COMPUTER NETWORKS

Presented by
Ms. P Anusha,
Asst Prof, CSE(AIML)
Course Objectives
• Gain a general understanding of the principles and
concepts governing the operations of computer
networks.
• Provides you with the opportunity to become skillful in
the implementation and use of communication
protocols.
• Help you grasp the basic research methodologies in the
field of computer networks.
 Introduction to Computer Networks
NETWORK
 It is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links using
transmission media.
 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network connected.

COMPUTER NETWORK
 It is a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single
technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to
exchange information.
 The connection could be a wired (copper wire / fiber optics / coaxial cable etc)
or wireless (Bluetooth / infrared / communication satellite etc) media.
 The merging of computers and communications had a profound
influence on the way computer systems are organized.
 The old model of a single computer serving computational needs has
been replaced by one in which a large number of separate but
interconnected computers do the job is referred to as COMPUTER
NETWORKS
 Networks comes in many sizes, shapes and forms, usually connected
together to make a large networks ( Eg: INTERNET).
 A Distributed system is a collection od independent computers appears
to users as a single coherent systems. (Eg: WORLD WIDE WEB)
 WWW runs on top of Internet and presents a model in which everything
looks like a document.
 Types of Communications

A Client-Server model involves Requests and Replies.

A Peer-to-Peer model without fixed clients and servers.

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORK
1. Business Applications
• sharing physical resources
• Using client-server model
• Communication medium using email
• Doing business electronically using e-commerce
2. Home Applications
• Using peer-to-peer model
• Having person-to-person communication
• Electronic commerce for online shopping
• Connecting with social media.
• Entertainment like game playing
3. Mobile Users
• For text messaging
• By using Smart phones
• GPS (Global Positioning System) for location
• Mobile-commerce
• RFID smart card
4. Social Issues
• Phishing attack stealing credentials.
• Botnets attacks using SPAM.
• Development of CAPTCHA
Data communications system components
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission medium
5. Protocol
Data Flow of communications
NETWORK CRITERIA
 Performance - It can be measured in many ways, including
transit time and response time.
 Reliability - Is measured by the frequency of failure, the time
it takes a link to recover from a failure
 Security – It includes protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures
 NETWORK HARDWARE
Network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
Broadly speaking there are two types of Transmission technology (or) Types of
connections that are widely used as an important criterion for classifying of a
network : Point-to-Point links and Broadcast links .
 Point-to-Point links: Connect the individual pairs of machines from source
to destination on a network, using short messages called packets.
 Point-to-Point transmission with exactly from one sender to exactly one
receiver is called unicasting.
 Broadcast links: Here the communication channel is shared by set of
machines on a network. Packets were sent my any machine and received
my all or some machine in a network.
 Multicast (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link.

 In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either

spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously,
it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
 Another criterion for classifying networks is by scale. Distance is
important as a classification metric because different technologies are
used at different scales.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
WAN(Wide Area Network)
 Network Topologies
 Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other.
 Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
Components of Computer Network
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
 To reduce design complexity networks are organized as a stack of layers and
levels.
 The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers while
shielding those layers from the details of how the offered services are actually
implemented.
 Conversation between layer n on one machine with layer n on another machine:
the rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the
layer n protocol.
 A set of layers and protocols is called a Network Architecture.
 Neither the details of the implementation nor the specification of the interfaces is
part of the architecture. A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one
protocol per layer, is called a Protocol Stack.
 Design issues for the Layers
 Packet traveling through the network, there is a chance that some bits will
be flipped, or even get lost, or new ones will be added:
-fluke electrical noise
-random wireless signals
-hardware flaws
-software bugs (and so on …)
 Major Design Issues be like-
 Accuracy - Error Detection & Error Correction.
 Reliability – Routing
 Flow Control – QoS
 Security - CAI
Connection Oriented versus Connection-less
services
 REFERENCE MODELS
 A Reference model is a conceptual layout that describes how
communication between devices should occur.
 It defines the standards for building network components.
 To address the problem of network being incompatible and unable to
communicate with each other, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) researched various schemes.
 The ISO recognized there was a need to create a NETWORK
MODEL.
 OSI Reference Model
 TCP/IP Reference Model
 OSI REFERENCE MODEL
 OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model is based
on a proposal developed by the International Standards
Organization(ISO) as a first step towards various layer in 1983 by
Day and Zimmermann and was revised in 1995.
 This model deals with connecting open systems with other
systems. OSI model has seven layers contribute to the transmission
of data from one system to another system.
 Purpose of OSI model is to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying Hardware and Software.
 Each layer should perform a well defined function.
 Physical Layer
 The physical layer is the lowest layer of OSI model.
 It is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media
 Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data from one hop to
the next.
 Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic
standards.
 Device example : HUB
Data Link Layer
 Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over physical layer interface. It
breaks the data into frames and reassemble the received frames by detecting frame
boundaries and generating Acknowledgement frame.
 Its responsible to transfer error-free frames from node to another by implementing flow
control, which requires MAC address or Physical address.
 It is divided into two sub-layers.
- Media Access Control (MAC) - It is responsible for controlling devices' access to a
medium.
- Logical Link Control (LLC) - It is responsible for frame synchronization,
identification of network layer protocol, and error control.
 Device example : SWITCH
 Network Layer
 Network layer is responsible for moving packets (data) from source to destination, called
end-to-end communications through intermediate nodes.
 It requires logical addresses such as IP addresses. It handles congestion and QoS issues in
the network.
 It facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks and defines how to fragment
a packet into smaller packets.
 The best possible path is chosen by the network layer for the transfer of the data from
source to destination and this is called Routing.
 Device example : ROUTER.
 Transport Layer
 Transport layer is responsible to provide a reliable mechanism for exchange of data
between two processes to ensure flow and error control.
 It creates various smaller units called segments and ensure delivery in sequence.
 It adds source and destination port numbers in the header for the right transfer of the
data.
 May use Connection-oriented service like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) or
Connectionless service like UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
 It lies in between bottom Hardware layers and top Software layers.
 Session Layer
 Session layer is responsible to establish, maintain and synchronize the
communication among the devices.
 It provides a mechanism for controlling dialogue between two end systems by
using Token Management system.
 It provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between devices.
 It also provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment,
termination, and restart or recovery procedures
 Presentation Layer
 Presentation layer defines the format in which data is to be exchanged between
two communicating entities.
 It deals with syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
 It handles data compression and data encryption.
 It translates data into the form that the application accepts.
 Application Layer
 Application layer is the closest layer to the end-user. It interacts directly with the
software application.
 It handles identifying communication partners and determining resource
availability.
 Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or operating
system to communicate on the network
 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
 TCP/IP reference model was first described by Cerf and Kahn in 1974 later
refined as a standard by Clark in 1988 for Department of Defense.
 It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely,
TCP and IP. TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol" and IP stands
for "Internet Protocol".
 This model is a four-layer model that divides network communications into
four distinct categories or layers that work together to allow networked
computers to communicate.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol suite made up of interactive modules, and
each of them provides specific functionality.
Link Layer
 The Link layer is the lowest layer in this model, describes what links like
Ethernet or series lines must meet the need of connectionless internet layer.
 It works in a combination of Physical layer and datalink layer in OSI
model.
 This layer is responsible for generating the data and requesting connections
by providing error prevention by PPP protocol.
 Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
Internet Layer
 The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries.
 The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to
another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP
address, which is used to identify the device and determine the route that packets
should take to reach it.
 The network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.
 Transport Layer
 The Transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without
error. End-to-End communication is referred.
 The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were
physically connected by a circuit.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport
layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified.
Application Layer
 This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs with the
transport layer services.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining
resource availability, and synchronizing communication. It allows users to log
on to a remote host.
 This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, etc.
PROTOCOLS OF NETWORK MODELS
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP model
Example Networks: ARPANET and INTERNET