Unit 3

Principles of solid state welding processes: friction welding, explosive welding, ultrasonic welding processes.
Brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding: Principles of adhesive, brazing and soldering processes, origins of
welding defects

Friction welding:
. FRICTION WELDING

In this welding process, often termed as ‘‘inertia welding’’, the two surfaces to be welded
are rotated relative to each other under light normal pressure. When the interface temperature
increases due to frictional rubbing and when it reaches the required welding temperature,
sufficient normal pressure is applied and maintained until the two pieces get welded.
The shape of the welded joint depends on the rotational speed and the
axial force appliedthese factors must be controlled to obtain a uniformly strong joint. The
radially outward movement of the hot metal at the interface pushes oxides and other
contaminants out of the interface.
A wide variety of metals and metal combinations
can be welded by this process. Filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases are not required, and
welds can be made with a minimum of joint preparation.

The method is most suitable for circular parts, that is, butt welding of round bars or tubes.
Advantages :
1. High quality welds.
2. The process is clean.
3. Low initial capital cost.
4. Low-cost power requirements.WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES
5. Very little loss of material through exclusions.
6. Annealing of weld zone is not necessary.
7. The heating zone being very thin, therefore, dissimilar metals are easily joined.
Limitations :
 The method is limited to smaller components.
 The parts to be welded must be essentially round and must be able to withstand the
high torque developed during welding.
 Applications :
 H.S.S. twist drills ;
 Gas turbine shafts ;
 Aero-engine drive shafts and valves ;
 Refrigerator tubes of dissimilar metals ;
 Steering columns ;
EXPLOSIVE WELDING

In this process welding is achieved through very high contact of pressure developed
bydetonating a thin layer of explosive placed over one of the pieces to be joined (Fig7.41)
The detonationimparts high kinetic energy to the piece which on striking the other piece
causes plastic deformation
and squeezes the contaminated surface layers out of interface resulting in a high quality
welded joint
Advantages :
(i) High joint strength.
(ii) Dissimilar metals can be welded.
(iii) Inexpensive equipment.324
(iv) Large size plates can be welded.
(v) Good for plate cladding.
Limitations :
(i) Trained operators are required.
(ii) Inherently dangerous processes.
(iii) High set-up time.
Applications :

 This process is particularly suitable for cladding plates and slab with dissimilar
metals, such as for the chemical industry.
 Explosive cladding is also finding use in the die-casting industry for nozzles, die-
casting biscuits and other components.
 Tubes and pipe are often joined to the holes in the header plates of boilers and tubular
heat exchangers by placing the explosive inside the tube ; the explosion expands the
tube and seals it against the plate
ULTRASONIC WELDING
A schematic diagram of a typical ultrasonic welding is shown in Fig. 7.37. The welding
equipment consists of two units :
(i) A power source of frequency converter which converts 50 cycle line power into high
frequency electric power.
(ii) A transducer which changes the high frequency electric power into vibratory energy.

The components to be joined are simply clamped between a welding tip and supporting
anvil with just enough pressure to hold them in close contact. The high frequency vibratory
energy is then transmitted to the joint for the required period of time. The bonding is
accomplished without applying external heat, filler rod or melting metal.

 Either spot-type welds or continuous-seam welds can be made on a variety of metals

ranging of thickness from 0.000425 mm (aluminium foil) to 0.25 mm.
 Thicker sheet and plate can be welded if the machine is specifically designed for
them.
 High strength bonds are possible both in similar and dissimilar metal combinations.
Advantages :
1. High productivity.
2. Thin pieces can be welded to thicker pieces.
3. Welds are free from foreign inclusions.
4. Post cleaning of welds is usually not necessary.
5. Very little preparation is required for the weld ; usually it involves degreasing.

Application
Ultrasonic welding is particularly adaptable for :
1. Joining electrical and electronic components.
2. Thematic sealing of materials and devices
3. Splicing metallic foil.
4. Welding aluminium wire and sheet.
5. Fabricating nuclear fuel elements

Principles of adhesive:
 Adhesive bonding is a method by which two materials are
joined into an assembly. Adhesive bonding may take the place of or be used in addition to
traditional thermal or mechanical attachment methods such as welds, bolts, screws or rivets.

The principal requirement of an adhesive bond is to connect two materials while withstanding the
stresses those materials will be subjected to in their use.
An adhesive is a substance used to
bond two materials together. Some common formats include one- and two-parreactive
adhesives, hot melt and reactive hot melt adhesives, and solvent- and water-based adhesives.

BRAZING
Brazing is a soldering operation using brass as the joining medium. The brazing operation
is simply a form of hard soldering using a copper-zinc alloy, that is, brass, as the uniting
medium (the term hard soldering is used because the welding alloy used in the joint is harder
than solder, naturally the joint is much more stronger than soldering). The brass used for
making the joint in brazing is generally called ‘‘spelter’’ and its composition depends upon
the metal being brazed because it is essential that the spelter shall have a lower melting point
than the material being jointed.
Three brazing alloys are :
1. Copper = 70%, Zinc = 30% ; Melting point = 960°C
2. Copper = 60%, Zinc = 40% ; Melting point = 910°C
3. Copper = 50%, Zinc = 50% ; Melting point = 870°C.
When brazing or hard soldering using a brass mixture, the heating may be by means of :
(i) Coal-gas and a mouth blow pipe for very small work.
(ii) Coal-gas and compressed air using the normal blow pipe.
(iii) Oxy-acetylene torch.
(iv) Oxy-hydrogen torch.
(v) Coal-gas and oxygen with a suitable torch.
(vi) Electrical resistance as on a spot welder

Brazing Procedure
The process of brazing is carried out as follows :
1. The surfaces to be joined are thoroughly cleaned.
2. Then a paste made of flux and spelter is kept in the joint, the joint being held in position
by suitable clamps or tongs.
3. The flame is directed over the joint held on a fire brick piece. The flux and spelter will
soon melt and fill the recess between the joint. The liquid is spread uniformly over the joint
either with a pointed wire piece or by moving the jet of flame circular over the joint.
4. When the joint is hot common salt is put to soften the glossy hard flux that sets over the
joint.
5. The work is removed from the clamp after it is cooler

Advantages :
1. Cast and wrought metals can be joined.
2. Metallurgical properties of the base materials are not seriously disturbed.
3. Assemblies can be brazed in a stress free condition.
4. Dissimilar metals can be joined.
5. Non-metals can be joined to metals, when the non-metal is coated.
6. Materials of different thickness can be joined easily.
7. Complex assemblies can be brazed in several steps by using filler metals with
progressively lower melting temperatures.
8. Little or no finishing is required by the brazed joints.
9. Several operations can be mechanised.
10. Almost all the common engineering materials may be satisfactorily brazed or braze
welded.
Limitations :
1. High degree of skill required.
2. Limited size of parts.
3. Machining of the joint edges forgetting the desired fit is costly.
4. Joint design is somewhat limited if strength is a factor.
Applications of Brazing
The applications of brazing include the following :
1. Parts of bicycle such as frames and rims.
2. Pipe joints subjected to vibrations.
3. Exhaust pipes in motor engines.
4. Band saws.
5. Tipped tools.
6. Nipples and unions to M.S. and copper tubing
SOLDERING
Soldering is an operation of joining two or more parts together by molten metal.
It is a quick method of making joints in light articles made from steel, copper and brass
and for wire joints such as occur in electrical work.
Soldering should not be used where
much strength is required, or in case where the joint will be subjected to vibration or heat, as
solder is comparatively weak and has a low melting point. When joints must stand these
treatments they should be riveted, welded or brazed

Soldering Procedure
The process of soldering is carried out as follows :
1. The surfaces of the pieces to be joined must bethoroughly cleaned and made free from rust,
grease, oil and dirt by scraping with dull knife or emery paper.
2. Then coat the surfaces with flux.
3. Take a blob of solder on the bit of the hot soldering iron and allow it run down hill filling
the recess of thejoints for light work. For heavy work the hot iron should be held against the
soldering stick and molten solder be allowed to fill the longer length of the joint.
4. Wipe off excess of solder with a piece of felt or cotton waste.
5. Wash the joint thoroughly with warm water to remove the traces of acid flux

Origins of welding defects:

Welding defects can be caused by : 1234

 Incorrect welding patterns

 Material selection
 Skill
 Machine settings, including welding speed, current, and voltage
 Poor process conditions
 Operator error
 Wrong technique
 Incorrect consumables

Difference of soldering and brazing:

1. Soldering:
o Process: Soldering involves joining two or more metal pieces by melting
a low-melting-point alloy (called solder) and allowing it to flow into the seam
where the metal pieces meet.
o Temperature: Soldering is carried out at a temperature below 450°C.
o Materials: It is commonly used for electrical work, plumbing, and jewelry
making.
o Strength: Soldered joints are generally less strong than brazed joints.
o Parent Metal: Soldering does not melt the parent metal of the components
being joined.
o Advantages: It’s quick, affordable, and suitable for delicate or fragile parts.
o Disadvantages: Soldered joints may not be as strong as brazed joints.
2. Brazing:
o Process: Brazing involves joining metal pieces by heating them to a
temperature higher than their melting point but lower than the melting
 point of the base metal. A brazing alloy or filler metal is then heated and
melted, flowing into the joint through capillary action.
o Temperature: Brazing filler metals melt above 450°C.
o Materials: Brazing is used for various materials, including metals, ceramics,
glasses, plastics, and composites.
o Strength: Brazed joints are stronger than soldered joints.
o Parent Metal: Brazing does not melt the base metal of the components being
joined.
o Advantages: It can join dissimilar metals, produces strong, leak-proof joints,
and has an attractive finish.
o Disadvantages: Requires more heat input than soldering.