1.

General:
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) began developing
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model in 1977. It has since
become the most widely accepted model for understanding network
communication; once you understand how the OSI model works, you can use it to
compare network implementations on different systems.
When you want to communicate with another person, you need to have two things
in common: a communication language and a communication medium. Computer
networks are no different; for communication to take place on a network composed
of a variety of different network devices, both the language and medium must be
clearly defined. The OSI model (and networking models developed by other
organizations) attempts to define rules that cover both the generalities and
specifics of networks:

 How network devices contact each other and, if they have different
languages, how they communicate with each other
 Methods by which a device on a network knows when to transmit data and
when not to
 Methods to ensure that network transmissions are received correctly and by
the right recipient
 How the physical transmission media is arranged and connected
 How to ensure that network devices maintain a proper rate of data flow
 How bits are represented on the network media

The OSI model isn’t a product. It’s just a conceptual framework you can use to
better understand the complex interactions taking place among the various devices
on a network. It doesn’t do anything in the communication process; appropriate
software and hardware do the actual work. The OSI model simply defines which
tasks need to be done and which protocols will handle those tasks at each of the
seven layers of the model. The seven layers are as follows:

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  Application (layer 7)
 Presentation (layer 6)
 Session (layer 5)
 Transport (layer 4)
 Network (layer 3)
 Data-Link (layer 2)
 Physical (layer 1)

2. Protocol Stacks

The OSI model splits communication tasks into smaller pieces called
subtasks. Protocol implementations are computer processes that handle these
subtasks. Specific protocols fulfill subtasks at specific layers of the OSI model.
When these protocols are grouped together to complete a whole task, the
assemblage of code is called a protocol stack.
The stack is just a group of protocols, arranged in layers, that implements an entire
communication process. Each layer of the OSI model has a different protocol
associated with it. When more than one protocol is needed to complete a
communication process, the protocols are grouped together in a stack. An example
of a protocol stack is TCP/IP, which is widely used by Unix and the Internet—the
TCP and IP protocols are implemented at different OSI layers.
Each layer in the protocol stack receives services from the layer below it and
provides services to the layer above it. It can be better explained like this: Layer N
uses the services of the layer below it (layer N–1) and provides services to the
layer above it (layer N+1).
For two computers to communicate, the same protocol stacks must be running on
each computer. Each layer on both computers’ stacks must use compatible
protocols in order for the machines to communicate with each other. The
computers can have different operating systems and still be able to communicate if
they are running the same protocol stacks. For example, a DOS machine running
TCP/IP can communicate with a Macintosh machine running TCP/IP.

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 Fig.1: Each layer communicates with its counterparts on other network hosts.

4. The Physical Layer

The Physical layer is responsible for sending bits from one computer to another.
Physical layer components don’t care what the bits mean; their job is to get the
bits from point A to point B, using whatever kind of optical, electrical, or wireless
connection that connects the points. This level defines physical and electrical
details, such as what will represent a 1 or a 0, how many pins a network connector
will have, how data will be synchronized, and when the network adapter may or
may not transmit the data

Fig.2: The Physical layer makes a physical circuit with electrical, optical, or radio
signals.

The Physical layer addresses all the minutiae of the actual physical connection
between the computer and the network medium, including the following:

 Network connection types, including multipoint and point-to-point

connections.
 Physical topologies, or how the network is physically laid out (e.g., bus, star,
or ring topologies).

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  Which analog and digital signaling methods are used to encode data in the
analog and digital signals.
 Bit synchronization, which deals with keeping the sender and receiver in
synch as they read and write data.
 Multiplexing, or the process of combining several data channels into one.
 Termination, which prevents signals from reflecting back through the cable
and causing signal and packets errors. It also indicates the last node in a
network segment.


5. The Data-Link Layer

The Data-Link layer provides for the flow of data over a single physical link
from one device to another. It accepts packets from the Network layer and
packages the information into data units called frames; these frames are presented
to the Physical layer for transmission. The Data-Link layer adds control
information, such as frame type, to the data being sent.
This layer also provides for the error-free transfer of frames from one computer to
another. A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) added to the data frame can detect
damaged frames, and the Data-Link layer in the receiving computer can request
that the CRC information be present so that it can check incoming frames for
errors. The Data-Link layer can also detect when frames are lost and request that
those frames be sent again.
In broadcast networks such as Ethernet, all devices on the LAN receive the data
that any device transmits. (Whether a network is broadcast or point-to-point is
determined by the network protocols used to transmit data over it.) The Data-Link
layer on a particular device is responsible for recognizing frames addressed to that
device and throwing the rest away, much as you might sort through your daily mail
to separate good stuff from junk.

Fig.3: The Data-Link layer establishes an error-free link between two devices.

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The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) developed a protocol
specification known as IEEE 802.X. (802.2 is the standard that divides this layer
into two sublayers. The MAC layer varies for different network types and is
described further in standards 802.3 through 802.5.) As part of that specification
(which today we know as Ethernet), the Data Link layer is split into two sublayers:

 The Logical Link Control (LLC) layer establishes and maintains the logical
communication links between the communicating devices.
 The Media Access Control (MAC) layer acts like an airport control tower—
it controls the way multiple devices share the same media channel in the
same way that a control tower regulates the flow of air traffic into and out of
an airport.

Fig.4: The IEEE split the ISO Data-Link layer into the LLC sublayer and the MAC
sublayer.

The LLC sublayer provides Service Access Points (SAPs) that other
computers can refer to and use to transfer information from the LLC sublayer to
the upper OSI layers. This is defined in the 802.2 standard.
The MAC sublayer, the lower of the two sublayers, provides for shared access to
the network adapter and communicates directly with network interface cards.
Network interface cards have a unique 12-digit hexadecimal MAC address
(frequently called the hardware Ethernet address) assigned before they leave the
factory where they are made. The LLC sublayer uses MAC addresses to establish
logical links between devices on the same LAN.

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6. The Network Layer

The Network layer handles moving packets between devices that are more
than one link away from each other. It makes routing decisions and forwards
packets as necessary to help them travel to their intended destination. In larger
networks, there may be intermediate devices and subnetworks between any two end
systems. The network layer makes it possible for the Transport layer (and layers
above it) to send packets without being concerned with whether the end system is
on the same piece of network cable or on the other end of a large wide area
network.
To do its job, the Network layer translates logical network addresses into physical
machine addresses (MAC addresses, which operate at the Data-Link layer). The
Network layer also determines the quality of service (such as the priority of the
message) and the route a message will take if there are several ways a message
can get to its destination.
The Network layer also may split large packets into smaller chunks if the packet is
larger than the largest data frame the Data-Link layer will accept. The network
reassembles the chunks into packets at the receiving end. Intermediate systems that
perform only routing and relaying functions and do not provide an environment for
executing user programs can implement just the first three OSI network layers.

Fig.5: The Network layer moves packets across links to their destination.

The Network layer performs several important functions that enable data to
arrive at its destination. The protocols at this layer may choose a specific route
through an internetwork to avoid the excess traffic caused by sending data over
networks and segments that don’t need access to it. The Network layer serves to
support communications between logically separate networks. This layer is
concerned with the following:

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  Addressing, including logical network addresses and services addresses
 Circuit, message, and packet switching
 Route discovery and route selection
 Connection services, including Network layer flow control, Network layer
error control, and packet sequence control
 Gateway services
In Windows Server 2000/2003, the various routing services for TCP/IP, AppleTalk,
and Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX)
perform Network layer services. In addition, the TCP/IP, AppleTalk, and IPX
stacks provide routing capacity for those protocols.

7. The Transport Layer

The Transport layer ensures that data is delivered error free, in sequence,
and with no losses or duplications. This layer also breaks large messages from the
Session layer into smaller packets to be sent to the destination computer and
reassembles packets into messages to be presented to the Network layer. The
Transport layer typically sends an acknowledgment to the originator for messages
received

Fig.6: The Transport layer provides end-to-end communication with integrity and
performance guarantees.

8. The Session Layer

The Session layer allows applications on separate computers to share a
connection called a session. This layer provides services, such as name lookup and
security, that allow two programs to find each other and establish the
communication link. The Session layer also provides for data synchronization and
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checkpointing so that in the event of a network failure, only the data sent after the
point of failure would need to be resent. This layer also controls the dialog
between two processes and determines who can transmit and who can receive at
what point during the communication

Fig.7: The Session layer allows applications to establish communication sessions

with each other.

9. The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer translates data between the formats the network
requires and the formats the computer expects. The Presentation layer performs
protocol conversion; data translation, compression, and encryption; character set
conversion; and the interpretation of graphics commands. The network redirector,
long a part of Windows networking, operates at this level. The redirector is what
makes the files on a file server visible to the client computer. The network
redirector also makes remote printers act as though they are attached to the local
computer (see Fig.8).

10. The Application Layer

The Application layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model, and it provides
services that directly support user applications, such as database access, e-mail,
and file transfers. It also allows applications to communicate with applications on
other computers as though they were on the same computer. When a programmer
writes an application program that uses network services, this is the layer the
application program will access. For example, Internet Explorer uses the
Application layer to make its requests for files and web pages; the Application
layer then passes those requests down the stack, with each succeeding layer doing
its job (see Fig.9).

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 Fig.8: The Presentation layer allows applications to establish communication
sessions with each other.

Fig.9: The Application layer is where the applications function, using lower levels
to get their work done.

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11. Communication between Stacks
When a message is sent from one machine to another, it travels down the
layers on one machine and then up the layers on the other machine.

Fig.10: Traffic flows down through the stack on one computer and up the stack on
the other.

As the message travels down the first stack, each layer it passes through
(except the Physical layer) adds a header. These headers contain pieces of control
information that are read and processed by the corresponding layer on the
receiving stack. As the message travels up the stack of the other machine, each
layer removes the header added by its peer layer and uses the information it finds
to figure out what to do with the message contents.

Fig.11: As packets flow up and down the stacks, each layer adds or removes
necessary control information (data encapsulation).

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 As an example, consider the network we’re using while writing this book. It’s
a TCP/IP network containing several Windows 2000, Windows Server 2003,
Macintosh, and Windows NT machines, all connected using the TCP/IP protocol.
When we mount a share from our Windows Server 2003 file server on the Mac
desktop, at layer 7, the Mac Finder requests something from the Windows Server
2003. This request is sent to the Mac’s layer 6, which receives the request as a data
packet, adds its own header, and passes the packet down to layer 5. At layer 5, the
process is repeated, and it continues until the packet makes it to the Physical layer.
The physical layer is responsible for actually moving the bits across the network
wiring in the office, so it carries the request packet to a place where the Windows
Server 2003 machine can “hear” it. At that point, the request packet begins its
journey up the layers on the Windows Server 2003 file server. The header that was
put on at the Data-Link layer of the Mac OS is stripped off at the Data-Link layer
on the Windows Server 2003 machine. The Windows Data-Link layer driver
performs the tasks requested in the header and passes the requests to the next,
higher layer. This process is repeated until the Windows Server 2003 file server
receives the packet and interprets the request. The Windows Server 2003 would
then formulate an appropriate response and send it to the Mac.

12. The basics of network protocols

Protocols are nothing more than an agreed-upon way in which two objects
(people, computers, home appliances, etc.) can exchange information. There are
protocols at various levels in the OSI model. In fact, it is the protocols at a
particular level in the OSI model that provide that level’s functionality. Protocols
that work together to provide a layer or layers of the OSI model are known as a
protocol stack or protocol suite. The following sections explain how network
protocols move data between machines.

How Protocols Work

A protocol is a set of basic steps that both computers must perform in the right
order. For instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer, the
first computer must perform the steps given in the following general example:
1. Break the data into small sections called packets.
2. Add addressing information to the packets, identifying the destination
computer.
3. Deliver the data to the network card for transmission over the network.

The receiving computer must perform these steps:

1. Accept the data from the network adapter card.
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 2. Remove the transmitting information that was added by the transmitting
computer.
3. Reassemble the packets of data into the original message.

Each computer needs to perform the same steps, in the same way and in the correct
order, so that the data will arrive and be reassembled correctly. If one computer
uses a protocol with different steps or even the same steps with different
parameters (such as different sequencing, timing, or error correction), the two
computers won’t be able to communicate with each other.

Network Packets
Networks primarily send and receive small chunks of data called packets. Network
protocols construct, modify, and disassemble packets as they move data down the
sending stack, across the network, and back up the OSI stack of the receiving
computer. Packets have the following components:
 A source address specifying the sending computer
 A destination address specifying where the packet is being sent
 Instructions that tell the computer how to pass the data along
 Reassembly information (if the packet is part of a longer message)
 The data to be transmitted to the remote computer (often called the packet
payload)
 Error-checking information to ensure that the data arrives intact

These components are assembled into slightly larger chunks; each packet contains
three distinct Parts and each part contains some of the components listed
previously:
 Header A typical header includes an alert signal to indicate that the data is
being transmitted,
 source and destination addresses, and clock information to synchronize the
transmission.
 Data This is the actual data being sent. It can vary (depending on the
network type) from 48 bytes to 4 kilobytes.
 Trailer The contents of the trailer (or even the existence of a trailer) vary
among network types, but it typically includes a CRC. The CRC helps the
network determine whether or not a packet has been damaged in
transmission.

Fig.12: A packet consists of a header, the data, and a trailer.

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