number of hosts
(16,777,214, 65,534 or 254). Using the class system is referred to as having a classful network. In the real
world, pretty much all networks do not fit the class system. The solution is to divide the class network
into smaller subnetworks or subnets for short. The term for dividing networks into smaller subnets is
called subnetting.

There are many reasons for subnetting a network:

 Security:

Each department in a company can be logically and physically separated from the other
departments. Engineering has limited access to Accounting and so on.

 Traffic shaping:

Each department's network traffic is restricted to its own network. Only interdepartmental traffic
is allowed between networks.

 Ownership:

Networks can be subnetted based on the ownership of the subnets. A service provider can subnet
its network and lease its subnets to other entities.

 Geography:

Subnets can be geographically separate but still be part of the network. A network can cover a
large geographical area with branch offices in other physical locations.

Subnet Masks

Subnet masks can divide networks into smaller networks than discussed previously. Using subnet masks
to divide networks into smaller networks is called having a classless network. Subnet masks differ from
network masks in that they borrow host bits to divide the network. In subnetting a network it is important
to recognize the class of the network that we start from. In order to understand the process of borrowing

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bits used by subnetting, a discussion on binary to decimal number conversion is required.
The typical Class C network mask 255.255.255.0 represents 32 bits or 4 bytes of data. Each number
represents 1 byte and is displayed as a decimal number. One byte of information can represent a range of
0 - 255. One byte also consists of 8 bits where 0000 0000 represents 0 in decimal and 1111 1111
represents 255 in decimal.

Note: The convention for displaying bits is to group in nibbles (4 bits) to make it easier to read.

Each bit position in a byte has a decimal weighting, where the weighting is equal to 2 to the power of the
position starting at the far right position: b0 (bit 0). The easiest way to determine the decimal weighting is
to start on the right with the number 1 (which is 2^0) and double it at each bit position moving to the left.
The weighting for each position is follows:

Where the Most Significant bit (MSb) is indicated by bit position b7 and the Least Significant bit (LSb)
is indicated by bit position b0. In computer systems, counting begins with the number 0. The significance
of lower case b indicates bits, upper case B indicates bytes.

There are many very well done binary to decimal tutorials available already online and discussing binary
to decimal conversion here is beyond the scope of this discussion. If you are not familiar with binary to
decimal conversion, now is the time to learn it.

Subnet Prefix

The standard network mask dot decimal format is rather cumbersome for subnet masking as it doesn't
clearly show how the subnet is divided. A better way is to use a network mask prefix. The network mask
prefix shows the number of bits starting from the MSb that are used to indicate the network portion of an
IP address. For example:

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  Class A network mask: 255.0.0.0 - the first 8 Most Significant bits of the 32 bit address. This is
represented as /8

 Class B network mask: 255.255.0.0 - the first 16 Most Significant bits of the 32 bit address. This
is represented as /16

 Class C network mask: 255.255.255.0 - the first 24 Most Significant bits of the 32 bit address.
This is represented as /24

Borrowing Host Bits

Earlier it was mentioned that in order to subnet a network, we had to borrow bits from the host portion of
a network address. This is required because the network portion of an IP address is already defined. If we
want to make subnets, we'll have to borrow some host bits. For the following example, a Class C network
will be used. It is important to be able to identify the class of a network from it's IP address. This is the
first step in subnetting.

A class C network mask is 255.255.255.0 or prefix /24. The 1st quadrant .0 represents the host portion.
We will borrow bits from it to form the subnets. The following table shows only the 1st quadrant and the
prefix associated with each bit position. It also shows the bit position weighting which will become
important soon.

The prefix /24 represents a standard Class C network mask of 255.255.255.0. What does a /25 prefix
represent? It indicates that we have borrowed 1 bit from the host portion. We will have to add another
row to our table. This row is called the subnet mask and starts with 128 at MSb bit 7 (b7) - this represents
the subnet mask for /25 or 255.255.255.128.

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To determine what /26 represents, we add the bit weighting of b7 (128) and b6 (64) together. The result
of the addition is 192. The prefix /26 represents a subnet mask of 255.255.255.192.

We can easily fill out the rest of the table by adding each successive bit position weighting to the one we
just finished. For example:

 /27 represents 192 + 32 = 224

 /28 represents 224 + 32 = 240

 /29 represents 240 + 32 = 248

 /30 represents 248 + 32 = 252

 /31 represents 252 + 32 = 254

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 /32 represents 254 + 32 = 255

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Subnetting Class C Addresses
Subnetting technique remains the same irrespective of the class of address. The difference that the class
makes is the number of bits available for subnetting. Class C starts with a mask of /24 and can have a
maximum mask of /30. We cannot use /31 or /32 because atleast 2 hosts bits are required for the network
and broadcast addresses and /31 and /32 give us 1 and zero host bits respectively. In the examples below,
you get to practice subnetting class C addresses.

Subnetting Class C Address – Example #1

Problem: Is 192.168.1.193/26 a host address?
Solution:
1. Converting /26 to dotted decimal format gives 255.255.255.192. The fourth octet is the interesting
octet.

2. Deducting 192 from 256 gives us 64. So the subnet addresses are 0,64,128 and 192

3. The network address and broadcast address are:

Network Address Broadcast Address

192.168.1.0 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.128 192.168.1.191
192.168.1.192 192.168.1.255

4. The host addresses for each of the subnets are:

Network Address Host Addresses Broadcast Address

192.168.1.0 192.168.1.1-62 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.65-126 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.128 192.168.1.129-190 192.168.1.191
192.168.1.192 192.168.1.193-254 192.168.1.255

5. The given address, 192.168.1.193 is a host address in the last subnet.

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Subnetting Class C Address – Example #2
Problem: What is the network and broadcast address for the subnet to which the address
192.168.1.228/28 belongs?
Solution:
1. Converting /28 to dotted decimal format gives 255.255.255.240. This shows that the fourth octet
is the interesting octet.
2. Deduction 240 from 256 gives us 16. So the subnet addresses are 0, 16, 32, 48, 64 … 208, 224,
240.
3. The network and broadcast address for the subnets are:
Network Address Broadcast Address
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.15
192.168.1.16 192.168.1.31
192.168.1.32 192.168.1.47
192.168.1.48 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.79
192.168.1.208 192.168.1.223
192.168.1.224 192.168.1.239
192.168.1.240 192.168.1.255

4. The host addresses of each subnet are:

Network Address Host Addresses Broadcast Address
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.1-192.168.1.14 192.168.1.15
192.168.1.16 192.168.1.17-192.168.1.30 192.168.1.31
192.168.1.32 192.168.1.33-192.168.1.46 192.168.1.47
192.168.1.48 192.168.1.49-192.168.1.62 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.65-192.168.1.78 192.168.1.79
192.168.1.208 192.168.1.209-192.168.1.222 192.168.1.223
192.168.1.224 192.168.1.225-192.168.1.238 192.168.1.239
192.168.1.240 192.168.1.241-192.168.1.254 192.168.1.255

4. From the above table, you can see that the address 192.168.1.228 lies in the 192.168.1.224 subnet.

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 The network address for this subnet is 192.168.1.224 and the broadcast address is 192.168.1.239.

Subnetting Class C Address – Example #3

Problem: What type of address is 192.168.5.47/29? What is the network and broadcast address of the
subnet that this address belongs to and how many host addresses are available in the subnet?
Solution:
1. Converting /29 gives 255.255.255.248. This shows that the fourth octet is the interesting octet.

2. Deducting 248 from 256 gives us 8 so the subnets are 0, 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48…240,248

3. 192.168.5.47 lies in the 192.168.5.40 subnet and is the last address before the next subnet
192.168.5.48. This means that 192.168.5.47/29 is a broadcast address for the 192.168.5.40/29
subnet.

4. The network address for this subnet is 192.168.5.40 and the valid host address range is
192.168.5.41-192.168.5.46

Subnetting Class B addresses

The process to subnet class B addresses is same as that used to subnet class C address. The difference is
that you have more bits available for subnetting. Class B addresses start with a mask of /16 and can have
a maximum mask of /30. One big difference when subnetting class B addresses is that you deal with large
number of hosts per subnet and it becomes important to remember the Powers of Two table shown in
Table 2-8. In the examples given below, you will practice subnetting class B addresses.
Subnetting Class B address – Example #1
Problem: Is 172.16.98.45/19 a host address?
Solution:
1. Converting /19 to dotted decimal format gives us 255.255.224.0. The third octet is the interesting
octet.

2. Deducting 224 from 256 gives 32. So the subnet addresses are 0, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192, 224

3. The network address and broadcast address are:

Network Address Broadcast Address

172.16.0.0 172.16.31.255

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 172.16.32.0 172.16.63.255
172.16.64.0 172.16.95.255
172.16.96.0 172.16.127.255
172.16.128.0 172.16.191.255
172.16.192.0 172.16.223.255
172.16.224.0 172.16.255.255

4. The host address range for each subnet is:

Network Address Host Addresses Broadcast Address

172.16.0.0 172.16.0.1-172.16.31.254 172.16.31.255
172.16.32.0 172.16.32.1-172.16.63.254 172.16.63.255
172.16.64.0 172.16.64.1-172.16.96.254 172.16.95.255
172.16.96.0 172.16.96.1-172.16.127.254 172.16.127.255
172.16.128.0 172.16.128.1-172.16.191.254 172.16.191.255
172.16.192.0 172.16.192.1-172.16.223.254 172.16.223.255
172.16.224.0 172.16.224.1-172.16.255.254 172.16.255.255

5. The address 172.16.98.45 is a host address in the 4th subnet.

Subnetting Class B address – Example #2

Problem: What are the network and broadcast addresses for the subnet to which the address
172.19.251.100/23 belongs.
Solution:
1. Converting /23 to dotted decimal format gives us 255.255.254.0. This shows that the third octet is
the interesting octet.

2. Deducting 254 from 256 gives us 2. So the subnet addresses are 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10…248, 250, 252,
254

3. The network, broadcast and valid host ranges for these subnets are:

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 Network Host Addresses Broadcast Address
Address
172.19.0.0 172.19.0.1-172.19.1.254 172.19.1.255
172.19.2.0 172.19.2.1-172.19.3.254 172.19.3.255
172.19.4.0 172.19.4.1-172.19.5.254 172.19.4.255
172.19.6.0 172.19.6.1-172.19.7.254 172.19.7.255
172.19.8.0 172.19.8.1-172.19.9.254 172.19.9.255
172.19.250.0 172.19.250.1-172.19.251.254 172.19.251.255
172.19.252.0 172.19.252.1-172.19.253.254 172.19.253.255
172.19.254.0 172.19.254.1-172.19.255.254 172.19.255.255

4. As you can see, the address 172.19.251.100/23 is a valid host address in the 172.19.250.0/23
subnet. The network address for this subnet is 172.19.250.0 and the broadcast address is
172.19.251.255.

Subnetting Class B address – Example #3

Problem: You see that your PC has an IP address and subnet mask of 172.30.40.5/21. How many subnets
can your network have? How many valid host addresses can each subnet have?
Solution:
1. Converting a /21 mask to dotted decimal format gives us 255.255.248.0.

2. Converting it to dotted binary format gives us 11111111.11111111.11111000.00000000. This

shows that 5 bits have been borrowed for subnets and 11 bits are available for host addresses.

3. The borrowed 5 bits gives us 25=32 subnets.

4. The 11 host bits give us 211 = 2048 addresses. Out of 2048, 2 addresses are reserved for host and
broadcast addresses. So this leaves us with 2046 valid host addresses per subnet.

Subnetting Class A addresses

The process to subnet class A addresses is the same as that you have used to subnet class C and B
addresses. The big difference is the large numbers you can deal with while using masks such as /9. Class
A addresses start with a mask of /8 and can have a maximum of /30 mask. In the examples below, you
will practice subnetting class A addresses.

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Subnetting Class A address – Example #1
Problem: Is 10.127.255.254/9 a host address?
Solution:
1. Converting /9 to dotted decimal format gives 255.128.0.0. The second octet is the interesting
octet.

2. Deducting 128 from 256 gives 128. So the subnet addresses are 0 and 128.

3. The network and broadcast address are:

Network Address Broadcast Address

10.0.0.0 10.127.255.255
10.128.0.0 10.255.255.255

4. The host address range for the subnets are:

Network Address Host Addresses Broadcast Address
10.0.0.0 10.0.0.1-10.127.255.254 10.127.255.255
10.128.0.0 10.128.0.1-10.255.255.254 10.255.255.255

5. 10.127.255.254 is the last host address in the 1st subnet.

Exam Alert: A /30 or 255.255.255.252 is the highest mask which can be practically used in a network.
It gives 2 host addresses and is ideal for point-to-point links in a network. Point-to-Point links are usually
found in routers terminating WAN links.[/stextbox

Subnetting Class A address – Example #2

Problem: This is a different kind of a problem. Your network number is 21.0.0.0. You need to have as
many subnets as possible without exceeding 1000 subnets while at the same time having at least 500
hosts per subnet. What subnet mask would you use?
Solution:
Since 21.0.0.0 is a Class A network, the default mask is /8. So you have 24 bits of host addresses that can
be borrowed for the subnetting. Looking back at Table 2-8, you will see that 210 gives us 1024 while 29
gives us 512. Since 1024 exceeds the given 1000 subnets, you will need to use 29. This means 9 bits will
be borrowed for the network part leaving the rest for the host part. The table below shows the default

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mask and the new mask after borrowing 9 bits:
Octets 1st Octet 2nd Octet 3rd Octet 4th Octet
Default mask 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000
New mask 11111111 11111111 10000000 00000000

The new mask of /17 will leave 15 bits for the host part which gives us much more than the required 500
hosts per subnet.

EXERCISES
Subnetting Class A address – Example #3
Problem: You have been given a network number of 10.0.0.0/8. You need to subnet it such that you have
at least 8000 hosts per subnet and at least 2000 subnets. What subnet mask will you use?
Solution:
10.0.0.0/8 is a class A address with a default mask of /8. This leaves you with 24 bits for host addresses.
So you need to find which multiples of 2 give us the required numbers. Looking back at Table 2-8, you
will see that 211 gives us 2048 while 213 gives us 8192. This means you can borrow 11 bits for the
network part, leaving 13 bits for the host part. The table below shows the default mash and the new mask
in binary format:
Octets 1st Octet 2nd Octet 3rd Octet 4th Octet
Default mask 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000
New mask 11111111 11111111 11100000 00000000

10.0.0.0/19 will give you 2048 subnets with 8192 host bits remaining. Each subnet will have a maximum
of 8109 hosts, leaving 2 addresses for network and broadcast addresses.
Subnetting Class A address – Example #4
Problem: What are the network and broadcast addresses for the subnet to which the address
10.212.10.50/12 belongs.
Solution:
1. Converting /12 to dotted decimal format gives us 255.240.0.0. This shows that the second octet is
the interesting octet.

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 2. Deducting 240 from 256 gives us 16. This means that the valid subnets are 0, 16, 32, 48,
64…208, 224, 240

3. The network, valid host and broadcast addresses for these subnets are:

Network Host Addresses Broadcast Address

Address
10.0.0.0 10.0.0.1-10.15.255.254 10.15.255.255
10.16.0.0 10.16.0.1-10.31.255.254 10.31.255.255
10.32.0.0 10.32.0.1-10.47.255.254 10.47.255.255
10.48.0.0 10.48.0.1-10.63.255.254 10.63.255.255
10.64.0.0 10.64.0.1-10.207.255.254 10.207.255.255
10.208.0.0 10.208.0.1-10.223.255.254 10.223.255.255
10.224.0.0 10.224.0.1-10.239.255.254 10.239.255.255
10.240.0.0 10.240.0.1-10.255.255.254 10.255.255.255

1. The address 10.212.10.50/12 is a host address in the 10.208.0.0/12 subnet.

2. The network address for the subnet is 10.208.0.0 and the broadcast address is 10.223.255.255

Question

1 Write the IP address 222.1.1.20 mask 255.255.255.192 in CIDR notation

Decimal 192 =11000000 binary which means that 2 bits of this octet are used for the subnet. Now add the
24 bits 255.255.255 and we have 26 bits. So we write:

222.1.1.20/26

2. Write is the IP address 135.1.1.25 mask 255.255. 248.0 in CIDR notation

Decimal 248 =11111000 binary which means that 5 bits of this octet are used for the subnet. Now add the
16 bits 255.255. and we have 21 bits. So we write:

135..1.1.25/21

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