Electrical Distribution Fundamentals Design Guide Data Bulletin-Schneider Electric

Electrical Distribution Fundamentals Design
Guide
Data Bulletin
0100DB2301
03/2024
www.se.com
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Table of Contents
Engineering Fundamentals .............................................................................7
Introduction and Basic Fundamentals ................................................................7
Introduction................................................................................................7
Purpose of this Guide .................................................................................7
Applications of Electrical Power in Industrial and Commercial
Facilities ....................................................................................................7
Basic Design Philosophy.............................................................................8
Electric Power Fundamentals..........................................................................10
Introduction..............................................................................................10
Basic Concepts ........................................................................................10
AC Power ................................................................................................14
Transformers ...........................................................................................17
Basic Electrical Formulae..........................................................................23
Load Planning................................................................................................26
Basic Principles........................................................................................26
NEC Basic Branch Circuit Requirements ....................................................28
NEC Basic Feeder Circuit Sizing Requirements ..........................................31
System Voltage Considerations.......................................................................33
Basic Principles........................................................................................33
Voltage Drop Considerations .....................................................................34
System Arrangements ....................................................................................36
Introduction..............................................................................................36
Radial System..........................................................................................37
Radial System with Primary Selectivity .......................................................37
Expanded Radial Systems ........................................................................38
Loop Systems ..........................................................................................40
Secondary Selective Systems ...................................................................41
Primary Selective Systems........................................................................43
Secondary Spot-network Systems .............................................................43
Ring Bus Systems ....................................................................................44
Composite Systems..................................................................................45
Summary .................................................................................................48
System Grounding .........................................................................................50
Introduction..............................................................................................50
Solidly-grounded Systems.........................................................................51
Ungrounded Systems ...............................................................................54
High-resistance Grounded Systems...........................................................59
Reactance Grounding ...............................................................................63
Low-resistance Grounded Systems ...........................................................63
Creating an Artificial Neutral in an Ungrounded System ...............................64
NEC Systems Grounding Requirements.....................................................65
System Protection ..........................................................................................69
Introduction..............................................................................................70
Characterization of Power System Faults ...................................................70
Methods Of Reducing Short-circuit Current.................................................76
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 3

Low Voltage Fuses ...................................................................................82
Low Voltage Molded-case Circuit Breakers.................................................87
Low Voltage Power Circuit Breakers ..........................................................94
Medium-voltage Fuses..............................................................................97
Medium-voltage Circuit Breakers ............................................................. 105
Protective Relays ................................................................................... 109
Other Protective Relays Types ................................................................ 123
Ground Fault Protection for Solidly-grounded Systems 600 V and
Below .................................................................................................... 123
Surge Protection .................................................................................... 128
Protection of Specific System Components .............................................. 131
Protection Selectivity .............................................................................. 134
Utility Considerations ................................................................................... 137
Introduction ................................................................................................. 137
The Utility’s Jurisdiction ................................................................................ 137
Utility Service Requirement Standards ........................................................... 137
System Topology and Protection ................................................................... 138
Revenue Metering Requirements .................................................................. 138
Additional Regulatory Requirements.............................................................. 139
Utility Information Requirements for System Design........................................ 140
Power Quality Considerations .................................................................... 141
Introduction ................................................................................................. 141
Power Quality Metrics................................................................................... 143
Voltage Surges ............................................................................................ 145
Voltage Sags, Swells and Interruptions .......................................................... 145
Harmonic Distortion...................................................................................... 145
Power Quality Monitoring.............................................................................. 148
Safety Considerations.................................................................................. 150
Arc Flash Hazard ......................................................................................... 150
Introduction............................................................................................ 150
Background ........................................................................................... 150
NFPA 70E Requirements for Arc Flash Hazards ....................................... 151
IEEE 1584 ............................................................................................. 157
Application Guidelines ............................................................................ 159
Electrical Distribution Equipment ............................................................... 163
Power Distribution Equipment ....................................................................... 163
Introduction............................................................................................ 163
NEMA Enclosure Types .......................................................................... 163
Switchboards ......................................................................................... 166
Low-voltage Motor Control Centers.......................................................... 168
Low-voltage Switchgear .......................................................................... 170
Low-voltage Transformer ........................................................................ 172
Medium-voltage Advanced Design Guide ................................................. 175
Medium-voltage Power and Distribution Transformers............................... 175
Medium-voltage Metal-enclosed Interrupter Air-insulated
Switchgear............................................................................................. 178
Medium-voltage Motor Control Centers .................................................... 180
4 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Medium-voltage Metal-clad Switchgear .................................................... 181
Retrofit Solutions .................................................................................... 182
Medium-voltage Gas Insulated Switchgear ............................................... 183
Retrofills for Upgrade and Modernization.................................................. 184
Emergency Power Distribution Equipment ..................................................... 184
Introduction............................................................................................ 184
Codes and Standards ............................................................................. 184
Power Sources....................................................................................... 186
Automatic-transfer Switches.................................................................... 187
Uninterruptible Power Supplies................................................................ 191
Power System Configurations ................................................................. 197
Distributed Energy Resources .................................................................... 207
Microgrids.................................................................................................... 207
Introduction............................................................................................ 207
Market Drivers for Microgrid Adoption ...................................................... 207
Industry Standards ................................................................................. 208
Microgrid Functions ................................................................................ 210
Typical Microgrid System Components..................................................... 211
Design and Specification Considerations.................................................. 212
Microgrid Interconnection Requirements .................................................. 219
Electrical Energy Management .................................................................. 220
Introduction ................................................................................................. 220
Electrical Distribution and Alarming ............................................................... 220
Continuous Thermal Monitoring..................................................................... 222
Asset Performance and Maintenance ............................................................ 222
Capacity Management.................................................................................. 223
Backup Power Testing .................................................................................. 223
Power Quality Monitoring.............................................................................. 225
Electricity Billing Basics ................................................................................ 226
Facility Energy Profile — Where’s the Energy Going? ..................................... 229
Demand Analysis Techniques ....................................................................... 230
Demand Control........................................................................................... 233
Peak Shaving with Onsite Generation ............................................................ 234
Water, Air, Gas, Electric Steam (WAGES) ...................................................... 236
Energy Survey Checklist............................................................................... 238
EcoStruxure™ Power Digital Applications ................................................. 241
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 5

Engineering Fundamentals
Introduction and Basic Fundamentals
Introduction
With the increasing sophistication of modern power systems, it is easy to overlook the
fact that the basic function of a power distribution system has been the same for over
100 years: the safe, reliable distribution of power from a source to the connected
loads. Although this basic function has not changed, the complexity of the loads
themselves, along with today’s reliability and efficiency requirements, makes its
realization more complex.
This guide discusses the main considerations that must be taken into account to
obtain an optimal system design. Because the characteristics of each load, process,
or other issue, are unique, each design is unique to match the requirements imposed.
Purpose of this Guide

This guide is intended to present the fundamentals of power system design for
commercial and industrial power systems. It is not designed as a substitute for
educational background and experience in this area, nor is it designed to replace the
multitude of detailed literature available about this subject. It does, however, bring into
one volume much material or standards which has previously been available only by
referencing several different sources with different formats and terminologies.
This guide is also intended to present the state of the art about power system design
for commercial and industrial facilities, in a consistent format along with traditionally
available material.
For the new college graduate from a four-year electrical engineering curriculum
working in the field of commercial and industrial power systems, this guide can serve
as a starting point for learning the different aspects of the profession. For the licensed
design professional, this guide presents several guidelines in a handy and convenient
reference.
This guide is not intended to substitute for the services of a licensed design
professional, but can aid when working with such professionals on commercial and
industrial power system design.
Applications of Electrical Power in Industrial and Commercial

Facilities
In both industrial and commercial environments, electric power is used for a wide
number of applications. The following is a brief list of the most common uses for
electric power, taken in part from Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers1, which
provides an expanded treatment of this subject:
Illumination: Whether for providing light for an office environment or a manufacturing
shop floor, illumination is one of the most important applications of electric power.
Environmental systems: Electric heating, ventilation, and air conditioning are a large
application for electric power, and an area in which electric power receives direct
competition from other energy sources such as natural gas.
1. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001, pp. 21-1 – 21-99.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 7

Industrial processes: Industrial processes account for a large percentage of the

global use of electric power. Typical process applications listed below, are not all-
inclusive, but do cover the majority of process applications:
• Pumping
• Motors
• Chemical processes
• Semiconductor preparation processes
• Furnaces
• Smelting
• Rolling mills
• Pulp-and-paper preparation processes
• Welding
• Refrigeration
• Drying
• Well drilling
• Materials handling
• Water treatment processes
Computers and Data Centers: With the advent of large computer networks, there is
a need to reliably power these.
Health Care: Reliable power has always been a requirement of the health care
industry but added to this is the need for power quality due to the nature of the
equipment used.
Safety Systems: Systems such as fire alarm and smoke detection systems, sprinkler
systems and fire pumps are vital to any commercial or industrial facility.
Communication Systems: Systems such as telephone and intrusion detection and
monitoring are critically important.
Basic Design Philosophy

The following basic considerations are fundamental to any power system design:
• Basic safety: The power system must be able to perform all of its basic
functions, and withstand basic abnormal conditions, without damage to the
system or to personnel.
• Basic functionality: The power system must be able to distribute power from the
source to the connected loads in a reliable manner under normal conditions.
• Reasonable cost: The power system cost to obtain basic safety and functionality
should be reasonable.
• Code compliance: All applicable codes must be complied with.
Above and beyond the basics are a multitude of considerations, some of which apply
to each system design:
• Enhanced safety: The ability to withstand extremely abnormal conditions with a
minimum of risk to personnel.
• Enhanced reliability: The ability to maintain service continuity during abnormal
system conditions.
• Enhanced maintainability: The system can be maintained with minimum
interruption to service and with minimum personnel protective equipment.
• Enhanced flexibility: The ability to add future loads to the system, and with
loads of a different nature than currently exist on the system.
8 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

• Enhanced space economy: The power system footprint is optimized for the
available space.
• Enhanced simplicity: The power system is easy to understand and operate for a
qualified person.
• Reduced cost: The power system costs; both first cost and operating cost, are
low.
• Enhanced power quality: The power system currents and voltages are
sinusoidal, without large harmonics present. System voltage magnitudes do not
change appreciably.
• Enhanced transparency: The power system data at all levels is simply acquired
and interpreted, and the power system is simply interfaced with other building
systems. Enhanced control of the system is also possible.
While it is the goal of every power system design to meet the above basic
considerations, no system design can yield all the enhanced characteristics listed.
The relationship between the considerations listed is shown in Power System Design
Consideration Heuristics, page 9.
Some of the enhanced characteristics mentioned are mutually exclusive, and to
obtain a combination of several enhanced characteristics requires a significant
increase in cost. The design engineer, therefore, must consider the balance between
the performance requirements of the system and the cost, while not compromising the
basic safety elements, functionality, and code compliance.
Figure 1 - Power System Design Consideration Heuristics
Enhanced
Enhanced Enhanced Enhanced Enhanced
Power
Maintainability Reliability Flexability Transparency
Quality
Enhanced
Safety
Enhanced
Simplicity Basic Safety, Functionality,
and Code Compliance
Enhanced
Space
Economy
Increasing Cost
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 9

Electric Power Fundamentals

Abstract: The fundamentals of electric power and electrical systems have remained
unchanged for many years though technologies employed in electrical power systems
have advanced greatly. Anyone responsible for any part of an electrical system relies
on the fundamental relationships presented.
Introduction
The fundamentals of electric power and electrical systems have remained unchanged
for many years, though technologies employed in electrical power systems have
advanced greatly. Anyone responsible for any part of an electrical system relies on the
fundamental relationships presented. An understanding of the fundamentals of
electric power is vital to successful power system design. It is assumed that the reader
has a degree in electrical power engineering or electrical power engineering
technology, however the following discussion is presented as a review and reference
material for completeness.
Basic Concepts
Commercial electric power in the United States is generated and delivered as
alternating current, abbreviated as “AC”. AC power consists of sinusoidal voltages
and currents. Mathematically, an AC voltage or current can be expressed as follows:
v(t) = Vmaxcos(360f·t+Фv) (2–1)

i(t) = Imaxcos(360f·t+ФI) (2–2)
Where:
• v(t) is an AC voltage
• i(t) is an AC current
• Vmax is the voltage amplitude
• Imax is the current amplitude
• f is the system frequency
• Фv is the voltage phase shift in degrees
• Фt is the current phase shift in degrees
• t is the time in ms
All angles are measured in degrees.
AC currents and voltages are economical to generate and, further, the magnitudes of
the currents or voltages can be stepped up or down using transformers.
10 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Three-phase AC power is the standard in the United States due to its convenience of
generation. Three-phase (abbreviated “3Ф “) power is characterized by three different
phases, each with a phase shift 120° from the other two phases. The three phases are
typically referred to as “A”, “B”, and “C”. Further, the standard frequency for the United
States is 60 Hz. Therefore, three-phase voltages in the United States can be
mathematically described as follows:
va(t) = Vmaxcos(360x60xt) = Vmaxcos (2–3)

(21600t)
vb(t) = Vmaxcos(360x60xt – 120°) = (2–4)
Vmaxcos(21600t – 120°)
vc(t) = Vmaxcos(360x60xt +120°) = (2–5)
Vmaxcos(21600t + 120°)
Where:
• va(t) is the A-phase voltage
• vb(t) is the B-phase voltage
• vc(t) is the C-phase voltage
The voltages from (2-3) – (2-5) are shown graphically in Graphical Representation of
3Ф Voltages, page 11.
Figure 2 - Graphical Representation of 3Ф Voltages
ABC Phase-Sequence CBA Phase-Sequence
VAN VCN
VBN VBN
VCN VAN
Voltage
Voltage
Time
Time
The peaks of the voltage waveforms are 120° (5.5 ms at 60 Hz) apart. The peak of
phase A occurs before the peak of phase B, which in turn occurs before the peak of
phase C. This is referred to as an ABC phase sequence or ABC phase rotation. If any
two-phase labels are swapped, the result is a CBA phase rotation. Both are
encountered in practice. Also, the definition of time = 0 is arbitrary due to the periodic
nature of the waveforms.
Because the full mathematical representation of AC voltages and currents is not
practical, a shorthand notation is usually used. This shorthand notation treats the
sinusoids as complex quantities based upon the following mathematical relationship:
cos(ө) = Re{ejө} (2–6)
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 11

Where:
• Re is the real part of the complex quantities
The voltage quantities from (2-3) – (2-5) can therefore be rewritten as follows:
va(t) = Re{Vmaxej21600t } (2–7)

vb(t) = Re{Vmaxej(21600t –120°)} (2–8)
vc(t) = Re{Vmaxej(21600t + 120°)} (2–9)
To further develop this shorthand notation, it must be recognized that the use of the
RMS (root-mean-square) quantity, rather than the amplitude, is advantageous in
power calculations (discussed below). The RMS quantity for a periodic function f(t) is
defined as follows:
(2–10)
T
1 2
Frms =
T ∫f
0
( t ( dt
Where:
• Frms is the RMS value of the periodic function f(t)
• T is the period of f(t)
Using (2-10), the RMS value of each of the sinusoidal voltages from (2-3) – (2-5) are
calculated as:
Vrms = Vmax/√2 (2–11)
Because the RMS value is so useful in the calculation of power-related quantities, any
time an AC voltage or current value is given it is assumed to be an RMS value unless
otherwise stated.
Assuming only the real part of ejϴ is kept, the voltages from (2-7) – (2-9) can be written
as complex quantities known as phasors:
V̄a = Vmaxej21600t (2–12)

V̄b = Vmaxej(21600t –120°) (2–13)
V̄c = Vmaxej(21600t + 120°) (2–14)
Assuming a frequency of 60 Hz, the commonly-used shorthand notation for (2-12) –

(2-14) is:
V̄a = Vmax∠0° (2–15)

V̄b = Vmax∠–120° (2–16)
V̄c = Vmax∠120° (2–17)
The phasor quantities in (2-15) – (2-17) can be treated as complex quantities for the
purposes of manipulation and calculation, but with the understanding that, if required,
the basic time-domain voltage relationships of (2-3) – (2-5) can easily be obtained.
The phasors can be plotted, as shown in Plot for Phasors per (2-15) – (2-17), page 13.
12 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 3 - Plot for Phasors per (2-15) – (2-17)
In most instances the Re and Im axes are omitted since the definition of time zero (and
thus angle zero) is arbitrary; the important information conveyed is the angular
relationships between the phasors themselves. The real part of a phasor is its
projection on the Re axis; if the phasors are imagined to rotate in a counter-clockwise
direction about the 0,0 point it can be seen that the peak of va(t), represented by the
tip of phasor V̄a crossing the Re axis, occurs first, followed by the peak of vb(t),
followed in turn by the peak of vc(t). Thus, for angles defined as positive in the
counter-clockwise direction the ABC phase sequence is indicated by a counter-
clockwise phasor rotation. If angles are defined as positive in the clockwise direction a
clockwise phasor rotation indicates an ABC phase sequence. Both are encountered in
practice. In this guide all angles in phasor diagrams are assumed to be positive in the
counterclockwise direction.
A very general representation of a 3Ф system is shown in General 3Ф System
Representation, page 14.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 13

Figure 4 - General 3Ф System Representation
In Figure 4 the three phases A, B, and C have been labeled, along with the neutral (N)
and ground (G). The neutral is optional, however the ground always exists. The AC
voltages V̄a1, V̄b1, and V̄c1 per the discussion above could represent phase-to-phase
voltages (V̄ab1, V̄bc1, V̄ca1), phase-to-neutral voltage. (V̄an1, V̄bn1, V̄cn1), or phase-to-
ground voltages (V̄ag1, V̄bg1, V̄cg1). The existence of the neutral, and the relationship
between the phases and ground, is dependent upon the system grounding and is
discussed in System Grounding, page 50. A ground current is not defined; this is
because the ground is not intended to carry load current, only ground fault current as
discussed in subsequent sections of this guide. In practice, when 3Ф voltages are
discussed, they are assumed to be phase-to-phase voltages unless otherwise noted.
AC Power
With the basic concepts per above, AC electrical power can be described.
Consider the following DC circuit element:
Figure 5 - DC Circuit Element for Power Calculation
For the circuit element of DC Circuit Element for Power Calculation, page 14 the
following is true:
P= Vdc·Idc (2–18)
14 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Where:
• Vdc is the DC voltage across the circuit element under consideration, with polarity
as shown.
• Idc is the DC current through the circuit element under consideration, considered
positive for the direction shown.
• P is the power generated by, or dissipated through, the circuit element under
consideration.
The sign of P in (2-18) depends on the direction of current flow with respect to the DC
voltage. A positive value for P indicates power dissipated, while a negative value for P
indicates power generated. DC power is measured in Watts, where one Watt is 1 V x 1
A.
With AC voltages and currents the expression for power is more complex. Assume
that one phase is taken under consideration, with an AC current and voltage as
defined by (1-1) and (1-2) respectively. The expression for the instantaneous power,
after some manipulation, is:
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = VmaxImax/2[cos(Фv - Фi) + (2–19)

cos(2πft + Фv + Фi)]
Thus, the instantaneous power consists of two parts: A DC component and an AC

component with a frequency twice that of the system frequency. The quantity (Ф v - ФI)
is defined as the power angle or power factor angle and is the angle by which the
current peak lags behind the voltage peak on their respective waveforms. The
quantity P= cos(Фv- ФI) is known as the power factor of the circuit.
The average value of p(t) is of concern in AC circuits. The average value of p(t) is:
P = VmaxImax/2 cos(Фv - Фi) (2–20)
Recall that Vmaxcan be expressed in terms of Vrms per (2-11); substituting Vrmsper (2-
11) into (2-20) yields:
P = VrmsIrmscos(Фv - Фi) (2–21)
However, the absolute value of the product VrmsIrms cos(Фv - ФI) is always less than
VrmsIrms unless (ᶲv - ФI) = 0. Further, if (ᶲv - ᶲI) = ±90º, as is the case with a purely
inductive or capacitive load. VrmsIrms cos(ᶲv - ФI) = 0. Because energy is required to
force current to flow, and energy is always conserved, AC power must have another
component. This component is most easily defined if AC power is treated as a
complex quantity. To do this, Complex Power S̄ is defined as follows:
S̄ = V̄ ·Ī* (2–22)
The quantities V̄ and Ī are the AC current and voltage in their complex forms per (2-
15) above, with the * operator denoting the complex conjugate, or angle negation, of
the current. This conjugation of the current is done to yield the correct value for the
power angle as described below. Real Power P and Reactive Power Q are defined as
follows:
S̄ = P + jQ (2–23)
P = Re{S̄} = VrmsIrmscos(Фv - Фi) (2–24)
Q = Im{S̄} = VrmsIrmssin(Фv - Фi) (2–25)
S = |S̄| = √P2+Q2 (2–26)
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 15

P is expressed in Watts. Q has the same units but to differentiate it from P it is

expressed in Vars. rather than Watts. S is the Apparent Power and is also expressed
in Volt-amperes.
The relationship between P, Q, S, S̄, and (Фv - ФI). can be shown graphically:
Figure 6 - Graphical Depiction of AC Power
The depiction in Graphical Depiction of AC Power, page 16 is referred to as the power

triangle since P, Q, and S̄ form a right triangle. It is also important to note that the
power factor angle is the same as the load impedance angle of the circuit. The power
factor is referred to as a lagging power factor if the current lags the voltage (that is, (Фv
- ФI) is positive up to 90º ) and as a leading power factor if the current leads the
voltage (that is, (Фv - ФI) is negative down to -90º). For a lagging power factor, the real
and reactive power flow is in the same direction; for a lagging power factor they flow in
opposite directions. Of the passive circuit elements, resistors exhibit a unity power
factor, inductors exhibit a 0 power factor lagging, and capacitors exhibit a 0 power
factor leading.
The foregoing discussion considers only single-phase circuits. For 3Ф circuits the
power quantities for all three phases must be added together, that is,
S̄3Ф = S̄A + S̄B+ S̄C (2–27)

P3Ф = PA + P B+ PC (2–28)
Q 3Ф = QA + QB+ QC (2–29)
(2–30)
S3 ø = P32ø + Q32ø
16 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

If the voltage magnitudes and power factor angles for each phase are equal, the
power quantities per phase can be represented as S̄1Ф, S 1Ф, P1Ф, Q1Ф; equations (2-
27) – (2-30) can then be simplified as:
S̄3Ф = 3S̄1Ф (2–31)

P̄3Ф = 3P̄ 1Ф (2–32)
Q3Ф = 3Q1Ф (2–33)
S3Ф = 3S1Ф (2–34)
Transformers
Transformers are vital components for AC power systems. They are used to change
the voltage and current magnitudes to suit the application.
The Ideal Transformer
Transformers are relatively simple devices that utilize Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. In its simplest form, this law can be written:
ξ = -N dψ/dt (2–35)
Where ξ is the voltage induced in a coil of N turns that is linked by a magnetic flux Ψ.
In turn, the magnetic flux Ψ for a coil of N turns through which a current I passes and
linked by a magnetic path with reluctance ℜ can be expressed as:
Ψ = NI/ℜ (2–36)
Consider the simple transformer shown in Basic Transformer Model, page 17:
Figure 7 - Basic Transformer Model
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 17

From (2-35) and (2-36):
Ψ=(N1 I1)/ℜ = (N2 I2)/ℜ (2–37)

⇒ N1 I 1 = N 2 I 2 (2–38)
⇒ I1 = N2/NI1I2 (2–39)
V1 = -N1dΨ/dt = -(N12/ℜ)dI1/dt = -(N1N2/ℜ)dI2/dt (2–40)
V2 = -N2dΨ/dt = -(N22/ℜ)dI2/dt (2–41)
Dividing (2-40) by (2-41),
V1/V2 = N1/N2 (2–42)
Equations (2-38) and (2-42) are the basic equations for a single-phase transformer.
The voltage ratio (V1/V2) is equal to the turns ratio (N1/ N2), and the current ratio is
equal to the inverse of the turns ratio. By re-writing (2-38) in terms of the turns ratio
(N1/N2) and substituting into (2-42), the following is obtained:
V1I1 = V2/I2 (2–43)
This is to be expected, since the apparent flowing into the transformer should ideally
equal the apparent power flowing out of the transformer.
The usefulness of the transformer lies in the fact that it can adjust the voltage and
current to the application. For example, on a transmission line it is advantageous to
keep the voltage high to be able to transmit the power with as small a current as
possible, to minimize line losses and voltage drop. At utilization equipment, it is
advantageous to work with low voltages that are more conducive to equipment design
and personnel safety.
Another important aspect of the transformer is that it changes the impedance of the
circuit. For example, if an impedance Z̄2 is connected to winding 2 of the ideal
transformer in Practical Transformer Model, page 19 it can be stated that:
Z̄2 = I1 = V̄2/I2 (2–44)
Using (2-38) and (2-42), (2-44) can be written in terms V̄1 and Ī1:
Z̄2 = (N2/N1)V̄1/(N1/N2)/Ī1 = (N2/N1)2(V̄1/Ī1 (2–45)
By definition:
Z̄1 = V̄1/(N1 (2–46)
Therefore, (2-45) can be re-written as:
Z̄2 = (N2/(N1)2Z̄1 (2–47)
The impedance through the transformer is the load impedance at the transformer
output winding multiplied by the square of the turns ratio.
18 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

A Practical Transformer Model

The idealized transformer model just presented is not sufficient for practical electric
power applications since the core is not lossless and not all the magnetic flux links
both sets of windings. To take this into account, a more realistic model is used:
Figure 8 - Practical Transformer Model
The resistance Rc represents the core losses due to hysteresis, and inductance Lc
represents the magnetizing inductance. Resistances R1 and R2 represent the winding
resistances of winding 1 and winding 2, respectively. Inductances L1 and L2 represent
the leakage inductances of windings 1 and 2, respectively. For quick calculations, the
core losses and magnetizing inductance are often ignored, and the model is treated
as an impedance in series with an ideal transformer.
To denote the proper polarity, the circuit representation for a transformer includes
polarity marks as shown in Standard Transformer Symbolic Representation, page 19.
If the current for one winding flows into its terminal with the polarity mark, the current
for the other winding flow out of its terminal with the polarity mark. In addition, the
ANSI polarity markings per IEEE Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for
Distribution and Power Transformers2 are shown; “H” denotes the higher voltage
winding, and “X” denotes the lower voltage winding.
Figure 9 - Standard Transformer Symbolic Representation
3Ф Transformer Connections
To be useful in 3Ф systems transformers must be connected for use with 3Ф voltage.
This is accomplished using 3Ф transformer connections.
The wye-wye connection is shown in Wye-Wye Transformer Connection, page 20.
This could be a bank of three single-phase transformers or one 3Ф transformer which
consists of all three sets of windings on a common ferromagnetic core. Polarity
markings for three single-phase transformer connections are shown at the individual
transformers, and polarity markings for a 3Ф transformer are shown next to the A, B,
C, and N terminals.
2. IEEE Std. C57.12.70-2000.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 19

For both the primary and secondary windings the magnitude of the line-to-line voltage
is equal to the magnitude of the line-to-neutral voltage multiplied by √3. For
convenience, the transformer turns ratio is taken as 1:1 on the phasor diagram.
Figure 10 - Wye-Wye Transformer Connection
If a three-phase transformer is used, the wye-wye connection has the disadvantage of

requiring a four-legged core to allow for a magnetic flux imbalance. Further, the
solidly-grounded neutrals allow for ground currents to flow that can create interference
in communications circuits (see Electric Power Distribution System Design, New York3
Both the primary and secondary neutrals terminals must be solidly grounded to allow
for triple-harmonic currents to flow; if the neutrals are allowed to float, harmonic
overvoltages are developed from phase to neutral on each winding. These
overvoltages can damage the transformer insulation. Wye-wye transformers are often
used on systems above 25 kV to minimize a problem known as ferroresonance.
Ferroresonance is a condition which results from the transformer magnetizing
impedance resonating with the upstream cable charging capacitance, resulting in
destructive overvoltages as the transformer core moves into and out of saturation in a
non-linear manner. Single-phase switching is usually the cause of ferroresonance.
The delta-delta connection is shown in Delta-Delta Transformer Connection, page 20.
There is no neutral on the delta-delta connection. A unique feature of this connection
is that if one transformer is taken out of service, the two remaining transformers still
provide three-phase service at a reduced capacity (57.7% of the capacity with all
three transformers in service).
Figure 11 - Delta-Delta Transformer Connection
The delta-wye connection is shown in Delta-Wye Transformer Connection, page 21.

Note that for the given turns ratios of 1:1 that the magnitude of the phase-to-phase
3. Turan Gonen, : McGraw-Hill, 1986, p. 137.
20 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

output voltage is equal to the magnitude of the phase-to-phase input voltage

multiplied by √3. The input and output voltages of 3Ф transformers and 3Ф banks of
single-phase transformers are always referenced as the phase-to-phase magnitude.
Therefore, for a delta-wye transformer the winding turns ratios for each set of
windings must be compensated by (1/√3) to produce the desired input-to-output
voltage ratio. The phase-to-phase voltages on the lower voltage side of the
transformer lag the phase-to-phase voltages on the high voltage side by 30°. This is
dictated by IEEE Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for Distribution and
Power Transformers4.
The delta-wye transformer connection is by far the most popular choice for
commercial and industrial applications. 3Ф transformers do not require a four-legged
core like the wye-wye connection, but the advantages of a wye secondary winding
(elaborated on in System Grounding, page 50) are obtained. Further, the secondary
neutral can be left unconnected in this arrangement, unlike the wye-wye arrangement.
Figure 12 - Delta-Wye Transformer Connection
The wye-delta connection is shown in Wye-Delta Transformer Connection, page 21.

This connection is seldom used in commercial and industrial applications. The delta is
arranged differently from the delta-wye connection, to satisfy the requirement from
IEEE Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for Distribution and Power
Transformers4 to have the phase-to-phase voltages on the low-voltage side of the
transformer lag the corresponding voltages on the primary side by 30°.
Figure 13 - Wye-Delta Transformer Connection
4. IEEE Std. C57.12.70-2000.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 21

Parallel Operation of Transformers

For supplying a load in excess of the rating of an existing transformer, two or more
transformers may be connected in parallel with the existing transformer. The
transformers are connected in parallel when the load on one of the transformers is
more than its capacity. The reliability is increased with parallel operation than to have
single larger unit. The cost associated with maintaining the spares is less when two
transformers are connected in parallel. The most essential condition for successful
parallel operation of transformers are:
• The voltage rating of both primaries and secondaries should be identical, for
example, the transformers should have the same turn ratio.
• The percentage impedances should be equal in magnitude and have the same X/
R ratio to avoid circulating currents and operation in different power factor.
• The polarity of the two transformers should be the same.
• Phase sequences and phase angle shifts must be the same (for three-phase
transformer).
Transformer Vector Group
The vector group is used to identify the phase shift between the primary and
secondary windings. In the vector group, the secondary voltage may have the phase
shift of 30° lagging or leading, 0° for example, no phase shift or 180° reversal with
respect to the primary voltage.
The transformer vector group is labeled by capital and small letters plus numbers from
1 to 12 in a typical clock-like manner; the capital letter indicates primary winding and
small letter represents secondary winding as shown in Transformer Vector Group
Label, page 22:
Figure 14 - Transformer Vector Group Label
Vector groups used

in the three-phase
transformer connection
Group I Group II Group III Group IV

0 o’clock, zero 6 o’clock, 180‫ﹾ‬ 1 o’clock, -30‫ ﹾ‬lag 11 o’clock, 30‫ ﹾ‬lead
phase displacement phase displacement phase displacement phase displacement
Yy0 Yy6 Dy1 Dy11
Dd0 Dd6 Yd1 Yd11
Dz0 Dz6 Yz1 Yz11
22 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Basic Electrical Formulae

The following formulae are given as a convenient reference for the reader. These
formulae include both formulae derived in this section and those basic formulae which
are derived from basic circuit theory.
DC Circuits
Vdc = IdcRdc (2–48)
P = Vdc = IdcIdc (2–49)
P= Idc2Rdc = Vdc2/Rdc (2–50)
Where:
• Vdc is the DC voltage across the circuit element under consideration.
• Idcis the current through the circuit element under consideration. Idcis considered
positive if it flows from the circuit element terminal at the higher voltage to the
terminal at the lower voltage.
• Rdcis the DC resistance of the circuit element under consideration, measured in
Ohms.
• P is the power dissipated or generated by the circuit element.
P is the power dissipated or generated by the circuit element. A positive power from
(2-49) indicates power dissipated by the circuit element, and a negative value
indicates power generated by the circuit element. The sign of P in (2-50) is lost due to
the squaring of the current or voltage.
Passive Energy Storage Elements
Capacitors store energy in the form of voltage, with governing equations:
ic = Cdvc/dt (2–51)
E = i/2Cvc2 (2–52)
Where:
• vc is the voltage across the capacitor.
• Ic is the current through the capacitor, considered positive if it flows toward the
terminal from which vc is referenced.
• C is the capacitance value of the capacitor, measured in Farads.
• E is the energy stored in the capacitor.
Inductors store energy in the form of current, with governing equations:
vi = LdiI/dt (2–53)
E = 1/2Li2 (2–54)
Where:
• vI is the voltage across the inductor.
• II is the current through the inductor, considered positive if it flows toward the
terminal from which vI is referenced.
• L is the inductance value of the inductor, measured in Henries.
• E is the energy stored in the inductor.
AC Voltages and Currents, Time-domain Form
Single-phase AC voltage and current can be expressed as follows:
v(t) = Vmaxcos(360f●t + Фv (2–55)

i(t) = Imaxcos(360f●t + ФI (2–56)
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 23

Where:
• vtis an AC voltage.
• II is an AC current.
• Vmax is the voltage amplitude.
• Imax is the current amplitude.
• f is the system frequency.
• Фvis the voltage phase shift in degrees.
• Фi is the current phase shift in degrees.
• t is the time in milliseconds.
All angles are measured in degrees.
If the frequency is 60 Hz, 3Ф voltages can be written as:
va(t) = Vmaxcos(360x60xt) = Vmaxcos(21600t) (2–57)

vb(t) = Vmaxcos(360x60xt – 120°) = Vmaxcos(21600t – 120°) (2–58)
vc(t) = Vmaxcos(360x60xt +120°) = Vmaxcos(21600t + 120°) (2–59)
Where:
• Va(t) is the A-phase voltage.
• Vb(t) is the B-phase voltage.
• Vc(t) is the C-phase voltage.
The RMS value of a perfectly sinusoidal AC voltage or current is:
Vrms = Vmax/√2 (2–60)

Irms = Imax/√2 (2–61)
AC Power, Time-domain Form

The instantaneous single-phase AC power resulting from a current per (2-56) flowing
through a circuit element with voltage (2-55) across it is:
p(t) = v(t)i(t) = VmaxImax/2[cos(Фv - Фi) + co(2πft + Фv + ФI)] (2–62)
Where all terms are as defined for (2-54) and (2-55).

The average power in this case is:
P = VmaxImax/2 cos(Фv - Фi) (2–63)

P = VrmsIrmscos(Фv - Фi) (2–64)
Where P is the average power.

AC Currents, Voltages and Circuit Elements, Frequency-domain Form
Assuming only the real part is kept when converting to time-domain and that the same
frequency applies throughout, AC currents and voltages can be written in the
frequency domain as:
V̄ = Vrms∠ Фv (2–65)
Ī̄ = Īrms∠ ФI (2–66)
24 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Where:
• V̄ is the AC voltage in frequency-domain form.
• Ī is the AC current in frequency-domain form
• Фv is the voltage phase shift.
• ФI is the current phase shift.
Capacitor and Inductor impedances in frequency domain form are:
Z̄c = 1/j2πfC (2–67)

Z̄I= j2πfL (2–68)
Where:
• Z̄cis the impedance of the capacitor.
• Z̄lis the impedance of the inductor.
• j = √(-1).
• f is the system frequency.
• C is the capacitance of the capacitor .
• L is the inductance of the inductor.
AC voltage and current for an impedance Z̄ are related as follows:
V̄ = Ī·Z̄ (2–69)
Average single-phase power in AC form can be expressed as:
S̄ = V̄· Ī*̄ (2–70)
Where S̄ is the complex power.

Complex power S̄ can be separated into real power P and reactive power Q:
S̄ = P + jQ (2–71)
P = Re{S̄} = VrmsIrmscos(Фv - Фi) (2–72)
Q = Im{S̄} = VrmsIrmssin(Фv - Фi) (2–73)
S = |S̄| = √(P2 + Q2 ) (2–74)
For 3Ф circuits the total power is the sum of the power in each phase, that is,
S̄3Ф = S̄A + S̄B + S̄C (2–75)

P3Ф = PA + PB + PC (2–76)
Q3Ф = QA + QB + QC (2–77)
(2–78)
S3 ø = P32ø + Q32ø
If the current and voltage magnitudes and angles are equal for each phase, (2-76) –
(2-78) can be simplified as follows by considering the power quantities per phase to
be S̄1Ф ,S1Ф, P1Ф, and Q1Ф:
S̄3Ф = 3S̄1Ф (2–79)

P3Ф = 3P1Ф (2–80)
Q3Ф = 3Q1Ф (2–81)
S3Ф = 3S1Ф (2–82)
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 25

Basic Transformers
The input voltage and current V1 and I1 and the output voltage and current V2 and I2
for an ideal single-phase transformer are related as follows:
N1I1 = N2I2 (2–83)

V1/V2 = N1/N2 (2–84)
The impedance Z̄1at the input terminals of a transformer is related to the load
impedance Z̄2connected to the transformer output terminals by the following equation:
Z̄1 = (N1/N2)2Z̄2 (2–85)
References
Because the subject matter for this section is basic and general to the subject of
electrical engineering, it is included in most undergraduate textbooks on basic circuit
analysis and electric machines. Where material is considered so basic as to be
axiomatic no attempt has been made to cite a particular source for it.
Load Planning
Abstract: Understanding the loads connected to an electrical system is an essential
consideration when designing or operating said system. Determining the size of the
equipment required, including fault interrupting devices, bus bars, conductors, and
similar, is not just a summation of connected load nameplates. Herein, considerations
and practices are presented to facilitate load planning to ensure adequate sizing is
accomplished while not over-sizing and increasing electrical system infrastructure
costs.
Additional information on motor characteristics, motor load, sizing requirements and
motor protection are found in the Fundamentals of Motor Control Design Guide.
Basic Principles
The most vital, but often the last to be acquired, pieces of information for power
system design are the load details. An important concept in load planning is that due
to non-coincident timing, some equipment operating at less than rated load, and some
equipment operating intermittently rather than continuously, the total demand upon
the power source is always less than the total connected load (see IEEE Standard
Terminal Markings and Connections for Distribution and Power Transformers5). This
concept is known as load diversity. The following standard definitions are given in
IEEE Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for Distribution and Power
Transformers5 and Electric Power Distribution System Design, New York6and are
tools to quantify it:
Demand: The electric load at the receiving terminals averaged over a specified
demand interval. of time, usually 15 min., 30 min., or one hour based upon the
particular utility’s demand interval. Demand may be expressed in amperes,
kiloamperes, kilowatts, kilovars, or kilovolt amperes.
Demand Interval: The period over which the load is averaged, usually 15 minutes, 30
minutes, or one hour.
Peak Load: The maximum load consumed or produced by a group of units in a stated
period of time. It may be the maximum instantaneous load or the maximum average
load over a designated period of time.
5. IEEE Std. C57.12.70-2000.

26 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Maximum Demand: The greatest of all demands that have occurred during a
specified period of time such as one-quarter, one-half, or one hour. For utility billing
purposes the period of time is generally one month.
Coincident Demand: Any demand that occurs simultaneously with any other
demand.
Demand Factor: The ratio of the maximum coincident demand of a system, or part of
a system, to the total connected load of the system, or part of the system, under
consideration, that is:
Demand Factor (DF) = Maximum

coincident demand/Total connected (3–1)
load.
Diversity Factor: The ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the
various subdivisions of a system to the maximum demand of the whole system, that
is:
(3–2)
Where:
• Di = maximum demand of load i, regardless of time of occurrence.
• Dg = coincident maximum demand of the group of n loads.
Using (1), the relationship between the diversity factor and the demand factor is:
(3–3)
Where:
• TCLi = total connected load of load group i.
• DFi = the demand factor of load group i.
Load Factor: The ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to the
peak load occurring in that period, that is:
Load Factor (LF) = Average load/Peak (3–4)

load
If T is the designated period of time, an alternate formula for the load factor may be
obtained by manipulating (3-4) as follows:
Load Factor (LF) = Average load x T/

Peak load x T = Average energy/Peak (3–5)
load x T
These quantities must be used with each type of load to develop a realistic picture of
the actual load requirements if the economical sizing of equipment is to be achieved.
Further, they are important to the utility rate structure (and thus the utility bill).
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 27

As stated in Electric Power Distribution System Design, New York7, the following must
be considered in this process:
• Load Development/Build-up Schedule: Peak load requirements, temporary/
construction power requirements, and timing.
• Load Profile: Load magnitude and power factor variations expected during low-
load, average load, and peak load conditions.
• Expected Daily and Annual Load Factor.
• Large motor starting requirements.
• Special or unusual loads such as resistance welding, arc welding, induction
melting, induction heating.
• Harmonic-generating loads such as variable-frequency drives, arc discharge
lighting.
• Forecasted load growth over time.
Reference IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Systems in Commercial
Buildings8: and individual engineering experience on previous projects are both useful
in determining demand factors for different types of loads. In addition, the National
Electrical Code® 9 gives minimum requirements for the computation of branch circuit,
feeder, and service loads.
NEC Basic Branch Circuit Requirements

NEC National Electrical Code® 9 Article 220 gives the basic requirements for load
calculations for branch circuits, feeders, and services. To understand these
requirements, the basic NEC definitions of branch circuit, feeder, and service must be
understood, along with several other key terms:
Branch Circuit: The means to carry electric power from the final overcurrent device
protecting the circuit to the outlets and equipment in residential, commercial, and
industrial locations.
Feeder: All circuit conductors between the service equipment, the source of a
separately derived system, or other power supply source and the final branch-circuit
overcurrent device.
Service: The conductors and equipment for delivering electric energy from the
serving utility to the wiring system of the premises served.
Outlet: The point on the wiring system at which current is taken to supply utilization
equipment.
Receptacle: A receptacle is a contact device installed at the outlet for the connection
of an attachment plug. A single receptacle is a single contact device with no other
contact device on the same yoke. A multiple receptacle is two or more contact devices
on the same yoke.
Continuous Load: A load where the maximum current is expected to continue for
three hours or more. For example, a single-phase 120 V circuit feeding an open-office
lighting load (continuous) of 1,000 VA and a small cooling unit's condensate pump
load (non-continuous) of 100 VA.
The NEC definition of Demand Factor is essentially the same as given above, so the
points below must be considered when calculating the Demand Factor.
Minimum lighting load (Article 220.12): Minimum lighting load must not be less than
as specified in Table 1 (NEC Table 220.12). Motors rated less than 1/8 HP and
connected to a lighting circuit shall be considered general lighting load.

8. IEEE Standard 241-1990, December 1990.
9. NFPA 70, The National Fire Protection Association, Inc., 2020 Edition.
28 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Table 1 - General Lighting Loads by Non-dwelling Occupancy
Unit Load
Type of Occupancy
VA/ m2 VA/ ft.2
Automotive facility 16 1.5
Convention center 15 1.4
Courthouse 15 1.4
Dormitory 16 1.5
Exercise center 15 1.4
Fire station 14 1.3
Gymnasiuma 18 1.7
Health care clinic 17 1.6
Hospital 17 1.6
Hotels and motels, including apartment houses without 18 1.7
provisions for cooking by tenantsb
Library 16 1.5
Manufacturing facilityc 24 2.2
Motion picture theater 17 1.6
Museum 17 1.6
Officed 14 1.3
Parking garagee 3 0.3
Penitentiary 13 1.2
Performing arts theater 16 1.5
Police station 14 1.3
Post office 17 1.6
Religious facility 24 2.2
Restaurantf 16 1.5
hg
Retail, , 20 1.9
School/university 33 3
Sports arena 33 3
Town hall 15 1.4
Transportation 13 1.2
Warehouse 13 1.2
Workshop 18 1.7
NOTE: The 125% multiplier for a continuous load as specified in 210.20(A) is included when using
the unit loads in this table for calculating the minimum lighting load for a specified occupancy.
a Armories and auditoriums are considered gymnasium-type occupancies.
b Lodge rooms are similar to hotels and motels.
c Industrial commercial loft buildings are considered manufacturing-type occupancies.

d Banks are office-type occupancies.
e Garages — commercial (storage) are considered parking garage occupancies.
f Clubs are considered restaurant occupancies.
g Barber shops and beauty parlors are considered retail occupancies.
h Stores are considered retail occupancies.
Motor Loads (Article 220.14(C)): Motor loads must be calculated in accordance with
Articles 430.22, 430.24, and 440.6, summarized as follows:
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 29

• The full load current rating for a single motor used in a continuous duty
application is 125% of the motor’s full-load current rating as determined by Article
430.6, which refers to horsepower/ ampacity Tables 430.247, 430.248, 430.249,
or 430.250 as appropriate (Article 430.22).
• The load calculation for several motors, or a motor(s) and other loads, is 125% of
the full load current rating of the highest rated motor per a.) in Table 1 plus the
sum of the full-load current ratings of all the other motors in the group, plus the
ampacity required for the other loads (Article 430.24).
• For hermetic refrigerant motor compressors or multi-motor equipment employed
as part of air conditioning or refrigerating equipment, use the equipment
nameplate rated load current instead of the motor horsepower rating (Article
440.6).
Luminaires (lighting fixtures) (Article 220.14(D)): Calculate an outlet supplying
luminaire(s) based on the maximum VA rating of the equipment and lamps for which
the luminaire(s) is rated.
Heavy-duty Lampholders (Article 220.14(E)): Calculate loads for heavy-duty
lampholders at a minimum of 600 VA.
Sign and Outline Lighting (Article 220.14(F)): Calculate sign and outline lighting
loads at a minimum of 1200 VA for each required branch circuit specified in article
600.5(A).
Show Windows (Article 220.14(G)): Calculate show windows in accordance with
either:
• The unit load per outlet as required in other provisions of article 220.14.
• 200 VA per 300 millimeters (one foot) of show window.
Loads for Fixed Multi-outlet Assemblies: Calculate these in other than dwelling
units or the guest rooms and guest suites of hotels or motels as follows (Article 220.14
(H)):
• Where simultaneous use of appliances is unlikely, each 1.5 meters (five feet.) or
fraction thereof of each separate and continuous length, must be considered as
one outlet of 180 VA.
• Where simultaneous use of appliances is unlikely, each 300 millimeters (1 foot) or
fraction thereof must be considered as an outlet of 180 VA.
Receptacle Outlets (Articles 220.14(I), 220.14(J), 220.14(K), 220.14(L)): Loads for
these are calculated as follows:
• Dwelling occupancies (Article 220.14(J)): In one-family, two-family, and
multifamily dwellings, the minimum unit load shall be not less than 33 VA/m2 (3
VA/ft2). The lighting and receptacle outlets specified in 220.14(J)(1), (J)(2), and
(J)(3) are included in the minimum unit load. No additional load calculations are
required for such outlets. The minimum lighting load is determined using the
minimum unit load and the floor area as determined in 220.11 for dwelling
occupancies. Motors rated less than 1⁄8 hp and connected to a lighting circuit are
considered part of the minimum lighting load.
(1) All general-use receptacle outlets of 20 A rating or less, including receptacles
connected to the circuits in 210.11(C)(3) and 210.11(C)(4).
(2) The receptacle outlets specified in 210.52(E) and (G).
(3) The lighting outlets specified in 210.70.
• Office buildings (Article 220.14(K)): Calculate receptacle outlets to be the larger
of either the calculated value per c.) below or 11 VA/m2 (one VA/per square foot).
• All other receptacle outlets (Article 220.14(I)): Calculate each receptacle on one
yoke as 180 VA. Calculate a multiple receptacle consisting of four or more
receptacles at 90 VA per receptacle.
Sufficient Branch Circuits: Incorporate sufficient branch circuits into the system
design to serve the loads per Article 220.10 (summarized 1.) – 8.) above), along with
branch circuits for any specific loads not covered in Article 220.10. Determine the total
number of branch circuits from the calculated load and the size or rating of the branch
30 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

circuits used. Evenly proportion the load among the branch circuits (Article 210.11(C)).
In addition, Article 210.11(C) requires several dedicated branch circuits as follows for
dwelling units:
• Two or more 20 A small-appliance branch circuits (Article 210.11(C)(1)).
• One or more 20 A laundry branch circuits (Article 210.11(C)(2)).
• One or more bathroom branch circuits (Article 210.11(C)(3)).
Continuous Loads (Article 210.20): The branch circuit overcurrent protection must
be at least the sum of the non-continuous load + 125% of the continuous load, unless
the overcurrent device is 100%-rated. Because the overcurrent protection rating
determines the rating of the branch circuit (Article 210.3), the branch circuit must be
sized for the non-continuous load + 125% of the continuous load. In load calculations,
continuous loads should therefore be multiplied by 1.25 unless the circuit overcurrent
device is 100% rated. Motor loads are not included in this calculation as the 125%
factor is already included in the applicable sizing per above.
NEC Basic Feeder Circuit Sizing Requirements

Once the branch circuit loads are calculated, the feeder circuit loads may be
calculated by applying demand factors to the branch circuit loads, so the points below
must be considered when calculating the Demand Factor.
General Lighting Loads (Article 220.42): Calculate the feeder general lighting load
by multiplying the branch circuit general lighting load calculated per the first bullet of
Motor Loads (Article 220.14(C)) in NEC Basic Branch Circuit Requirements, page
28, for those branch circuits supplied by the feeder, by a demand factor per Table 2
(NEC Table 220.42). The demand factors specified in Table 220.42 apply to that
portion of the total branch-circuit load calculated for general illumination. They do not
be applied in determining the number of branch circuits for general illumination.
Table 2 - Lighting Load Feeder Demand Factors
Type of Occupancy Portion of Lighting Load to Which Demand Demand Factor (%)
Factor Applies VA/
Dwelling units First 3000 at 100

From 3001 to 120,000 at 35
Remainder over 120,000 at 25
Hotels and motels, including apartment houses without provision First 20,000 or less at 60
for cooking by tenants a From 20,001 to 100,000 at 50
Warehouses (storage) First 12,500 or less at 100

All others Total VA 100

a The demand factors of this table shall not apply to the calculated load of feeders or services supplying areas in hotels and motels where the
entire lighting is likely to be used at one time, as in ballrooms or dining rooms.
The National Electrical Code.10
• Show Window or Track Lighting (Article 220.43): Show windows must use a
calculated value of 660 VA per linear meter (200 VA per linear foot), measured
horizontally along its base. Track lighting in other than dwelling units must be
calculated at an 150 VA per 660 millimeters (two feet) of lighting track or fraction
thereof. Where multi-circuit track is installed, the load is divided equally between
the track circuits.
• Receptacles in Other than Dwelling Units (Article 220.44): Demand factors for
non-dwelling receptacle loads are given in Table 3 (NEC Table 220.44) and Table
2 (NEC Table 220.42)..
10. The National Fire Protection Association, Inc., 2020 Edition.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 31

Table 3 - Demand Factors for Non-dwelling Receptacle Loads
Portion of Lighting Load to Which Demand Factor Applies VA Demand Factor (%)
First 10 kVA or less at 100

Remainder over 10 kVA at 50
The National Electrical Code11
Motors (Article 220.50): Motor loads shall be calculated in accordance with 430.24,
430.25, and 430.26. The feeder demands for these are calculated as follows:
• The load calculation for several motors, or a motor(s) and other loads, is 125% of
the full load current rating of the highest rated motor per the second bullet of
Motor Loads (Article 220.14(C)) in NEC Basic Branch Circuit Requirements,
page 28 plus the sum of the full-load current ratings of all the other motors in the
group, plus the ampacity required for the other loads (Article 430.24).
• Base the load calculation for factory-wired multimotor and combination-load
equipment on the minimum circuit ampacity marked on the equipment (Article
430.25) instead of the motor horsepower rating.
• Where allowed by the authority having jurisdiction, feeder demand factors may be
applied based on the duty cycles of the motors. No demand factors are given in
the NEC for this situation.
Fixed Electric Space Heating (Article 220.51): Calculate the feeder loads for these
at 100% of the connected load. However, in no case shall a feeder or service load
current rating be less than the rating of the largest branch circuit supplied.
Noncoincident Loads (Article 220.60): While unlikely that two or more non-
coincident loads will be in use simultaneously, it is permissible to use only the largest
loads for use at one time in calculating the feeder demand.
Feeder neutral load (Article 220.61): The feeder neutral load is defined as the
maximum load imbalance on the feeder. The maximum load imbalance for three-
phase four-wire systems is the maximum net calculated load between the neutral and
any one ungrounded conductor. A service or feeder supplying the following loads such
as a feeder or service supplying household electric ranges, wall-mounted ovens,
counter-mounted cooking units, and electric dryers and the unbalanced load in excess
of 200 A shall be permitted to have an additional demand factor of 70%. Refer to NEC
article 220.61 for neutral reductions in systems other than three-phase, four-wire
systems. This demand factor does not apply to non-linear loads; in fact, it may be
necessary to oversize the neutral due to the current flow from non-linear load triple
harmonics.
Continuous Loads (Article 215.3): The rating of the overcurrent protection for a
feeder circuit must be at least the sum of the non-continuous load + 125% of the
continuous load, unless the overcurrent device is 100%-rated. Because the rating of
the overcurrent protection determines the rating of the branch circuit (Article 210.3),
size the branch circuit for the non-continuous load + 125% of the continuous load. In
the final feeder circuit load calculation, the continuous portion of the load should
therefore be multiplied by 1.25, unless the overcurrent device for the circuit is 100%-
rated. Motor loads are not included in this calculation as the 125% factor is already
included in the applicable sizing per above.
Additional calculation data is given in NEC Article 220 for dwelling units, restaurants,
schools, and farms. This data is not repeated here.
As this guide only presents the basic NEC requirements for load calculations, it is
imperative to refer to the NEC itself when in doubt about a specific load sizing
application. Computer programs are commercially available to automate the
calculation of feeder and branch circuit loads per the NEC methodology described
above.
11. , The National Fire Protection Association, Inc., 2020 Edition.
32 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

System Voltage Considerations

Abstract: In addition to factors such as load planning, system voltage selection is a
fundamental aspect of electrical system design. The utilization voltage of equipment
can be accomplished with various distribution system voltages. Typical considerations
include utility connections, rate tariffs, distances to loads, costs and others. Selecting
the appropriate system voltage allows efficiencies while managing the capital and
maintenance expenditures.
Basic Principles
The selection of system voltages is crucial to successful power system design.
Reference American National Standard Preferred Voltage Ratings for Electric Power
Systems and Equipment (60Hz)12 lists the standard voltages for the United States and
their ranges. The nominal voltages from American National Standard Preferred
Voltage Ratings for Electric Power Systems and Equipment (60Hz)12 are given in
Standard Nominal Three-phase System Voltages per ANSI C84.1-1989, page 33.
ANSI C84.1-1989 divides system voltages into “voltage classes”. Voltages 600 V and
below are referred to as “low voltage”, voltages from 600 V - 69 kV are referred to as
“medium voltage”, voltages from 69 kV - 230 kV are referred to as “high voltage”, and
voltages 230 kV - 1,100 kV are referred to as “extra high voltage”, with 1,100 kV also
referred to as “ultra-high voltage”. The emphasis of this guide is on low- and medium-
voltage distribution systems.
Table 4 - Standard Nominal Three-phase System Voltages per ANSI C84.1-1989
Volatge Class Three-Wire Four-Wire
Low Voltage 240 208Y/120

480 240/120
600 480Y/277
Medium Voltage 2,400
4,160 4,160Y/2400
4,800 8,320Y/4800
12,000Y/6,930
13,800 12,470Y/7,200
23,000 13,200Y/7,620
34,500 13,800Y/7,970
46,000 20,780Y/12,000
69,000 22,860Y/13,200
24,940Y/14,400
34,500Y/19,920
High Voltage 115,000 —

138,000
161,000
230,000
Extra-High Voltage 345,000 —

500,000
Ultra-High Voltage 765,000
1,100,000
The choice of service voltage is limited to those voltages that the serving utility
provides. In most cases, only one choice of electrical utility is available, and thus only
one choice of service voltage. As the power requirements increase, so to does the
likelihood that the utility will require a higher service voltage for a given installation. In
some cases, a choice may be given by the utility as to the service voltage desired, in
which case an analysis of the various options is required to arrive at the correct
choice. In general, the higher the service voltage the more expensive the equipment
required to accommodate it is. Maintenance and installation costs also increase with
increasing service voltage. However, equipment such as large motors may require a
12. ANSI C84.1-1989.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 33

service voltage of 4160 V or higher, and, further, service reliability tends to increase at
higher service voltages.
Another factor to consider regarding service voltage, is the voltage regulation of the
utility system. Voltages defined by the utility as “distribution” should, in most cases,
have adequate voltage regulation for the loads served. Voltages defined as
“subtransmission” or “transmission”, however, often require the use of voltage
regulators or load-tap changing transformers at the service equipment to give
adequate voltage regulation. This situation typically only occurs for service voltages
above 34.5 kV, however it can occur on voltages between 20 kV and 34.5 kV. When in
doubt, consult the serving utility.
The utilization voltage is determined by the requirements of the served loads. For
most industrial and commercial facilities this is 480Y/277 V, although 208Y/120 V is
also required for convenience receptacles and small machinery. Large motors may
require 4160 V or higher. Distribution within a facility may be 480Y/277 V or, for large
distribution systems, medium-voltage distribution may be required. Medium-voltage
distribution implies a medium-voltage (or higher) service voltage, and results in higher
costs of equipment, installation, and maintenance than low-voltage distribution.
However, this must be considered along with the fact that medium-voltage distribution
generally results in smaller conductor sizes and makes control of voltage drop easier.
Power equipment ampacity limitations impose practical limits on the available service
voltage to serve a given load requirement for a single service, as shown in Equipment
Design Limits to Service Voltage vs. Load Requirements, for a Single Service, page
35.
Voltage Drop Considerations

Because all conductors exhibit an impedance to the flow of electric current, the
voltage is constant throughout the system, but tends to drop closer to the load. Ohm’s
Law, expressed in phasor form for AC circuits, gives the basic relationship for voltage
drop vs. the load current:
V̄drop = Īl x Z̄cond (4–1)
Where:
• V̄drop is the voltage drop along a length of conductor or across a piece of
equipment in V,
• Īl is the load current in A, and
• Z̄cond is the conductor or equipment impedance, in Ohms.
Thus, the larger the load current and larger the conductor impedance, the larger the
voltage drop. Unbalanced loads, of course, give an unbalanced voltage drop, which
leads to an unbalanced voltage at the utilization equipment.
Section 210.19(A) – branch circuits – Informational Note N° 3 recommends the
voltage drop at the farthest outlet of power, heating, and lighting, or combination of
such loads, to three percent of the applied voltage. Alternatively, the maximum
combined voltage drop on the feeder and branch circuits to the farthest outlet should
be five percent.
Section 215.2(A)(1) – feeders – Informational Note N° 2 has the same
recommendations for feeders.
Those statements mean that the feeder could have a one percent voltage drop if the
branch circuit had no more than four percent. Also, limiting the branch circuit voltage
drop to three percent allows a two percent drop in the feeder. These or any other
combinations of feeder and branch circuit voltage drops not exceeding a total of five
percent are adequate.
34 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

A voltage drop of five percent or less from the utility service to the most remotely-
located load is recommended by NEC article 210.19(A)(1), FPN No. 4. Because this is
a note only, it is not a requirement per se but is the commonly accepted guideline.
Table 5 - Equipment Design Limits to Service Voltage vs. Load Requirements, for a Single Service
Maximum Equipment Ampacity

Voltage (V) Equipment Type Maximum Load (kVA)
(A)
208 1,800
480 Switchboard or Low-Voltage
5000 4,157
600 Power Switchgear
5,196
\
2,400 4,489
4,160 1080 7,782
4,800 8,979
6,900 8,605
8,320 10,376
12,000 14,965
12,470 720 15,551
Metal-Enclosed Switchgear,
13,200 16,461
w/Fuses
13,800 17,210
20,780 6,299
22,860 6,929
23,000 175 6,972
24,940 7,560
34,500 115 6,872
2,400 12,471
4,160 21,616
4,800 24,942
6,900 38,853
8,320 3000 43,232
12,000 62,354
12,470 64,796
13,200 Metal-Clad Switchgear 68,589
13,800 71,707
71,984
20,780
79,189
22,860
2000 79,674
23,000
24,940
86,395
Because conductor impedance increases with the length of the conductor, unless the
power source is close to the center of the load, the voltage varies across the system,
and, further, it can be more costly to maintain the maximum voltage drop across the
system to within five percent of the service voltage since larger conductors must be
used to offset longer conductor lengths.
Also, from equation (4-1) as load changes, so does the voltage drop. For a given
maximum load, a measure of this change at a given point is the voltage regulation,
defined as:
Voltage Regulation = IV̄no load I – IV̄loadI/IV̄loadI x 100% (4–2)
Where:
• V̄no load is the voltage, at a given point in the system, with no load current flowing
from that point to the load.
• V̄load is the voltage, at the same point in the system, with full load current flowing
from that point to the load.
Another source of concern when planning for voltage drop is the use of power-factor
correction capacitors. Because these serve to reduce the reactive component of the
load current, they also reduce the voltage drop per equation (4-1).
Both low and high voltage conditions, and voltage imbalance, have an adverse effect
on utilization equipment (see IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 35

Distribution for Industrial Plants13 for additional information). Voltage drop must
therefore be considered during power system design to avoid future problems.
System Arrangements
Abstract: The electrical point of interconnection with a utility can vary in voltage level
whether it be secondary, primary, or transmission voltages. The reliability of an
electrical system is directly affected by the system arrangement and the voltage level
to which it is connected. Additionally, the need for redundancy or serviceability without
a complete shutdown are also considerations when evaluating various system
arrangements.
Introduction
The selection of system arrangement has a profound impact upon the reliability and
maintainability of the system. Several commonly used system topologies are
presented here, along with the pros and cons of each. The figures for each of these
assume that the distribution and utilization voltage are the same, and that the service
voltage differs from the distribution/utilization voltage. The symbology (low voltage
circuit breaker, low-voltage drawout circuit breaker, medium voltage switch, medium
voltage breaker) reflects the most commonly-used equipment for each arrangement.
The symbology used throughout this section is shown in Symbology, page 36.
Figure 15 - Symbology
13. EEE Standard 141-1993, December 1993.
36 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Radial System
The radial system is the simplest system topology and is shown in Radial System,
page 37. It is the least expensive in terms of equipment first cost. However, it is also
the least desirable since it incorporates only one utility source and the loss of the utility
source, transformer, or the service or distribution equipment results in a loss of
service. Further, the loads must be shut down to perform maintenance on the system.
This arrangement is most used where the need for low first-cost, simplicity, and space
economy outweigh the need for enhanced reliability.
Typical equipment for this system arrangement is a single unit substation consisting of
a fused primary switch, a transformer of sufficient size to supply the loads, and a low-
voltage switchboard.
Figure 16 - Radial System
Radial System with Primary Selectivity

This arrangement is shown in Radial System with Primary Selectivity, page 38. If two
utility sources are available, it provides almost the same economic advantages of the
radial system in Radial System, page 37 but also gives greater reliability since the loss
of one utility source does not result in a loss of service (An outage occurs between the
loss of the primary utility source and switching to the alternate source unless the utility
allows paralleling of the two sources). The loss of the transformer or of the service or
distribution equipment still results in a loss of service. System maintenance requires
shut down all loads.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 37

Figure 17 - Radial System with Primary Selectivity
An automatic transfer scheme may optionally be provided between the two primary
switches to automatically switch from an offline utility source to an available source.
Most often metal-clad circuit breakers are used, rather than metal-enclosed switches.
More about typical equipment application guidelines follows in a subsequent section
of this guide.
Expanded Radial Systems

The radial systems shown in Radial System, page 37 and Radial System with Primary
Selectivity, page 38 can be expanded by the inclusion of additional transformers.
Further, these transformers can be located close to the center of each group of loads
to minimize voltage drop. Reliability increases with a larger number of substations
since the loss of one transformer does not result in a loss of service for all the loads.
Expanded Radial System with One Utility Source and a Single Primary Feeder, page
39 shows an expanded radial system utilizing multiple substations, but still with only
one utility source and only one primary feeder.
38 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 18 - Expanded Radial System with One Utility Source and a Single
Primary Feeder
A more dependable and maintainable arrangement utilizing multiple primary feeders

is shown in Expanded Radial system with One Utility Source and Multiple Primary
Feeders, page 39. In the system shown in Expanded Radial system with One Utility
Source and Multiple Primary Feeders, page 39, each unit substation is supplied by a
dedicated feeder from the service entrance switchgear. Each substation is also
equipped with a primary disconnect switch to allow isolation of each feeder on both
ends for maintenance purposes.
Typical service entrance equipment consists of a metal-clad switchgear main circuit
breaker and metal-enclosed fused feeder switches. Metal-clad circuit breakers may
be used instead of metal-enclosed feeder switches if required.
Figure 19 - Expanded Radial system with One Utility Source and Multiple
Primary Feeders
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 39

Expanded Radial System with Two Utility Sources and Multiple Primary Feeders,
page 40 shows an expanded radial system utilizing multiple substations and two utility
sources, again with metal-clad primary switchgear but with a duplex metal-enclosed
switchgear for utility source selection.
Figure 20 - Expanded Radial System with Two Utility Sources and Multiple
Primary Feeders
Of the arrangements discussed this far, the arrangement of Expanded Radial System
with Two Utility Sources and Multiple Primary Feeders, page 40 is the most
dependable; it does not rely on a single utility source for system availability, nor does
the loss of one transformer or feeder cause a loss of service to the entire facility.
However, the loss of a transformer or feeder results in the loss of service to a part of
the facility. More dependable system arrangements are required if this is to be
avoided.
Loop Systems
The loop system arrangement is one of several arrangements that allows one system
component, such as a transformer or feeder cable, to fail without causing a loss of
service to a part of the facility.
Primary Loop System, page 41 shows a primary loop arrangement. The advantages
of this arrangement over previously mentioned arrangements are that a loss of one
feeder cable does not cause one part of the facility to experience a loss of service and
that one feeder cable can be maintained without causing a loss of service (An outage
to part of the system is experienced after the loss of a feeder cable until the loop is
switched to accommodate the loss of the cable).
In Primary Loop System, page 41 metal-clad circuit breakers are used as the feeder
protective devices. Fused metal-enclosed-feeder switches could be utilized for this,
but take care if this is considered since the feeder fuses must be able to serve both
transformers and the feeder and transformer fuses have to coordinate for maximum
selectivity.
40 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

The system arrangement of Primary Loop System, page 41 is designed to operate

with the loop open, for example, one of the four loop switches shown would be
normally-open. If closed-loop operation were required, use metal-clad circuit breakers
instead to provide maximum selectivity (this arrangement is discussed further below).
Momentary paralleling to allow maintenance of one section of the loop without causing
an outage to one part of the facility can be accomplished with metal-enclosed loop
switches, however, caution is necessary in the system design and maintenance.
Figure 21 - Primary Loop System
Secondary Selective Systems

Another method of allowing the system to remain in service after the loss of one
component is the secondary-selective system. Secondary-selective System, page 42
shows such an arrangement.
The system arrangement of Secondary-selective System, page 42 has the advantage
of allowing for the loss of one transformer without causing a loss of service to one part
of the plant. This is a characteristic none of the previously mentioned system
arrangements exhibit. The system can be run with the secondary bus tie breaker
normally-open or normally-closed. If the bus tie breaker is normally-closed the loss of
one transformer, if directional overcurrent relays are supplied on the transformer
secondary main circuit breakers, does not cause an outage. However take care must
in the system design as the available fault current at the secondary switchgear can be
doubled in this case.
Typical equipment for this arrangement is low-voltage power circuit-breaker
switchgear with drawout circuit breakers, both for reasons of coordination and
maintenance. However, a low-voltage switchboard may be utilized if care is taken in
the system design and the system coordination is achievable. For a normally-closed
bus tie breaker, low-voltage power switchgear is essential since the breakers lend
themselves more readily to external protective relaying.
The loss of transformer means the other transformer and its associated secondary
main circuit must carry the entire load. Consider this in sizing the transformer and
secondary switchgear for the effectiveness of this type of system.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 41

Figure 22 - Secondary-selective System
A larger-scale version of the secondary selective system is the transformer sparing

scheme, shown in Transformer Sparing Scheme, page 42. This type of system allows
good flexibility in switching. The system is usually operated with all of the secondary
tie breakers except one (the sparing transformer secondary main/tie breaker)
normally-open. The sparing transformer supplies one load bus if a transformer goes
off-line or is taken off-line for maintenance. A transformer is switched out of the circuit
by opening its secondary main breaker and closing the tie breaker to allow the sparing
transformer to feed its loads. The sparing transformer may be allowed to feed multiple
load busses if it is sized properly. Care must be used when allowing multiple
transformers to be paralleled as the fault current is increased with each transformer
that is paralleled, and directional relaying is required on the secondary main circuit
breakers to selectively isolate an offline transformer. An electrical or key interlock
scheme is required to enforce the proper operating modes of this type of system,
especially since the switching is carried out over several pieces of equipment that can
be in different locations. A properly designed interlocking system allows for the
addition of future substations without modification of the existing interlocking.
With both types of secondary-selective system, an automatic transfer scheme may be
utilized to switch between a lost transformer and an available transformer.
Figure 23 - Transformer Sparing Scheme
42 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Primary Selective Systems

A selective system arrangement may also utilize the primary system equipment. Such
an arrangement is shown in Primary Selective System, page 43.
As with the secondary selective system, an automatic transfer scheme may be used
to automatically perform the required transfer operations, if a utility source become
unavailable. The bus tie circuit breaker may be normally-closed or normally-open,
depending on utility allowances. If the bus tie circuit breaker is normally-closed, take
care in the protective relaying so that a fault on one utility line does not cause the
entire system to be taken off-line. The available fault current with the tie breaker
normally closed increases with each utility service added to the system.
Metal-clad switchgear is most used with this type of arrangement, due to the
limitations of metal-enclosed load interrupter switches.
Figure 24 - Primary Selective System
Secondary Spot-network Systems

In large municipal areas where large loads, such as high-rise buildings, must be
served and a high degree of reliability, secondary network systems are often used. In
a secondary network system, several utility services are paralleled at the low-voltage
level, creating a highly steady system.
Network protectors are used at the transformer secondaries to isolate transformer
faults which are backfed through the low-voltage system. These devices are designed
to automatically isolate a faulted transformer that is backfed from the rest of the
system. The transformers typically have higher-than-standard impedances to reduce
the available fault current on the low-voltage network. The common secondary bus is
often referred to as the “collector bus”. An example of a secondary spot-network
system is shown in Secondary Spot Network, page 44.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 43

Figure 25 - Secondary Spot Network
Ring Bus Systems

Essentially a loop system in which the loop is normally closed, the ring bus is a highly
dependable system arrangement. A typical ring-bus system is depicted in Primary
Ring Bus System, page 45.
A fault at any bus causes only the loads served by that bus to lose service. Bus
differential relaying is recommended for optimum reliability with this scheme. The bus
differential relaying opens both breakers feeding a bus for a fault on that bus. Metal-
clad switchgear is usually used for the primary ring bus.
Although Primary Ring Bus System, page 45 shows two utility sources, this system
arrangement is easily expanded to incorporate additional utility sources. As with the
primary-selective system with a normally-closed bus tie breaker, the available fault
current is increased with each utility source added to the system.
44 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 26 - Primary Ring Bus System
Composite Systems
The above system arrangements are the basic building blocks of power distribution
system topologies but are rarely used alone for a given system. To increase system
reliability, it is usually necessary to combine two or more of these arrangements. For
example, one commonly used arrangement is shown in Composite System: Primary
Loop/Secondary Selective, page 46.
A fault on a primary loop cable or the loss of one transformer can be accommodated
without loss of service to either load bus (but with an outage to part of the system until
the system is switched to accommodate the loss). In addition, a single section of the
primary loop or one transformer can be taken out of service while maintaining service
to the loads.
The system of Composite System: Primary Loop/Secondary Selective, page 46 can
be expanded by the addition of an additional utility source and a primary bus tie
breaker to form an even more dependable system, as shown in Composite System:
Primary Selective/Primary Loop/Secondary Selective, page 47. With this
arrangement, the loss of a single utility source, a single primary circuit breaker, a
single loop feeder cable, or a single transformer can be accommodated without loss of
service. And any one primary circuit breaker, any one section of the primary
distribution loop, or any one transformer can be taken out of service without loss of
service to the loads. However, the cost of a second utility service and two additional
metal-clad breakers must be considered.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 45

Figure 27 - Composite System: Primary Loop/Secondary Selective
A logical expansion of this system, resulting in a further increase in system reliability,

is had by replacing the primary distribution loop with dedicated feeder circuit breakers
from each primary bus, as shown in Composite System: Primary Selective/Primary
Loop/Secondary Selective, page 47. In this system arrangement multiple primary
feeder cable losses can be accommodated without jeopardizing service to the loads
(However, an outage occurs until the system is switched to accommodate the losses).
An example of an extremely dependable system arrangement is given in Primary Ring
Bus, Primary Source Selective, Secondary Selective System, page 48 is a re-
arrangement of the primary ring-bus configuration shown in Composite System:
Primary Selective/Primary Loop/Secondary Selective, page 47, along with the primary
source-selective configuration shown in Composite System: Primary Loop/Secondary
Selective, page 46 and a variant of the transformer sparing scheme given in
Transformer Sparing Scheme, page 42. This system arrangement gives good
flexibility in switching for maintenance purposes, and allows any one utility, primary
switchgear bus, or transformer fail without loss of service to any of the loads (again,
an outage may be taken until the system is switched to accommodate the loss,
depending upon the loss under consideration). It also allows any three primary
feeders to be faulted without loss of service to any of the loads. Other composite
arrangements are possible.
46 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 28 - Composite System: Primary Selective/Primary Loop/Secondary

Selective
Figure 29 - Composite System: Primary Double Selective/Secondary Selective
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 47

Figure 30 - Primary Ring Bus, Primary Source Selective, Secondary Selective

System
Summary
Various system arrangements are presented in this section, starting with the least
complex and progressing to a very complex, robust system arrangement. In general,
as reliability increases so does complexity and cost. Economic considerations usually
dictate how complex a system arrangement can be used, and thus have a great deal
of impact on system reliability. Power System Arrangements Summary for the Basic
Arrangements in this Section, page 49 and Power System Arrangements Summary
for the Composite Arrangements in this Section, page 50 show the features of each
system arrangement given in this section.
The formulas given in these tables are for the systems as shown in the earlier figures.
They hold true for expanded versions of these system arrangements where the
expansion is made symmetrically with respect to the configuration shown. They do not
hold true when modifications are made to the system arrangements with respect to
symmetry, with altered numbers of switching/protective devices, or for concurrent loss
of different types of system components. When in doubt regarding a system which is
derived from, but not identical, to the systems shown in the earlier figures, double-
check these numbers.
From a maintenance perspective, the number of system elements that can be taken
down for maintenance is the same as the number that can fail while maintaining
service to the loads.
These tables do not attempt to address concurrent losses of different types of system
components, nor are they always mean a loss of service to a particular load after a
component loss while the system is being switched to an alternate configuration.
However, they are a guide to the relative strengths and weaknesses of each of the
system arrangements presented.
48 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Table 6 - Power System Arrangements Summary for the Basic Arrangements in this Section
Arrangement Utility Losses Primary Breaker Primary Feeder Transformer Secondary Main/ Cost
Allowed Losses Allowed Losses Allowed Losses Allowed Tie Breaker
Losses Allowed
Radial 0 0 0 0 0 $
Radial w/ Primary u-1 a, page 49 0 0 0 0 $+

Selectivity
Expanded Radial, 0 0 0 0 0 $$
Single Primary
Feeder
Expanded Radial, 0 0 0 0 0 $$
Multiple Primary
Feeders
Expanded Radial, u-1a, page 49 0 0 0 0 $$+
Multiple Utility
Sources, Multiple
Primary Feeders
Primary Loop 0 1 1 0 0 $$$

System
Secondary- 0 0 0 1 1 $$$
Selective System
Transformer 0 0 0 Varies; Maximum Tb $$$$

Sparing Scheme of T-1
Primary Selective u-1a, page 49c PB-F-ua, page 49,cd 0 0 0 $$$$$
Secondary Spot u-1 a,c,e,f PB-1 a,c,e,f F-1 a, page 49,c,Δ,f T-1 SB-1 a,c,e,f $$$$$
Network a,c,e,f
Primary Ring Bus u-1 a,c,g ua,c,d,g 0 0 0 $$$$$$
Notes:
U = Number of Utility Sources a Assumes that each utility source has sufficient capacity to supply the entire
system.
PB = Number of Primary Circuit Breakers
b Assumes that all secondary circuit breakers, including feeder breakers, are
SF = Number of Primary Feeders interchangeable.
T = Number of Transformers c Assumes that each primary main and bus tie (if applicable) circuit breakers has
sufficient capacity to supply the entire system.
SB = Number of Secondary Main and Tie Circuit Breakers
d Assumes that all primary circuit breakers, including feeder breakers, are
$ = Relative Cost, with $=Least Expensive interchangeable.
e Assumes that each primary feeder has sufficient capacity to supply the entire
system.
f Assumes that each transformer, secondary main and bus tie (if applicable)
circuit breaker have sufficient capacity to supply the entire system.
g Assumes that the ring bus has sufficient capacity to supply the entire system.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 49

Table 7 - Power System Arrangements Summary for the Composite Arrangements in this Section
Arrangement Utility Losses Primary Breaker Primary Feeder Transformer Secondary Main/ Cost
Allowed Losses Allowed Losses Allowed Losses Allowed Tie Breaker
Losses Allowed
Primary Double u-1 a,c PB-F/2-ua,c,d F/2 T-1 f T-1 f,b $$$$$$$$$$
Selective /
Secondary
Selective
Primary Ring Bus u-1 a,c,e,f PB-F/2-u+1 a,c,d,g F/2 T-1 f T–1 f,b $$$$$$$$$$
/ Primary
Selective/
Secondary
Selective
Notes:
U = Number of Utility Sources a Assumes that each utility source has sufficient capacity to supply the entire
system.
PB = Number of Primary Circuit Breakers
b Assumes that all secondary circuit breakers, including feeder breakers, are
SF = Number of Primary Feeders interchangeable.
T = Number of Transformers c Assumes that each primary main and bus tie (if applicable) circuit breakers has
sufficient capacity to supply the entire system.
SB = Number of Secondary Main and Tie Circuit Breakers
d Assumes that all primary circuit breakers, including feeder breakers, are
$ = Relative Cost, with $=Least Expensive interchangeable.
e Assumes that each primary feeder has sufficient capacity to supply the entire
system.
f Assumes that each transformer, secondary main and bus tie (if applicable)
circuit breaker have sufficient capacity to supply the entire system.
g Assumes that the ring bus has sufficient capacity to supply the entire system.
System Grounding
Abstract: System grounding considerations affect many aspects of an electrical
system. Knowledge of the various types of system grounding and performance
characteristics is critical when designing or operating an electrical system. The
voltage, system arrangement, loads connected, and continuity of service drive
grounding requirements and design choices.
Introduction
The topic of system grounding is extremely important, as it affects the susceptibility of
the system to voltage transients, determines the types of loads the system can
accommodate, and helps to determine the system protection requirements.
The system grounding arrangement is determined by the grounding of the power
source. For commercial and industrial systems, the types of power sources generally
fall into four broad categories:
• Utility Service: The system grounding is usually determined by the secondary
winding configuration of the upstream utility substation transformer.
• Generator: The system grounding is determined by the stator winding
configuration.
• Transformer: The system grounding on the system fed by the transformer is
determined by the transformer secondary winding configuration.
• Static Power Converter: For devices such as rectifiers and inverters, the system
grounding is determined by the grounding of the output stage of the converter.
50 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

All categories fall under the NEC definition for a “separately-derived system”. The
recognition of a separately derived system is important when applying NEC
requirements to system grounding, as discussed below.
All the power sources mentioned above, except Static Power Converter, are
magnetically operated devices with windings. To understand the system voltage
relationships with respect to system grounding, it must be recognized that there are
two common ways of connecting device windings: wye and delta. These two
arrangements, with their system voltage relationships, are shown in Wye and Delta
Winding Configurations and System Voltage Relationships, page 51. As can be seen
from the figure, in the wye-connected arrangement there are four terminals, with the
phase-to-neutral voltage for each phase set by the winding voltage and the resulting
phase-to-phase voltage set by the vector relationships between the voltages. The
delta configuration has only three terminals, with the phase-to-phase voltage set by
the winding voltages and the neutral terminal not defined.
Neither of these arrangements is inherently associated with any system grounding
arrangement, although some arrangements more commonly used, for reasons that
are explained further below.
Figure 31 - Wye and Delta Winding Configurations and System Voltage

Relationships
Wye
Delta
Solidly-grounded Systems
The solidly-grounded system is the most common system arrangement, and one of
the most versatile. The most commonly used configuration is the solidly-grounded
wye, because it supports single-phase phase-to-neutral loads.
The solidly-grounded wye system arrangement can be shown by considering the
neutral terminal from the wye system arrangement in Wye and Delta Winding
Configurations and System Voltage Relationships, page 51 to be grounded. This is
shown in Solidly-grounded Wye System Arrangement and Voltage Relationships,
page 52.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 51

Figure 32 - Solidly-grounded Wye System Arrangement and Voltage

Relationships
Several points regarding Solidly-grounded Wye System Arrangement and Voltage

Relationships, page 52 can be noted:
• First, the system voltage with respect to ground is fixed by the phase-to-neutral
winding voltage. Because parts of the power system, such as equipment frames,
are grounded, and the rest of the environment essentially is at ground potential
also, this has big implications for the system. It means that the line-to-ground
insulation level of equipment need only be as large as the phase-to-neutral
voltage, which is 57.7% of the phase-to-phase voltage. It also means that the
system is less susceptible to phase-to-ground voltage transients.
• Second, the system is suitable for supplying line-to-neutral loads. The operation
of a single-phase load connected between one phase and neutral is the same on
any phase since the phase voltage magnitudes are equal.
This system arrangement is very common, both at the utilization level as 480 Y/277 V
and 208 Y/120 V, and on most utility distribution systems.
While the solidly-grounded wye system is by far the most common solidly-grounded
system, the wye arrangement is not the only arrangement that can be configured as a
solidly grounded system. The delta system can also be grounded, as shown in
Corner-grounded Delta System Arrangement and Voltage Relationships, page 52.
Compared with the solidly-grounded wye system of Solidly-grounded Wye System
Arrangement and Voltage Relationships, page 52 this system grounding arrangement
has a number of disadvantages. The phase-to-ground voltages are not equal, and
therefore the system is not suitable for single-phase loads. And, without proper
identification of the phases there is the risk of shock since one conductor, the B-
phase, is grounded and could be misidentified. This arrangement is no longer in
common use, although a few facilities where this arrangement is used still exist.
Figure 33 - Corner-grounded Delta System Arrangement and Voltage

Relationships
52 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

The delta arrangement can be configured in another manner, however, that does have
merits as a solidly-grounded system. This arrangement is shown in Figure 34. While
the arrangement of Center-Tap-grounded Delta System Arrangement and Voltage
Relationships, page 53 may not appear at first glance to have merit, this system is
suitable both for three-phase and single-phase loads, so long as the single-phase and
three-phase load cables are kept separate from each other. This is commonly used for
small services which require both 240 Vac three-phase and 120/240 Vac single-
phase. The phase A voltage to ground is 173% of the phase B and C voltages to
ground. This arrangement requires the BC winding to have a center tap.
Figure 34 - Center-Tap-grounded Delta System Arrangement and Voltage

Relationships
A common characteristic of all three solidly-grounded system shown here, and of

solidly-grounded systems in general, is that a short-circuit to ground causes a large
amount of short-circuit current to flow. This condition is known as a ground current trip
and is illustrated in Solidly-grounded System With a Ground Current Trip on Phase A,
page 54. As seen from Solidly-grounded System With a Ground Current Trip on
Phase A, page 54, the voltage on the faulted phase is depressed, and a large current
flows in the faulted phase since the phase and fault impedance are small. The voltage
and current on the other two phases are not affected. The fact that a solidly-grounded
system supports a large ground current trip current is an important characteristic of
this type of system grounding and does affect the system design. Statistically, 90-95%
of all system short-circuits are ground current trips so this is an important topic. The
practices used in ground current trip protection are described in Ground Fault
Protection for Solidly-grounded Systems 600 V and Below, page 123.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 53

Figure 35 - Solidly-grounded System With a Ground Current Trip on Phase A
Winding Circuit
Configuration Model
The occurrence of a ground current trip on a solidly-grounded system necessitates the

removal of the fault as quickly as possible. This is the major disadvantage of the
solidly-grounded system as compared to other types of system grounding.
A solidly-grounded system is very effective at reducing the possibility of line-to-ground
voltage transients. However, to do this the system must be effectively grounded. One
measure of the effectiveness of the system grounding is the ratio of the available
ground-fault current to the available three-phase fault current. For effectively-
grounded systems this ratio is usually at least 60 (see IEEE Recommended Practice
for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems14).
Most utility systems which supply service for commercial and industrial systems are
solidly grounded. Typical utility practice is to ground the neutral at many points,
usually at every line pole, creating a multi-grounded neutral system. Because a
separate grounding conductor is not run with the utility line, the resistance of the earth
limits the circulating ground currents that can be caused by this type of grounding.
Because separate grounding conductors are used inside a commercial or industrial
facility, multi-grounded neutrals not preferred for power systems in these facilities due
to the possibility of circulating ground currents. As explained later in this section, multi-
grounded neutrals in NEC jurisdictions, such as commercial or industrial facilities, are
actually prohibited in most cases by the NEC (seeThe National Electrical Code15).
Instead, a single point of grounding is preferred for this type of system, creating a uni-
grounded or single-point grounded system.
In general, the solidly-grounded system is the most popular, is required where single-
phase phase-to-neutral loads must be supplied, and has the most dependable phase-
to-ground voltage characteristics. However, the large ground current trip currents this
type of system can support, and the equipment that this necessitates, are a
disadvantage and can be hindrance to system reliability.
Ungrounded Systems
This system grounding arrangement is at the other end of the spectrum from solidly-
grounded systems. An ungrounded system is a system where there is no intentional
connection of the system to ground.
14. IEEE Std. 142-1991, December 1991.

54 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

The term “ungrounded system” is a misnomer since every system is grounded

through its inherent charging capacitance to ground. To illustrate this point and its
effect on the system voltages to ground, the delta winding configuration introduced in
Corner-grounded Delta System Arrangement and Voltage Relationships, page 52 is
re-drawn in Ungrounded Delta System Winding Arrangement and Voltage
Relationships, page 55 to show these system capacitances.
If all of the system voltages in Ungrounded Delta System Winding Arrangement and
Voltage Relationships, page 55 are multiplied by √3 and all of the phase angles are
shifted by 30° (both are reasonable operations since the voltage magnitudes and
phase angles for the phase-to-phase voltage were arbitrarily chosen), the results are
the same voltage relationships as shown in Center-Tap-grounded Delta System
Arrangement and Voltage Relationships, page 53 for the solidly-grounded wye
system. The differences between the ungrounded delta system and the solidly-
grounded wye system, then, are that there is no intentional connection to ground, and
that there is no phase-to-neutral driving voltage on the ungrounded delta system. This
becomes important when the effects of a ground current trip are considered. The lack
of a grounded system neutral also makes this type of system unsuitable for single-
phase phase-to-neutral loads.
Figure 36 - Ungrounded Delta System Winding Arrangement and Voltage Relationships
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 55

In Ungrounded Delta System with a Ground-current Trip on One Phase, page 57, the
effects of a single phase to ground current trip are shown. The equations in
Ungrounded Delta System Winding Arrangement and Voltage Relationships, page 55
are not immediately practical for use, however, if the fault impedance is assumed to
be zero and the system capacitive charging impedance is assumed to be much larger
than the phase impedances, these equations reduce into a workable form.
Ungrounded Delta System with a Ground-current Trip on One Phase, page 57 shows
the resulting equations and shows the current and voltage phase relationships.
As seen from Ungrounded Delta System: Simplified Ground-current Trip Voltage and
Current Relationships, page 58, the net result of a ground current trip on one phase of
an ungrounded delta system is a change in the system phase-to-ground voltages. The
phase-to-ground voltage on the faulted phase is zero, and the phase-to-ground
voltage on the unfaulted phases are 173% of their nominal values. This has
implications for power equipment; the phase-to-ground voltage rating for equipment
on an ungrounded system must be at least equal the phase-to-phase voltage rating.
This also has implications for the methods used for ground detection, as explained
later in this guide.
56 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 37 - Ungrounded Delta System with a Ground-current Trip on One Phase
Winding Circuit
Configuration Model
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 57

Figure 38 - Ungrounded Delta System: Simplified Ground-current Trip Voltage and Current Relationships
Ground
Fault
The ground currents with one phase is faulted to ground are essentially negligible.
Because of this fact, from an operational standpoint ungrounded systems have the
advantage of being able to remain in service if one phase is faulted to ground.
However, suitable ground detection must be provided to alarm this condition (and is
required in most cases by the NEC, see The National Electrical Code16 as described
below). In some older facilities, it has been reported that this type of system has
remained in place for 40 years or more with one phase grounded. This condition is not
unsafe in and of itself (other than due to the increased phase-to-ground voltage on the
unfaulted phases), however, if a ground current trip occurs on one of the ungrounded
phases the result is a phase-to-phase fault with its characteristic large fault current
magnitude.
Another important consideration for an ungrounded system is its susceptibility to large
transient overvoltages. These can result from a resonant or near-resonant condition
during ground current trips, or from arcing (see IEEE Recommended Practice for
Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems17). A resonant ground
current trip condition occurs when the inductive reactance of the ground-current trip
path approximately equals the system capacitive reactance to ground. Arcing
introduces the phenomenon of current-chopping, which can cause excessive
overvoltages due to the system capacitance to ground.
The ground detection mentioned above can be accomplished using voltage
transformers connected in wye-broken delta, as illustrated in A Ground Detection
Method for Ungrounded Systems, page 59.
58 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 39 - A Ground Detection Method for Ungrounded Systems
Ground Fault Location LTA LTB LTC LTM

— Dim Dim Dim Off
Phase A Off Bright Bright Bright
Phase B Bright Off Bright Bright
Phase C Bright Bright Dim Bright
In A Ground Detection Method for Ungrounded Systems, page 59, three ground
detection lights “LTA”, “LTB”, and “LTC” are connected so that they indicate the A, B,
and C phase-to-ground voltages, respectively. A master ground detection light “LTM”
indicates a ground current trip on any phase. With no ground current trip on the
system, “LTA”, “LTB”, and “LTB” glow dimly. If a ground current trip occurs on one
phase, the light for that phase is extinguished and “LTM” glows brightly along with the
lights for the other two phases. Control relays may be substituted for the lights if
necessary. Resistor “R” is connected across the broken-delta voltage transformer
secondaries to minimize the possibility of ferroresonance. Most ground detection
schemes for ungrounded systems use this system or a variant thereof.
The ground detection per A Ground Detection Method for Ungrounded Systems, page
59 indicate on which phase the ground current trip occurs, but not where in the system
the ground current trip occurs. This, along with the disadvantages of ungrounded
systems due to susceptibility to voltage transients, was the main impetus for the
development of other ground system arrangements.
Modern power systems are rarely ungrounded due to the advent of high-resistance
grounded systems as discussed below. However, older ungrounded systems are
occasionally encountered.
High-resistance Grounded Systems

One ground arrangement that has gained in popularity in recent years is the high-
resistance grounding arrangement. For low-voltage systems, this arrangement
typically consists of a wye winding arrangement with the neutral connected to ground
through a resistor. The resistor is sized to allow one - ten A to flow continuously if a
ground current trip occurs. This arrangement is illustrated in High-resistance
Grounded System with No Ground Present, page 60.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 59

Figure 40 - High-resistance Grounded System with No Ground Present
The resistor is sized to be less than or equal to the magnitude of the system charging
capacitance to ground. If the resistor is thus sized, the high-resistance grounded
system is usually not susceptible to the large transient overvoltages that an
ungrounded system can experience. The ground resistor is usually provided with taps
to allow field adjustment of the resistance during commissioning.
If no ground current trip current is present, the phasor diagram for the system is the
same as for a solidly-grounded wye system, as shown in High-resistance Grounded
System with No Ground Present, page 60. However, if a ground current trip occurs on
one phase the system response is as shown in High-resistance Grounded System
with a Ground-current Trip on One Phase, page 61. As seen from High-resistance
Grounded System with a Ground-current Trip on One Phase, page 61, the ground
fault current is limited by the grounding resistor. If the approximation is made that that
Z̄A and Z̄F are very small compared to the ground resistor resistance value R, which is
a good approximation if the fault is a bolted ground fault, then the ground fault current
is approximately equal to the phase-to-neutral voltage of the faulted phase divided by
R. The faulted phase voltage to ground in that case would be zero and the unfaulted
phase voltages to ground would be 173% of their values without a ground current trip
present. This is the same phenomenon exhibited by the ungrounded system
arrangement, except that the ground current fault current is larger and approximately
in-phase with the phase-to-neutral voltage on the faulted phase. The limitation of the
ground current trip current to such a low level, along with the absence of a solidly-
grounded system neutral, has the effect of making this system ground arrangement
unsuitable for single-phase line-to-neutral loads.
60 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 41 - High-resistance Grounded System with a Ground-current Trip on One Phase
Winding Circuit
Configuration Model
Ground
Fault
The ground current trip current is not large enough to force its removal by taking the
system off-line. Therefore, the high-resistance grounded system has the same
operational advantage in this respect as the ungrounded system. However, in addition
to the improved voltage transient response as discussed above, the high-resistance
grounded system has the advantage of allowing the location of a ground current trip to
be tracked.
A typical ground detection system for a high-resistance grounded system is illustrated
in Pulsing Ground Detection System, page 62. The ground resistor is shown with a tap
between two resistor sections R1 and R2. When a ground current trip occurs, relay 59
(the ANSI standard for an overvoltage relay, as discussed later in this guide) detects
the increased voltage across the resistor. It sends a signal to the control circuitry to
initiate a ground current trip alarm by energizing the “alarm” indicator. When the
operator turns the pulse control selector to the “ON” position, the control circuit causes
pulsing contact P to close and re-open approximately once per second. When P
closes R2 is shorted and the “pulse” indicator is energized. R1 and R2 are sized so
that approximately five to seven times the resistor continuous ground current trip
current flows when R2 is shorted. The result is a pulsing ground current trip current
that can be detected using a clamp-on ammeter (an analog ammeter is most
convenient). By tracing the circuit with the ammeter, the ground current trip location
can be determined. Once the ground current trip has been removed from the system
pressing the “alarm reset” button de-energizes the “alarm” indicator.
This type of system is known as a pulsing ground detection system and is very
effective in locating ground current trips but is generally more expensive than the
ungrounded system ground current trip indicator in High-resistance Grounded System
with No Ground Present, page 60.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 61

Figure 42 - Pulsing Ground Detection System
Ground
Fault
For medium-voltage systems, high-resistance grounding is usually implemented using

a low-voltage resistor and a neutral transformer, as shown in Medium-Voltage
Implementation for High-resistance Grounding, page 63.
62 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 43 - Medium-Voltage Implementation for High-resistance Grounding
Reactance Grounding
In industrial and commercial facilities, reactance grounding is commonly used in the
neutrals of generators. In most generators, solid grounding may permit the level of
ground-fault current available from the generator to exceed the three-phase value for
which its windings are braced (see IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems18). For these cases, grounding of the
generator neutral through an air-core reactance is the standard solution for lowering
the ground current trip level. This reactance ideally limits the ground-fault current to
the three-phase available fault current and allows the system to operate with phase-
to-neutral loads.
Low-resistance Grounded Systems

By sizing the resistor in High-resistance Grounded System with a Ground-current Trip
on One Phase, page 61 such that a higher ground current trip current, typically 200–
800 A, flows during a ground current trip a low-resistance grounded system is created.
The ground current trip current is limited but is of high enough magnitude to require its
removal from the system as quickly as possible. The low-resistance grounding
arrangement is typically used in medium-voltage systems which have only three-wire
loads, such as motors, where limiting damage to the equipment during a ground
current trip is important enough to include the resistor but it is acceptable to take the
system offline for a ground current trip. The low-resistance grounding arrangement is
generally less expensive than the high-resistance grounding arrangement but more
expensive than a solidly grounded system arrangement.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 63

Creating an Artificial Neutral in an Ungrounded System

In some cases, it is required to create a neutral reference for an ungrounded system.
Most instances involve existing ungrounded systems which are being upgraded to
high-resistance grounding. The existence of multiple transformers and/or delta-wound
generators may make the replacement of this equipment economically unfeasible.
The solution is a grounding transformer. Although several different configurations
exist, by far the most popular in commercial and industrial system is the zig-zag
transformer arrangement. It uses transformers connected as shown in Zig-zag
Grounding Transformer Arrangement, page 64.
Figure 44 - Zig-zag Grounding Transformer Arrangement
Winding Typical Circuit

Connections Representation
The zig-zag transformer only passes ground current. Its typical implementation on an
ungrounded system, to convert the system to a high-resistance grounded system, is
shown in Zig-zag Grounding Transformer Implementation, page 65. The zig-zag
transformer distributes the ground current ĪG equally between the three phases. For all
practical purposes the system, from a grounding standpoint, behaves as a high-
resistance grounded system.
64 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 45 - Zig-zag Grounding Transformer Implementation
The solidly-grounded and low-resistance grounded systems can also be implemented

by using a grounding transformer, depending upon the amount of impedance
connected in the neutral.
NEC Systems Grounding Requirements

The National Electrical Code 19 does place constraints on system grounding. While
this guide is not intended to be a definitive guide to all NEC requirements, several
points from the NEC must be mentioned and are based upon the basic principles
stated above. As a starting point, several key terms from the NEC need to be defined:
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 65

Ground: A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an

electrical circuit or equipment and the ground or to some body that serves in place of
the earth.
Grounded: Connected to ground or to some body that serves in place of the earth.
Effectively Grounded: Intentionally connected to ground through a ground
connection or connections of sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient current-
carrying capacity to help prevent the buildup of voltages that may result in undue
hazards to connected equipment or to persons.
Grounded Conductor: A system or circuit conductor that is intentionally grounded.
Solidly Grounded: Connected to ground without inserting any resistor or impedance
device.
Grounding Conductor: A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded
circuit of a wiring system to a grounding electrode or electrodes.
Equipment Grounding Conductor: The conductor used to connect the non-current-
carrying metal parts of equipment, raceways and other enclosures to the system
grounded conductor, grounding electrode conductor, or both, at the service equipment
or at the source of a separately-derived system.
Main Bonding Jumper: The connection between the grounded circuit conductor and
the equipment grounding conductor at the service.
System Bonding Jumper: The connection between the grounded circuit conductor
and the equipment grounding conductor at a separately-derived system.
Grounding Electrode: The conductor used to connect the grounding electrode(s) to
the equipment grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to both, at the
service, at each building or structure where supplied by a feeder(s) or branch circuit
(s), or at the source of a separately-derived system.
Grounding Electrode Conductor: The conductor used to connect the grounding
electrode(s) to the equipment grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to
both, at the service, at each building or structure where supplied by a feeder(s) or
branch circuit(s), or at the source of a separately-derived system.
Ground Fault: An unintentional, electrically conducting connection between an
ungrounded conductor of an electrical circuit and the normally non–current-carrying
conductors, metallic enclosures, metallic raceways, metallic equipment, or ground.
Ground Fault Current Path: An electrically conductive path from the point of a
ground current trip on a wiring system through normally non–current-carrying
conductors, equipment, or the ground to the electrical supply source.
Effective Ground-fault Current Path: An intentionally constructed, permanent, low-
impedance electrically conductive path designed and intended to carry current
underground-fault conditions from the point of a ground current trip on a wiring system
to the electrical supply source and that facilitates the operation of the overcurrent
protective device or ground current trip detectors on high-impedance grounded
systems.
Ground-fault Circuit Interrupter: A device intended for the protection of personnel
that functions to de-energize a circuit or portion thereof within an established period of
time when a current to ground exceeds the values established for a Class A device.
FPN: Class A ground-fault circuit interrupters trip when the current to ground has a
value in the range of 4 mA to 6 mA. For further information, see UL 943, Standard for
Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters.
Ground Fault Protection of Equipment: A system intended to provide protection of
equipment from damaging line-to-ground current trip currents by operating to cause a
disconnecting means to open all ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit. This
protection is provided at current levels less than those required to limit conductors
damage through the operation of a supply circuit overcurrent device.
66 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Qualified Person: One who has the skills and knowledge related to the construction
and operation of the electrical equipment and installations and has received safety
training on the hazards involved.
With these terms defined, several of the major components of the grounding system
can be illustrated by redrawing the system of NEC System Grounding Terms
Illustration, page 67 and labeling the components.
Figure 46 - NEC System Grounding Terms Illustration
Unground Conductor
Unground Conductor
Main or System Bonding Jumper
Equipment Grounding Conductor
Grounded Electrode Conductor
Grounded Conductor
Ungrounded Conductor
Reference The National Electrical Code20 for the figure above.

Several key design constraints for grounding systems from the NEC (see IEEE
Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems21) are as follows. These are paraphrased from the Code text.
NOTE: This guide is not intended as a substitute for familiarity with the NEC, nor
is it intended as an authoritative interpretation of every aspect of the NEC articles
mentioned.
• Electrical systems that are grounded must be grounded in such a manner as to
limit the voltage imposed by lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact with
higher-voltage lines and that stabilizes the voltage to ground during normal
operation [Article 250.4(A)(1)]. In other words, if a system is considered solidly
grounded the ground impedance must be low.
• If the system can be solidly grounded at 150 V to ground or less, it must be solidly
grounded [Article 250.20(B)]. There is therefore no such system as a “120 V
Ungrounded Delta” in use, even though such a system is physically possible.
• If the system neutral carries current it must be solidly grounded [Article 250.20
(B)]. This is indicative of single-phase loading and is typical for a 4-wire wye (such
as Solidly-grounded Wye System Arrangement and Voltage Relationships, page
52) or center-tapped four-wire delta (such as Center-Tap-grounded Delta System
Arrangement and Voltage Relationships, page 53) system.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 67

• Certain systems are permitted, but not required, to be solidly grounded. They are
listed as electric systems used exclusively to supply industrial electric furnaces
for melting, refining, tempering, and the like, separately derived systems used
exclusively for rectifiers that supply only adjustable-speed industrial drives, and
separately derived systems supplied by transformers that have a primary voltage
rating less than 1000 V provided that certain conditions are met [Article 250.21].
• If a system 50 - 1000 Vac is not solidly grounded, ground detectors must be
installed on the system unless the voltage to ground is less than 120 V [Article
250.21].
• Certain systems cannot be grounded. They are listed as circuits for electric
cranes operating over combustible fibers in Class III locations as provided in
Article 503.155, circuits within hazardous (classified) anesthetizing locations and
other isolated power systems in health care facilities as provided in 517.61 and
517.160, circuits for equipment within electrolytic cell working zone as provided in
Article 668, and secondary circuits of lighting systems as provided in 411.5(A)
[Article 250.22]. Some of the requirements for hazardous locations and health
care facilities are covered in Electrical Energy Management, page 220.
• For solidly-grounded systems, an unspliced main bonding jumper must be used
to connect the equipment grounding conductor(s) and the service disconnect
enclosure to the grounded conductor within the enclosure for each utility service
disconnect [Article 250.24(B)].
• For solidly-grounded systems, an unspliced system bonding jumper must be
used to connect the equipment grounding conductor of a separately derived
system to the grounded conductor. This connection must be made at any single
point on the separately derived system from the source to the first system
disconnecting means or overcurrent device [250.30(A)(1)].
• A grounding connection on the load side of the main bonding or system bonding
jumper on a solidly-grounded system is not permitted [Articles 240.24(A)(5),
250.30(A)]. The reasons for this are explained in below and in Arc Flash Hazard,
page 150.
• Ground fault protection of equipment must be provided for solidly grounded wye
electrical services, feeder disconnects on solidly-grounded wye systems, and
building or structure disconnects on solidly-grounded wye systems under the
following conditions:
1. The voltage is greater than 150 V to ground but does not exceed 600 V
phase-to-phase.
2. The utility service, feeder, or building or structure disconnect is rated 1000 A
or more.
3. The disconnect in question does not supply a fire pump or continuous
industrial process.[Articles 215.10, 230.95, 240.13].
• Where ground current trip protection is required per Article 215.10 or 230.95 for a
health care facility, an additional step of ground current trip protection is required
in the next downstream device toward the load, except for circuits on the load
side of an essential electrical system transfer switch and between on-site
generating units for the essential electrical system and the essential electrical
system transfer switches [Article 517.17]. Specific requirements for health-care
systems are described in Emergency Power Distribution Equipment, page 184.
• The alternate source for an emergency or legally-required standby system is not
required to have ground current trip protection. For an emergency system,
ground-fault indication is required [Articles 700.26, 701.17]. Emergency Power
Distribution Equipment, page 184 describes the requirements for Emergency and
Standby Power Systems.
68 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

• All electrical equipment, wiring, and other electrically conductive material must be
installed in a manner that creates a permanent, low-impedance path facilitating
the operation of the overcurrent device. This circuit must have the ability to carry
the ground current trip current imposed upon it. [Article 250.4(A)(5)]. The intent of
this requirement is to allow ground current trip current magnitudes to be sufficient
for the ground current trip protection/detection to detect (and for ground current
trip protection to clear) the fault, and for a ground current trip not to cause
damage to the grounding system.
• High-impedance grounded systems may be utilized on AC systems of 480 - 1000
V where:
1. Conditions of maintenance and supervision so that only qualified persons
access the installation.
2. Continuity of power is required.
3. Ground detectors are installed on the system.
4. Line-to-neutral loads are not served. [Article 250.36]
• For systems over 1000 V:
1. The system neutral for solidly-grounded systems may be a single point
grounded or multigrounded neutral. Additional requirements for each of
these arrangements apply [Article 250.184].
2. The system neutral derived from a grounding transformer may be used for
grounding [Article 250.182].
3. The minimum insulation level for the neutral of a solidly-grounded system is
600 V. A bare neutral is permissible under certain conditions [Article 250.184
(A) (1)].
4. Impedance grounded neutral systems may be used where conditions 1, 3,
and 4 for the use of high-impedance grounding on systems 480-1000 V
above are met [Article 250.186].
5. The neutral conductor must be identified and fully insulated with the same
phase insulation as the phase conductors [Article 250.186 (B)].
• Zig-zag grounding transformers must not be installed on the load side of any
system grounding connection [Article 450.5].
• When a grounding transformer is used to provide the grounding for a three-phase
four-wire system, the grounding transformer must not be provided with
overcurrent protection independent of the main switch and common-trip
overcurrent protection for the three-phase, four-wire system [Article 450.5 (A)
(1)]. An overcurrent sensing device must be provided that causes the main switch
or common-trip overcurrent protection to open if the load on the grounding
transformer exceeds 125% of its continuous current rating [Article 450.5 (A) (2)].
Again, these points are not intended to be an all-inclusive reference for NEC
grounding requirements. They do, however, summarize many of the major
requirements. When in doubt, consult the NEC.
System Protection
Abstract: To protect personnel, equipment, and maintain continuity of service for an
electrical system, protection or fault interrupting devices are required. Adequate
system designs allow for the system to withstand and isolate faults while not causing
additional damage and/or outages. System protection is paramount and must be
understood by all persons interacting or responsible for electrical systems.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 69

Introduction
An important consideration in power system design is system protection. Without
system protection, the power system itself, which is intended to be of benefit to the
facility in question, would itself become a hazard.
The major concern for system protection is protection against the effects of
destructive, abnormally high currents. These abnormal currents, if left unchecked,
could cause fires or explosions resulting in risk to personnel and damage to
equipment. Other concerns, such as transient overvoltages, are also considered when
designing power system protection although they are generally considered only after
protection against abnormal currents has been designed.
Characterization of Power System Faults

Any current in excess of the equipment rated current or the ampacity of a conductor
may be considered an overcurrent. Overcurrents can generally be categorized as
overloads or faults. An overload is a condition where load equipment draws more
current than the system can supply within its limits. The main hazard with overload
conditions is the thermal heating effects of overloaded equipment and conductors.
Faults are unintentional connections of the power system resulting in overcurrents
much larger in magnitude than overloads.
Faults are categorized in several different ways. A fault with very little impedance in
the unintended connection is referred to as a short circuit or bolted fault (the latter
term is used since a short circuit can be thought of as a bus bar inadvertently bolted
across two phase conductors or from phase to ground). A fault to ground is referred to
as a ground current trip. A fault between all three phases is referred to as a three-
phase fault. A fault between two phases is referred to as a phase-to-phase fault. A
fault containing enough impedance in the unintentional connection to significantly
affect the fault current versus. a true short circuit is known as an impedance fault. An
arcing fault has the unintentional connection made via an electrical arc through an
ionized gas such as air. All these terms are used in practice to characterize the nature
of a fault.
To quantitatively characterize a fault, it is necessary to calculate how much fault
current could be produced at a given location in the system. In most cases, this is the
three-phase short-circuit current, which is the current produced if all three phases
were shorted to each other and/or to ground. The simplest method for illustrating this
is to reduce the power system at the point in question to its Thevenin equivalent. The
Thevenin equivalent is the equivalent single voltage source and impedance that
produce the same short-circuit results as the power system itself. The Thevenin
equivalent voltage V̄this the open-circuit voltage at the point in question, and the
Thevenin equivalent impedance Z̄th is the impedance of the power system at the point
in question with the source voltage equal to zero. If a further simplification is made,
such that the system can be reduced to its single-phase equivalent, then a simple
three-phase fault current calculation for the three-phase fault current Īf3Ф can be
performed as shown in Simplified Three-phase Fault Calculation, page 71.
70 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 47 - Simplified Three-phase Fault Calculation
The Thevenin impedance for a power system at a given point in the system is referred
to as the short-circuit impedance. In the great majority of power systems, the short-
circuit impedance is predominately inductive, therefore one simplification that is often
made is to treat the impedance purely as inductance. This has the effect of causing
the fault current to lag the system line-to-neutral voltage by 90º. If the system is an
ungrounded delta system, the equivalent line-to-neutral voltage is obtained by
performing a delta-wye conversion of the source voltage.
The phase-to-phase fault value is calculated from the three-phase fault value, if it is
remembered that the line-to-line voltage magnitude is equal to the line-to-neutral
voltage magnitude multiplied by √3 and that there will be twice the impedance in the
circuit since the return path must be considered. These two facts, taken together,
allow computation of the line-to-line fault current magnitude |Ī(fl-l)| as:
3 I f 3ø (7–1)
I fI I =
2
This, however, is as far as this simplified analysis method take us. To further
characterize fault currents, a method for calculating unbalanced faults must be used.
The universally-accepted method for this is a method known as the method of
symmetrical components.
In the method of symmetrical components, unbalanced currents and voltages are
broken into three distinct components: positive sequence, negative sequence, and
zero sequence. These sequence components are thought of as independent sets of
rotating balanced phasors. The positive sequence set rotates in the standard A-B-C
phase rotation. The negative sequence set rotates in the negative or C-B-A phase
rotation. In the zero sequence, set all three phase components are in phase with one
another. The positive, negative and zero sequence components are further simplified
by referring only to the A-phase phasor of each set; these are referred to as V̄1for the
positive sequence set, V̄2for the negative sequence set and V̄ 0 for the zero-sequence
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 71

set. For a given set of phase voltages V̄a, V̄b , V̄c, the sequence components are
related to the phase voltages as follows:
V̄1 = 1/3(V̄a + aV̄b + a2V̄c) (7–2)

V̄2 = 1/3(V̄a + a2V̄b + aV̄c ) (7–3)
V̄0 = 1/3(V̄a + V̄b + V̄c ) (7–4)
V̄a = V̄1 + V̄2 + V̄0 (7–5)
V̄b = a2V̄1 + aV̄2 + V̄0 (7–6)
V̄c = aV̄1 + a2V̄2 + V̄0 (7–7)
Where:
a = 1∠120∘
The system may be separated into positive, negative, and zero-sequence networks
depending upon the fault type and the resulting sequence quantities, then combined
per (7-5), (7-6), and (7-7) to yield the phase values.
Modern short-circuit analysis is performed using computers. Even large systems are
quickly analyzed via short-circuit analysis software. Even so, some heuristic benefit
can be gained by knowing how the method of symmetrical components works. For
example, certain protective relays are often set in terms of negative-sequence values
and ground currents are often referred to as zero-sequence quantities in the literature.
Another factor that must be considered is the existence of DC quantities in fault
currents. Because of the system inductance, the current cannot change
instantaneously, therefore upon initiation of a fault the system must go through a
transient condition that bridges the gap between the faulted and unfaulted conditions.
This transition involves DC currents. For a generic single-phase AC circuit with an
open-circuit voltage v(t)=Vmsin(( ωt+θ)) and a short-circuit impedance consisting of
resistance R and inductance L, the fault current for a fault initiated at time t = 0 can be
expressed as in Electrical Transients in Power Systems22:
i(t) = Vm/√(R2 + (ωL)2[sin(ωt+θ-ϕ) )e-(R/L)t ] (7–8)
Where:
ϕ = tan-1(ωL/R)
The angle ϕ can be recognized to be the angle of the Thevenin impedance. Several
key points can be taken from (7-8):
• When the fault occurs such that (θ-ϕ) = 0 no transient occurs. For a purely
inductive circuit this would mean that θ = 90º and thus the fault is initiated when
the voltage is at its peak.
• When the fault occurs such that (θ-ϕ) = 90º the maximum transient occurs. For a
purely inductive circuit this would mean that θ = 0º and thus the fault is initiated
when the voltage is zero.
• The time constant of the circuit is (L/R) and thus the higher the value of L/R the
longer the transient lasts. Instead of (L/R) power systems typically are defined in
terms of (X/R), where (X/R) is the ratio of the inductive reactance of the short-
circuit impedance to its resistance. Thus, the higher (X/R) or the “X/R ratio”, the
longer the short-circuit transient lasts. This has great implications on the rating of
equipment.
A typical plot of fault current on a distribution system with a low X/R ratio and closing
angle such that a small transient is produced is shown in Fault Current for System
with Low X/R Ratio and Small-transient Closing Angle, Normalized to a Steady-state
22. Alan Greenwood, New York, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1971.
72 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Magnitude of 1, page 73. In contrast with this is the plot shown in Fault Current for
System with Higher X/R Ratio and Closing Angle of 0, Normalized to a Steady-state
Magnitude of 1, page 74, which is the fault current for a system with a high X/R ratio
and closing angle of 0 such that there is a large transient.
Figure 48 - Fault Current for System with Low X/R Ratio and Small-transient Closing Angle, Normalized to a
Steady-state Magnitude of 1
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 73

Figure 49 - Fault Current for System with Higher X/R Ratio and Closing Angle of 0, Normalized to a Steady-
state Magnitude of 1
Steady-state Component of Waveform in Figure 49, page 75 shows only the steady-
state component of the waveform of Fault Current for System with Higher X/R Ratio
and Closing Angle of 0, Normalized to a Steady-state Magnitude of 1, page 74 and
Transient Component of Waveform in Figure 49, page 75 shows only the transient
component.
74 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 50 - Steady-state Component of Waveform in Figure 49
Figure 51 - Transient Component of Waveform in Figure 49
The fault current is often described in terms of its RMS Symmetrical and RMS
Asymmetrical values. The RMS symmetrical value is the RMS value considering the
steady-state component only. The RMS asymmetrical value is the RMS value over the
first cycle considering both the steady-state and transient components at the worst-
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 75

case closing angle. As a simplification of (7-5) an approximate asymmetry factor can

be calculated as detailed in IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial Power Systems23.
Asymmetry Factor = 1 + 2e ( )
2!
X
R
(7–9)
For example, this asymmetry factor for an X/R ratio of 25 is 1.6, meaning that the
approximate worst-case RMS asymmetrical value over the first cycle for the fault
current at an X/R ratio of 25 is no greater than the RMS symmetrical value multiplied
by 1.6.
For motors and generators, which have a high X/R ratios, calculations for the transient
performance during a fault are simplified by representing the short-circuit impedances
differently for different time periods after the fault initiation. The reactive component of
the short-circuit impedance for the first half-cycle into the fault is the subtransient
reactance (X”d). For the first several cycles into the fault the reactance is larger and is
termed the transient reactance (X’d . For the long-term fault, currents (up to 30 cycles
or so into the fault) the reactance is even larger and is termed the synchronous
reactance (Xd. The synchronous reactance is much larger than either the transient or
subtransient reactance and models the phenomenon of AC decrement; after the DC
component decays the AC component continues to decay, eventually reaching a
value that can be less than the generator rated load current.
In general, the closer the fault is to a generator or generators the higher the X/R ratio
and thus the larger the DC offset. The AC decrement of the fault from generator
sources is pronounced. Faults from most utility services are sufficiently far removed
from generation and have enough resistance in the distribution lines that there is less
DC offset and essentially no AC decrement. The fault current contribution from
induction motors has a high DC offset but also decays rapidly to zero over the first few
cycles since there is no applied field excitation. The fault current contribution from
synchronous motors has a large DC component and decays to zero but at a slower
rate than for induction motors due to the applied field excitation. For a given point in
the system, the fault current is the sum of the contributions from all these sources and
the DC offset, DC decay, and AC decrement are all dependent upon the relative
location of the fault with respect to these sources.
The existence of the transient is of vital importance to selecting the proper equipment
for system protection. Because standards for equipment short-circuit ratings vary
(more is stated regarding this in subsequent sections of this guide), even more speed
and efficiency is gained by using a computer for short circuit calculations; the various
equipment rating standards can be considered to produce accurate results for
comparison with the equipment ratings.
Methods Of Reducing Short-circuit Current

An electrical circuit in which a very low resistance path has been accidently opened.
When the resistance in a circuit decreases the current in the circuit increases
drastically, which can damage the circuit and cause fires. As a result, certain
equipment and other concepts have been used to reduce the short-circuit current:
Increasing the cable length: There are numerous approaches available to minimize
the trip current in a low voltage system. Increasing the cable length is one technique.
The trip current in bus 03 is 24.997 kA, and the cable length is 30 meters. However,
because the breaking current of a low voltage circuit breaker is 20 kA, increasing the
cable length from 30 to 50 meters. reduces the trip current to within 20 kA. The trip
current on bus 03 is now 19.024 kA. The trip current decreases when the cable length
is increased as shown in the ETAP Simulation for Different Cable Length, page 77.
76 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 52 - ETAP Simulation for Different Cable Length
11 kV 11 kV
Grid 01 Grid 01
381.051 MVAsc 381.051 MVAsc
Bus 01 Bus 01
11 kV 11 kV
Transformer 01 Transformer 01
2 MVA 2 MVA
11/0.415 kV 11/0.415 kV
6.25 %Z 6.25 %Z
Bus 02
0.415 kV Bus 02
0.415 kV
Cable 01 Cable 01
AL 30 m 30 m
AL
3-1/C 300 3-1/C 300
Bus 03 24.997 kA 19.024 kA

24 Bus 03 19
0.415 kV .99 .02
7k 0.415 kV 4k
A A
Lighting transformers:
A lighting transformer is nothing but a 1:1 transformer. The transformer turns ratio
is the number of turns of the primary winding divided by the number of turns of the
secondary coil.
The trip current in bus 03 is 24.997 kA, and the cable length is 30 meters. However,
because the breaking current of a low voltage circuit breaker is 20 kA, a lighting
transformer has been installed between the cable and bus 03. The trip current is now
within 20 kA of the safe limit. The trip current on bus 03 is now 10.707 kA. The trip
current is reduced as shown in Lighting Transformer, page 78.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 77

Figure 53 - Lighting Transformer
11 Kv 11 Kv
Grid 01 381.051 MVAsc Grid 2 381.051 MVAsc
Bus 01
11 kV
Bus 01
11 kV
Transformer 01
Transformer 01 2 MVA
2 MVA 11/0.415 kV
11/0.415 kV
6.25 %Z
Bus 02
6.25 %Z
0.415 kV
Bus 02 AL Cable 01
0.415 kV 30 m
3-1/C 300
Cable 01 Transformer 01
AL 30 m 500 kVA
3-1/C 300 0.415/0.415 kV
4 %Z
24.997 kA
Bus 03 24 10.707 kA
0.415 kV .99
7k Bus 03 10.7
A 07 kA
0.415 kV
There are numerous approaches available to minimize the trip current in a medium
voltage system. One option is to use a current-limiting reactor.
Current limiting reactor (CLR):
Although the CLR introduces impedance into the circuit degrading the voltage profile
during normal operation, it can be a cost-effective solution obviating the need for
upgrading system switchgear due to an increase in the trip level. A current limiting
reactor is a series reactor connected into the circuit for limiting trip current. Above the
result is a trip current limit the some values.
78 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 54 - Application of CLR
a. Bus section b. Generat

Generator
ator connection
at connect
ctio
ction
io
a. Bus section b. Generator connection
Applications of the CLR for limiting trip level are varied. One of the more attractive
applications is often the bus section application (see Application of CLR, page 79).
For this arrangement, the CLR is placed between two bus bars to connect them
together.
Disadvantages include:
• Voltage drop
• Increasing power loss
• Reduced grid power factor
• High space requirements
For the system bus 02, as shown in Add a Generator, page 80, the trip current is
19.318 kA under normal conditions. However, as the system power increases to 15
MW for internal purposes by employing one generator, the trip current has increased
to 24.672 kA, as shown in Add a Generator, page 80. How to reduce the fault current?
Whenever we have use some methods, that are given below.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 79

Figure 55 - Add a Generator
11 kV 11 kV
Grid 01 Grid 01
3810.512 MVAsc 3810.512 MVAsc
Bus 01 Bus 01
110 kV 110 kV
11 kV
926.2 A
15 MW
Gen 01
Trafo 01 19 %Xd”
Trafo 01
45 MWA
45 MWA
110/11 kV
110/11 kV
12.5 %Z
12.5 %Z
Bus 02 19.318 kA 5.355 kA

19.318 kA 11 kV
Bus 02
11 kV 24
19 .67
.31 2k
8k A
A
The trip current on bus 02 is from 24.672 kA to 22.35 kA as a result of the above
configuration (see Figure 55). The trip current is reduced if the reactor impedance is
increased as shown in With Current Limiting Reactor, page 81.
80 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 56 - With Current Limiting Reactor
110 kV 110 kV
Grid 01 Grid 01
3810.512 MVAsc 3810.512 MVAsc
Bus 01 11 kV Bus 01 11 kV
110 kV 926.2 A 110 kV 926.2 A
15 MW 15 MW
Gen 01 Gen 01
Trafo 01 Trafo 01 19 %Xd”

19 %Xd” 45 MWA
45 MWA
110/11 kV 110/11 kV
12.5 %Z 12.5 %Z X 01
5.355 kA
Bus 02 19.318 kA
11 kV 24 Bus 02 19.318 kA 3.032 kA
.67 22
2k 11 kV
A .35
kA
Unit ratio transformer:

The number of turns on a transformer’s secondary divided by the number of turns on
its primary is the turns ratio. If the unit ratio transformer is connected between
generator bus 02 and, the trip current of bus 02 is reduced from 24.672 kA to 19.874
kA. The ETAP result is depicted in ETAP Result with Unit Ratio Transormer, page 82.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 81

Figure 57 - ETAP Result with Unit Ratio Transormer
110 kV
110 kV Grid 01
Grid 01 3810.512 MVAsc
3810.512 MVAsc
11 kV
Bus 01 Bus 01 926.2 A
110 kV 11 kV 110 kV 15 MW
926.2 A Gen 01
15 MW
Gen 01
19 %Xd”
5.355 kA
Trafo 01 19 %Xd” Trafo 01
45 MWA 45 MWA
110/11 kV 110/11 kV Trafo 02
12.5 %Z 12.5 %Z 500 kVA
11/11 kV
4 %Z
Bus 02 19.318 kA 5.355 kA
Bus 02 19.318 kA 0.632 kA
11 kV
24 11 kV 19
.67 .8 74
2k k
A A
Low Voltage Fuses

The simplest of all overcurrent protective devices is the fuse. A fuse is an overcurrent
protective device with a circuit-opening fusible part that is heated and severed by the
passage of the overcurrent through it (see IEEE Recommended Practice for
Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power Systems24).
Several definitions are of interest for low-voltage fuses (see IEEE Recommended
Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power Systems24):
Ampere rating: The RMS current that the fuse can carry continuously without
deterioration and without exceeding temperature rise limits. In accordance with NEC
(see The National Electrical Code25) article 210.20 and The National Electrical
Code25) a fuse (or any branch-circuit overcurrent device) shall not be less than the
noncontinuous load plus 125% of the continuous load. The exception being where the
assembly, including the overcurrent devices protecting the branch circuit(s), is listed
for operation at 100% of its rating, the ampere rating of the overcurrent device shall be
permitted to be not less than the sum of the continuous load plus the noncontinuous
load.
Current-limiting fuse: A current-limiting fuse interrupts all available currents at its
threshold current and below its maximum interrupting rating, limits the clearing time at
rated voltage to an interval equal to or less than the first major or symmetrical loop
duration, and limits peak let-through current to a value less than the peak current
possible with the fuse replaced by a solid conductor of the same impedance.

82 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Dual-element fuse: A cartridge fuse having two or more current-responsive elements

in series in a single cartridge. The dual-element design is a construction technique
frequently used to obtain a desired time-delay response characteristic.
I2t: A measure of heat energy developed within a circuit during the fuse’s melting or
arcing. The sum of melting and arcing I2t is generally stated as total clearing I2t.
Interrupting rating: The rating based upon the highest RMS current that the fuse is
tested to interrupt under the conditions specified.
Melting time: The time required to melt the current-responsive element on a specified
overcurrent.
Peak let-through current (Ip): The maximum instantaneous current through a
current-limiting fuse during the total clearing time.
Time delay: For Class H, K, J, and R fuses, a minimum opening time of ten seconds
to an overload current five times the ampere rating of the fuse, except for Class H, K,
and R fuses rated 0-30 A, 250 V, in which case the opening time can be reduced to
eight seconds. For Class G, Class CC, and plug fuses, a minimum time delay of 12
seconds on an overload of twice the fuses’ ampere rating.
Total Clearing time: The total time between the beginning of the specified
overcurrent and the final interruption of the circuit, at rated voltage.
Voltage Rating: The RMS voltage at which the fuse is designed to operate. All low-
voltage fuses operate at any lower voltage (note that this is characterized as AC or
DC, or both).
Low-voltage fuses are classified according to the standard to which they are
designed. Low-voltage Fuse Classes, page 83 lists the various fuse classes and
pertinent data for each class.
Fuses, like most protective devices, exhibit inverse time-current characteristics. A
typical fuse time-current characteristic is shown in Typical Class J Fuse Time —
Current Characteristic, page 85. Logarithmic scales are used for both the time and
current axies, to cover a wide range. The characteristic represents a band of
operating times for which the lower boundary is the minimum melting time curve,
above which the fuses can be damaged. The upper boundary is the total clearing time
curve, above which the fuse opens. For a given fault current, the actual fuse opening
time is within this band.
Table 8 - Low-voltage Fuse Classes
Fuse Class Voltage Ampere Interrupting Current Standards Notes

Ratings Ratings Ratings (RMS) Limiting
C 600 Vac 0–12000 A 200,000 A Varies UL 248-3-2000, CSA Plug-style

C22.2 NO. 248.2-2000
0–600 Vdc Varies Varies
CA 600 Vac 0–30 A 200,000 A Yes UL 248-3-2000, CSA No mounting holes
C22.2 NO. 248-3-2000
0–600 Vdc Varies Varies Yes
CB 600 Vac 0–60 A 200,000 A Yes UL 248-3-2000, CSA Mounting holes in end
C22.2 NO. 248-3-2000 blades
CC 600 Vac 0–30 A 200,000 A Yes UL 248-4-2000 , CSA Rejection-style;
C22.2 NO. 248.4-2000
G 480 Vac 25–60 A 100,000 A Yes UL 248-5-2000, CSA Non-interchangeable
C22.2 NO. 248.5-2000 dimensions with other
6000 V 0–20 A 100,000 A Yes fuse classes
480 Vdc Varies Varies Yes

H 250 Vac 0–600 A 10,000 A No UL 248-6-2000, CSA
C22.2 NO. 248.6-2000
600 Vac 0–600 A 10,000 A No
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 83

Table 8 - Low-voltage Fuse Classes (Continued)
J 600 Vac 0–600 A 200,000 A Yes UL 248-8-2000, CSA

C22.2 NO. 248.8-2000
K 250 Vac 0–600 A 50,000 A Yes a, page 84 UL 248-9-2000, CSA Divided into low (K-1),
C22.2 NO. 248-9-2000 medium (K-5), and high
250 Vac 0–600 A 100,000 A Yes a, page 84 (K-9) Ip and I2t sub-
classes; Dimensions
250 Vac 0–600 A 200,000 A Yes a, page 84 interchangeable with
class H fuses
600 Vac 0–600 A 50,000 A Yes a, page 84
600 Vac 0–600 A 100,000 A Yes a, page 84
600 Vac 0–600 A 200,000 A Yes a, page 84

L 600 Vac 601–6000 A 200,000 A Yes UL 248-10-2000, CSA Bolt-on construction
C22.2 NO. 248.10-2000
R 250 Vac 0–600 A 200,000 A Yes UL 248-12-2000, CSA Divided into medium
C22.2 NO. 248.12-2000 (RK-1 and high (RK-5) Ip
600 Vac 0–600 A 200,000 A Yes and I2t sub-classes; Will
fit class H or Class K fuse
0–600 Vdc Varies Varies holders, but Class R fuse
holders will not fit any
other type;
T 300 Vac 0–1200 A 200,000 A Yes UL 248-15-2000, CSA Similar to Class J, but
C22.2 NO 248.15-2000 dimension-ally smaller
600 Vdc 0–1200 A 200,000 A Yes

Plug Fuses 125 Vac 0–30 A 10,000 A NO UL 248-11-2000, CSA Type S has rejection
Type C or NO. 248.11-2000 features
Type S 125 Vdc 0–30 A 10,000 A
a * Because of their interchangeability with Class H fuses, class K-1, K-5, and K-9 fuses cannot be marked as “current-limiting”.IEEE
Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power Systems26
84 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 58 - Typical Class J Fuse Time — Current Characteristic
In some cases, the fuse average melting time only is given. This can be treated as the
fuse opening time with a tolerance of ±15%. The -15% boundary is the minimum
melting time and the +15% boundary is the total clearing time.
The time-current characteristic does not extend below .01 seconds. This is since
below .01 seconds the fuse is operating in its current-limiting region and the fuse I2t is
of increasing importance.
The time-current characteristic curves are used to demonstrate the coordination
between protective devices in series. The basic principle of system protection is that
for a given fault current ideally only the device nearest the fault opens, minimizing the
effect of the fault on the rest of the system. This principle is known as selective
coordination and is analyzed with the use of the device time-current characteristic
curves.
As an example, consider a 480 V system with two sets of fuses in series, with a
system available trip current of 30,000 A. Bus “A” uses a 400 A class J fuses which
supply, among others, bus “B”. Bus “B” uses a 100 A class J fuses. Coordination
between the 400 A and 100 A fuses is shown via the time-current curves of Fuse
Coordination Example, page 86, along with a one-line diagram of the part of the
system under consideration. Because the time bands for the two fuses do not overlap,
these are coordinated for all operating times above .01 seconds. It can be stated that
these two sets of fuses are coordinated through approximately 4200 A, since at 4200
A Fuse A has the potential to begin operating in its current-limiting region. Fuse B has
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 85

the potential to begin operating its current-limiting region at 1100 A. For currents
above approximately 4000 A, therefore, both sets of fuses have the potential to be
operating in the current-limiting region. When both sets of fuses are operating the
current-limiting region the time-current curves cannot be used to the determine
coordination between them. Instead, for a given fault current the minimum melting I2t
for Fuse A must be greater than the maximum clearing I2t for Fuse B. In practice,
instead of publishing I2t data fuse manufacturers typically publish ratio tables showing
the minimum ratios of fuses of a given type that coordinate with each other.
Figure 59 - Fuse Coordination Example
Low-voltage fuse AC interrupting ratings are based upon a maximum power factor of
.2, corresponding to a maximum X/R ratio of 4.899. To evaluate a low-voltage fuse’s
interrupting rating on a system with a higher X/R ratio the system symmetrical fault
current must be multiplied by a multiplying factor (see IEEE Recommended Practice
for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power Systems27):
MULT = 1 + e(-π(X/R)actual)/1 + e(-π(X/R) )test (7–10)
Where:
(X/R)actualis the actual system X/R.
(X/R)testis the test X/R.
86 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

The available symmetrical fault current multiplied by the multiplying factor per (7-10)
can be compared to the fuse interrupting rating.
The use of fuses requires a holder and a switching device in addition to the fuses
themselves. Because they are single-phase devices, a single blown fuse from a three-
phase set causes a loss of phase condition, which can lead to motor damage.
Replacing fuses typically requires opening equipment doors and/or removing cover
panels. Also, replacement fuses must be stocked to get a circuit with a blown fuse
back on-line quickly. For these reasons, the use of low-voltage fuses in modern power
systems is generally discouraged.
Low Voltage Molded-case Circuit Breakers

The molded-case circuit breaker is the “workhorse” for system protection for 600 V
and below. A circuit breaker is a device designed to open and close by nonautomatic
means and to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined overcurrent without
damage to itself when properly applied within its rating (see The National Electrical
Code28).
The following terms apply to molded-case circuit breakers (see IEEE Recommended
Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power Systems29, and Molded-
Case Circuit Breakers, Molded Case Switches and Circuit-Breaker Enclosures,30):
Voltage: Circuit breakers are designed and marked with the maximum voltage at
which they are applied. Circuit breaker voltage ratings distinguish between delta-
connected, three-wire systems and wye-connected, four-wire systems. As stated in
NEC article 240.85 The National Electrical Code (see The National Electrical Code28),
a circuit breaker with a straight voltage rating, such as 240 V circuit breaker with a
straight voltage rating, shall be permitted to be applied in a circuit in which the nominal
voltage between any two conductors does not exceed the circuit breakers voltage
rating. A two-pole circuit breaker shall not be used for protecting a three-phase,
corner-grounded delta circuit unless the circuit breaker is marked 1ϕ - 3ϕ to indicate
such suitability.
A circuit breaker with a slash rating, such as 120/240 V or 480Y/277 V, shall be
permitted to be applied in a solidly-grounded circuit where the nominal voltage of any
conductor to ground does not exceed the lower of the two values of the circuit
breaker’s voltage rating and the nominal voltage between any two conductors does
not exceed the higher value of the circuit breaker’s voltage rating.
Frequency: Molded-case circuit breakers are normally suitable for 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
Some have DC ratings as well.
Continuous current or Rated current: This is the maximum current a circuit breaker
can carry continuously at a given ambient temperature rating without tripping (typically
40°C). In accordance with NEC (see The National Electrical Code28) article 210 for a
circuit breaker (or any branch circuit overcurrent device) that supplies continuous
loads or any combination of continuous and noncontinuous loads, the rating of the
overcurrent device shall not be less than the noncontinuous load plus 125% of the
continuous load. The exception is where the assembly, including the overcurrent
devices protecting the circuit(s), is listed for operation at 100% of its rating, the
ampere rating of the overcurrent device shall be permitted to be not less than the sum
of the continuous load plus the noncontinuous load.
Poles: The number of poles is the number of ganged circuit breaker elements in a
single housing. Circuit breakers are available with one, two, or three poles, and four
poles for certain applications. Per NEC (see The National Electrical Code28) article
240.85 a two-pole circuit breaker cannot be used for protecting a three-phase, corner-
grounded delta circuit unless the circuit breaker is marked 1ϕ - 3ϕ to indicate such
suitability.
30. UL 489, Underwriter’s Laboratories Inc., October 24,2016.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 87

Control voltage: The control voltage rating is the AC or DC voltage designated for
application to control devices intended to open or close a circuit breaker. In most
cases this only applies to accessories that are custom ordered, such as motor
operators.
Interrupting rating: This is the highest current at rated voltage that the circuit breaker
is intended to interrupt under standard test conditions.
Short-time or withstand rating: This characterizes the circuit-breaker’s ability to
withstand the effects of short-circuit current flow for a stated period. Molded-case
circuit breakers typically do not have a withstand rating, although some newer-design
breakers do.
Instantaneous override: A function of an electronic trip circuit breaker that causes
the instantaneous function to operate above a given level of current if the
instantaneous function characteristic has been disabled.
Current limiting circuit breaker: This is a circuit breaker which does not employ a
fusible element and, when operating in its current-limiting range, limits the let-through
I2t to a value less than the I2t of a ½-cycle wave of the symmetrical prospective
current.
HID: This is a marking that indicates that a circuit breaker has passed additional
endurance and temperature rise tests to assess its ability for use as the regular
switching device for high intensity discharge lighting. Per NEC 240.83 (D) a circuit
breaker, which is used as a switch in an HID lighting circuit must be marked as HID.
HID circuit breakers can also be used as switches in fluorescent lighting circuits. SWD
marked circuit breakers may not be used as switches for HID circuits.
SWD: This is a marking that indicates that a circuit breaker has passed additional
endurance and temperature rise tests to assess its ability for use as the regular
switching device fluorescent lighting. Per NEC 240.83 (D) a circuit breaker which is
used as a switch in an SWD lighting circuit must be marked as SWD or HID.
Frame: The term Frame is applied to a group of circuit breakers of similar
configuration. Frame size is expressed in amperes and corresponds to the largest
ampere rating available in that group.
Thermal-magnetic circuit breaker: This type of circuit breaker contains a thermal
element to trip the circuit breaker for overloads and a faster magnetic instantaneous
element to trip the circuit breaker for short circuits. On many larger thermal-magnetic
circuit breakers the instantaneous element is adjustable.
Electronic trip circuit breaker: An electronic circuit breaker contains a solid-state
adjustable trip unit. These circuit breakers are extremely flexible in coordination with
other devices.
Sensor: An electronic-trip circuit breaker’s sensor is usually an air-core current
transformer (CT) designed specifically to work with that circuit breaker’s trip unit. The
sensor size, in conjunction with the rating plug, determines the electronic-trip circuit
breaker’s continuous current rating.
Rating plug: An electronic trip circuit breaker’s rating plug can vary the circuit
breaker’s continuous current rating as a function of its sensor size.
Typical molded-case circuit breakers are shown in Molded-case Circuit Breakers,
page 89. In Molded-case Circuit Breakers, page 89 on the left is a thermal-magnetic
circuit breaker, and on the right is an electronic-trip circuit breaker. The thermal-
magnetic circuit breaker is designed for cable connections and the electronic circuit
breaker is designed for bus connections, but neither type is inherently suited for one
connection type over another. Note the prominently-mounted operating handle on
each circuit breaker.
Circuit breakers can be mounted in stand-alone enclosures, in switchboards, or in
panelboards (more information on switchboards and panelboards is given in a later
section of this guide).
88 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 60 - Molded-case Circuit Breakers
A typical thermal-magnetic circuit breaker time-current characteristic is shown in

Thermal Magnetic Circuit Breaker Time-Current Characteristic, page 90. There are
two distinct parts of the characteristic curve: The thermal or long-time characteristic is
used for overload protection and the magnetic or instantaneous characteristic is used
for short-circuit protection. There is a band of operating times for a given fault current.
The lower boundary represents the lowest possible trip time, and the upper boundary
represents the highest possible trip time for a given current.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 89

Figure 61 - Thermal Magnetic Circuit Breaker Time-Current Characteristic
The time-current characteristic for an electronic-trip circuit breaker is shown in

Electronic-Trip Circuit Breaker Time-Current Characteristic, page 91. The
characteristic for an electronic trip circuit breaker consists of the long-time pickup,
long-time delay, short-time pickup, short-time delay, and instantaneous pickup
parameters, all of which are adjustable over a given range. This adjustability makes
the electronic-trip circuit breaker very flexible when coordinating with other devices.
The adjustable parameters for an electronic trip circuit breaker are features of the trip
unit. In many cases the trip unit is also available without the short-time function. In
catalog data the long-time characteristic is listed as L, the short-time is listed as S,
and the instantaneous as I. Therefore, an LSI trip unit has long-time, short-time, and
instantaneous characteristics, whereas an LI trip unit has only the long-time and
instantaneous characteristics. For circuit breakers that have a short-time rating, the
instantaneous feature may be disabled, enhancing coordination with downstream
devices.
90 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 62 - Electronic-Trip Circuit Breaker Time-Current Characteristic
If the instantaneous feature has been disabled, be cognizant of any instantaneous

override feature the breaker has, which engages the instantaneous function above a
given level of current even if it has been disabled to help protect the circuit breaker
from damage.
Another feature available on electronic-trip circuit breakers is ground-fault protection,
which is discussed in detail later in this section.
Typical coordination between an electronic and a thermal magnetic circuit breaker is
shown in Typical Molded-case Circuit Breaker Coordination, page 92. Because the
time bands do not overlap, these two devices are coordinated.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 91

Figure 63 - Typical Molded-case Circuit Breaker Coordination
A further reduction in the let-through energy for a fault in the region between two
electronic-trip circuit breakers can be accomplished through zone-selective
interlocking. This consists of wiring the two trip units such that if the downstream
circuit breaker senses the fault (typically this is based upon the short-time pickup) it
sends a restraining signal to the upstream circuit breaker. The upstream circuit
breaker continues to time out as specified on its characteristic curve, tripping if the
downstream device does not clear the fault. However, if the downstream device does
not sense the fault and the upstream devices does, the upstream device does not
have the restraining signal from the downstream device and trips with no intentional
delay. For example, if zone-selective interlocking were present in the system of
Typical Molded-case Circuit Breaker Coordination, page 92 and fault occurs on bus C
circuit breaker B senses the fault and send a restraining signal to circuit breaker A.
Circuit breaker A is coordinated with circuit breaker B, so circuit breaker B trips first. If
circuit breaker B does not clear the fault, circuit breaker A times out on its time-current
characteristic per Typical Molded-case Circuit Breaker Coordination, page 92 and
trips. If the fault occurs at bus B, circuit breaker B does not detect the fault and thus
does not send the restraining signal to circuit breaker A. Circuit breaker A senses the
fault and trips with no intentional delay, which is faster than dictated by its time-current
characteristic per Typical Molded-case Circuit Breaker Coordination, page 92. Care
must be used when applying zone-selective interlocking where there are multiple
sources of power and fault currents can flow in either direction through a circuit
breaker.
92 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Typical Characteristics of Molded-case Circuit Breakers for Commercial and Industrial

Applications, page 93 shows typical characteristics of molded-case circuit breakers
(see IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial
Power Systems31). This table is for reference only, when specifying circuit breakers
manufacturer’s use actual catalog data.
Table 9 - Typical Characteristics of Molded-case Circuit Breakers for Commercial and Industrial Applications
Frame Size (A) Number of Poles Interrupting Rating at AC Voltage (kA, RMS symmetrical)
120 V 240 V 277 V 480 V 600 V

100 1 10 14
1 65 65
100, 150 2,3 18 14 14
2,3 65 25 18
2,3 100 65 25
225, 250 2,3 25 22 22

2,3 65 25 22
2,3 100 65 25
400, 600 2,3 42 30 22

2,3 65 65 25
2,3 100 35
800, 1000 3 42 30 22
65 50 25
200 100 65
1200 3 42 30 22
3 65 50 25
3 200 100 65
1600, 2000 3 65 50 42
3 125 100 65
3000, 4000 3 100 100 85
3 200 150 100
The continuous current rating is set by the sensor and rating plug sizes for a given
electronic-trip circuit breaker. This can be smaller than the frame size. As can be seen
from Typical Characteristics of Molded-case Circuit Breakers for Commercial and
Industrial Applications, page 93, more than one interrupting rating can be available for
a given frame size.
Molded-case circuit breakers are tested for interrupting capabilities with test X/R ratios
as shown in AC Test Circuit Characteristics for Molded-case Circuit Breakers, page 93
(see Molded-Case Circuit Breakers, Molded Case Switches and Circuit-Breaker
Enclosures,32). As with fuses, when a circuit breaker is applied in a circuit with an X/R
ratio larger than its test X/R, then multiply the available RMS symmetrical fault current
by the multiplying factor per equation (7-10) for comparison with the circuit breaker
interrupting rating.
Table 10 - AC Test Circuit Characteristics for Molded-case Circuit Breakers
Interrupting Rating (RMS symmetrical) Test Circuit Power Factor (X/R)test
10,000 or less 0.45–0.50 1.732
10,001–20,000 0.25–0.30 3.180
Over 20,000 0.15–0.20 4.899
Molded-Case Circuit Breakers, Molded Case Switches and Circuit-Breaker Enclosures,32
Current-limiting circuit breakers are also available. Coordination between two current-
limiting circuit breakers when they are both operating in the current limiting range is
typically determined by test.

32. UL 489, Underwriter’s Laboratories Inc., October 24,2016.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 93

Low-voltage molded case circuit breakers are not maintainable devices. Loss of a
component generally requires replacement of the entire circuit breaker unless the
circuit breaker has been specifically designed for maintainability.
Magnetic-only circuit breakers which have only magnetic tripping capability are
available. These are often used as short-circuit protection for motor circuits
(discussed in more detail in Surge Protection, page 128). For this reason, these are
often referred to as motor circuit protectors.
Molded case switches are also available. These do not have a thermal element;
however, most have a magnetic element which opens the switch above a specified
current to shield the switch from damage due to lack of a short-time rating.
Molded-case circuit breakers are available with several different options, such as
stored-energy mechanisms, key interlocks, motor operators. Refer to specific
manufacturer’s literature for details.
Because the switching means is included with the device, molded-case circuit
breakers give inherent flexibility of operation. This allows circuits to be reclosed
without removing cover panels and exposing the operator to hazardous voltages.
Three-pole circuit breakers are used for three-phase circuits, alleviating the concern
for single-phasing. Circuit breakers are not one-time devices, eliminating the need to
store spares in the event of a fault. These characteristics make molded-case circuit
breakers very versatile protective devices.
Low Voltage Power Circuit Breakers

For larger systems, those devices closest to the source of power often require the
ability to coordinate with multiple levels of coordinating devices. In the case of circuit
breakers, this generally requires a short-time rating as described in Low Voltage
Molded-case Circuit Breakers, page 87. In addition, in this type of application,
maintainability is desired due to the cost of a single circuit breaker. Low-voltage power
circuit breakers fill these needs.
AC low-voltage power circuit breakers are designed and manufactured per ANSI/IEEE
Standard C37.13-2015 and UL 1066-2022 (depending on the circuit breaker, they
may have been designed to one of the superseded standards referenced). These are
generally electronic-trip circuit breakers, although in existing installations older
dashpot-operated units may be encountered. The tripping characteristics are
essentially identical to those for electronic-trip molded-case circuit breakers, per
Thermal Magnetic Circuit Breaker Time-Current Characteristic, page 90, except that
the instantaneous function may be disabled in all cases, unlike that of a molded-case
circuit breaker. Preferred Ratings for Low-voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers with
Instantaneous Direct-acting Phase Trip Elements a, page 95 and Preferred Ratings for
Low-voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Without Instantaneous Direct-acting Phase
Trip Elements a, page 96 give the preferred ratings for low-voltage AC power circuit
breakers (see IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial Power Systems33). In addition, fused-power circuit breakers are also
available with higher interrupting ratings, although many modern-design power circuit
breakers do not require fuses to obtain short-circuit ratings up to 200 kA RMS
symmetrical.
The short-time rating is an important characteristic of the low-voltage power circuit
breaker. The rated time duration of the short-time rating is one half second (two
periods of one half second current separated by a 15 second interval of zero current)
(see IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Used in
Enclosures34). Because of this short-time rating, low-voltage power circuit breakers
are also suitable for protective relaying applications, as described below. Therefore, if
a low-voltage power circuit breaker is not equipped with a direct-acting trip unit it
should not be subjected to more than one half second trip delay time at its short-time

34. ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.13-2015, December 05.
94 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

rating (see IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Used in
Enclosures35).
Figure 64 - Low-voltage Power Circuit Breaker
Table 11 - Preferred Ratings for Low-voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers with Instantaneous Direct-acting
Phase Trip Elements a
System Nominal Rated Maximum Insulation Three-phase Frame Size (A) Range of trip device
Voltage (V) Voltage (V) (dielectric) Short-circuit current ratings (A) c
Withstand (V) Current Rating
(V) (A) b
600 635 2,200 14,000 225 40–225
600 635 2,200 22,000 600 40–600
600 635 2,200 22,000 800 100–800
600 635 2,200 42,000 1,600 200–1,600
600 635 2,200 42,000 2,000 200–2,000
600 635 2,200 65,000 3,000 2,000–3000
600 635 2,200 65,000 3,200 2,000–3200
600 635 2,200 85,000 4,000 4,000
480 508 2,200 22,000 225 40–225
480 508 2,200 30,000 600 100–600
480 508 2,200 30,000 800 100–800
480 508 2,200 50,000 1,600 400–1,600
480 508 2,200 50,000 2,000 400–2,000
480 508 2,200 65,000 3,000 2,000–3,000
480 508 2,200 65,000 3,200 2,000–3,200
480 508 2,200 85,000 4,000 4,000
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 95

Table 11 - Preferred Ratings for Low-voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers with Instantaneous Direct-acting
Phase Trip Elements a (Continued)
240 254 2,200 25,000 225 40–225
240 254 2,200 42,000 600 150–600
240 254 2,200 42,000 800 150–800
240 254 2,200 65,000 1,600 600–1,600
240 254 2,200 65,000 2,000 600–2,000
240 254 2,200 85,000 3,000 2,000–3,000
240 254 2,200 85,000 3,200 2,000–3,200
240 254 2,200 130,000 4,000 4,000
a See IEEE Std C37.13-1990 and ANSI C37.16-2000.
b Ratings in this column are RMS symmetrical values for single-phase (two pole) circuit breakers and three-phase average RMS symmetrical
values of three-phase (three-pole) circuit breakers. When applied on systems where rated maximum voltage may appear across a single pole,
the short-circuit current ratings are 87% of these values. See 5.6 in IEEE Std C37.13-1990.
c The continuous-current-carrying capability of some circuit-breaker-trip-device combinations may be higher than the trip-device current rating.
See 10.1.3 in IEEE Std C37.13-1990.
IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power Systems36
Table 12 - Preferred Ratings for Low-voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Without Instantaneous Direct-acting
Phase Trip Elements a
Rated Maximum Voltage Frame Size (A) Range of Trip Device Current Ratings (A) b
(V)
Setting of Short-time Delay Trip Element
Minimum Time Band Intermediate Time Band Maximum Time Band

635 225 100–225 125–225 150–225
635 600 175–600 200–600 250–600
635 800 175–800 200–800 250–800
635 1,600 360–1,600 400–1,600 500–1,600
635 2,000 250–2,000 400–2,000 500–2,000
635 3,000 2,000–3,000 2,000–3,000 2,000–3,000
635 3,200 2,000–3,200 2,000–3,200 2,000–3,200
635 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000
508 225 100–225 125–225 150–225

508 600 175–600 200–600 250–600
508 800 175–800 200–800 250–800
508 1,600 350–1600 400–1,600 500–1,600
508 2,000 350–2,000 400–2,000 500–2,000
508 3,000 2,000–3,000 2,000–3,000 2,000–3,000
508 3,200 4,000 4,000 2,000–3,200
508 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000
254 225 100–225 125–225 150–225

254 600 175–600 200–600 250–600
254 800 175–800 200–800 250–800
254 1,600 350–1,600 400–1,600 500–1,600
96 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Table 12 - Preferred Ratings for Low-voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Without Instantaneous Direct-acting
Phase Trip Elements a (Continued)
254 2,000 350–2,000 400–2,000 500–2,000
254 3,000 2,000–3,000 2,000–3,000 2,000–3,000
254 3,200 2,000–3,200 2,000–3,200 2,000–3,200
254 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000

aSee IEEE Std C37.13-1990 and ANSI C37.16-2000
bThe continuous-current-carrying capability of some circuit-breaker-trip-device combinations may be higher than the trip-device current rating.
See 10.1.3 in IEEE Std C37.13-1990.
As with molded-case circuit breakers, low-voltage power circuit breakers are tested at
a given power factor. The test power factor is 15% for unfused circuit breakers and
20% for fused circuit breakers. Short Circuit Multiplying Factors for Low-voltage
Power Circuit Breakers, page 97 shows the multiplying factors for both fused and
unfused circuit breakers for various short-circuit power factors. The multiplying factors
for unfused circuit breakers are calculated similarly to those for molded-case circuit
breakers, but those for fused circuit breakers are based upon RMS rather than peak
current and differ slightly from the multiplying factors obtained from equation (7-10)
(see IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Used in
Enclosures38).
Table 13 - Short Circuit Multiplying Factors for Low-voltage Power Circuit Breakers
System Short-Circuit Power System X/R Ratio Multiplying Factor x RMS Multiplying Factor x RMS
Factor Symmetrical Short-Circuit Symmetrical Short-Circuit
Current, for Unfused Power Current, for Fused Power
Circuit Breakers Circuit Breakers
20 4.9 1.00 1.00
15 6.6 1.00 1.07
12 8.27 1.04 1.12
10 9.95 1.07 1.15
8.5 11.72 1.09 1.18
7 14.25 1.11 1.21
5 20.0 1.14 1.26
IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures38
Use of low-voltage power circuit breakers allows optimum flexibility in coordination,

since the instantaneous function may be disabled. Further, since these are designed
for heavy-duty use in an industrial environment they are most often configured as
drawout circuit breakers with stored-energy mechanisms in ANSI low-voltage metal
enclosed switchgear (described in IEEE 1584, page 157). This makes them ideal for
low-voltage automatic transfer applications. Their inherent operational flexibility
serves to make them the ideal device for circuit protection in industrial applications
where the ability to coordinate with downstream devices is a premium consideration.
Medium-voltage Fuses
The definition of fuse in Low Voltage Fuses, page 82 is equally applicable to medium-
voltage fuses. Recall from Basic Principles, page 33 that the medium-voltage level is
defined by ANSI C84 as containing standard system voltages from 2400 through

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 97

69,000 V, and that the high voltage level contains standard system voltages from 115
kV through 230 kV. The medium-voltage level, strictly, is defined by ANSI C84 as
greater than 1000 V and less than 100,000 V. Similarly, the high-voltage level is
defined as greater than 100,000 V through 230,000 V. Strictly speaking, high-voltage
fuse standards are used for both medium- and high-voltage fuses. However, the focus
of this section is on medium voltage fuses 1 kV through 38 kV.
The following standards apply to medium-voltage fuses (see IEEE Recommended
Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power Systems39):
• IEEE Std. C37.41-2016
• IEEE Std. C37.42-2016
• IEEE Std. C37.48-2020
Those definitions in Low Voltage Fuses, page 82 which do not specifically reference
low-voltage fuses are also valid for medium-voltage fuses. Generally, medium-voltage
fuses can be divided into two major categories : Current-limiting and expulsion.
Current-limiting fuses were defined in Low Voltage Fuses, page 82I, and the same
basic definition applies to medium-voltage fuses. Expulsion fuses are defined as
follows (see IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial Power Systems39):
Expulsion fuse: A vented fuse in which the expulsion effect of the gases produced by
internal arcing, either alone or aided by other mechanisms, results in current
interruption.
In addition, medium-voltage fuses are further classified as power fuses or distribution
fuses as follows (see IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial Power Systems39):
Power fuse: Defined by ANSI C37.42-1996 as having dielectric withstand (BIL)
strengths at power levels, applied primarily in stations and substations, with
mechanical construction basically adapted to station and substation mountings.
Distribution fuse: Defined by ANSI C37.42-1996 as having dielectric withstand (BIL)
strengths at distribution levels, applied primarily on distribution feeders and circuits,
and with operating voltage limits corresponding to distribution voltages. These are
further subdivided into distribution current limiting fuses and distribution fuse cutouts,
as described below.
Current-limiting fuses interrupt in less than one half cycle when subjected to currents
in their current-limiting range. This is an advantage as it limits the peak fault current to
a value less than the prospective fault current as described above for low-voltage
fuses. This provides current-limiting fuses with high interrupting ratings and allows
them to shield downstream devices with lower short-circuit ratings in some cases.
However, the same technologies that combine to give medium-voltage current-liming
fuses their current-limiting characteristics can also produce thermal issues when the
fuses are loaded at lower current levels. For this reason, the following definitions
apply to current-limiting fuses (see IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial Power Systems39).
Backup current-limiting fuse: A fuse capable of interrupting all currents from its
maximum rated interrupting current down to its rated minimum interrupting current.
General purpose current-limiting fuse: A fuse capable of interrupting all currents
from the rated interrupting current down to the current that causes melting of the
fusible element in no less than one hour.
Full-range current-limiting fuse: A fuse capable of interrupting all currents from its
rated interrupting current down to the minimum continuous current that causes
melting of the fusible elements.
Due to the limitations of backup and general-purpose current limiting fuses, current-
limiting power fuses have melting characteristics defined as E or R, defined as
follows:
98 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

E-Rating: The current-responsive element for ratings 100 A or below shall melt in 300
seconds at an RMS current within the range of 200% to 240% of the continuous-
current rating of the fuse unit, refill unit, or use link. The current-responsive element
for ratings above 100 A shall melt in 600 seconds at an RMS current within the range
of 220% to 264% of the continuous-current rating of the fuse unit, refill unit, or fuse
link.
R-Rating: The fuse shall melt in the range of 15 seconds to 35 seconds at a value of
current equal to 100 times the R number.
Similarly, distribution current-limiting fuses are defined by given characteristic ratings,
one of which is the C rating, defined as follows:
C-Rating: The current-responsive element shall melt at 100 seconds, at an RMS
current within the range of 170% to 240% of the continuous-current rating of the fuse
unit.
A typical time-current curve for an E-rated current-limiting power fuse is shown in
Figure 65. The fuse in Figure 65 is a 125E-rated fuse. The curve starts at
approximately 250 A for a minimum melting time of 1000 seconds. Take care with
backup and general-purpose current-limiting fuses so that the load current does not to
exceed the E- or R-rating of the fuse. Failure to do this can result in the development
of a hot-spot and subsequent loss of the fuse and its mounting. For fuses enclosed in
equipment, this can have disastrous consequences since loss of the fuse and/or its
mounting can lead to an arcing fault in the equipment. The boundary of the
characteristic, denoting the minimum-melting current, should be further derated to
consider pre-loading of the fuse (consult the fuse manufacturer for details). As with
low-voltage fuses, the current-limiting fuse characteristic does not extend below .01
seconds since the fuse is in its current-limiting range below this interrupting time.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 99

Figure 65 - Typical E-rated Current-limiting Power Fuse Time-current

Characteristic
A current-limiting power fuse consists of a fuse mounting (typically fuse clips) and the
fuse unit itself. These are frequently mounted in metal-enclosed switchgear. A
distribution current-limiting fuse may consist of a disconnecting-style holder or clips,
and the fuse unit. Distribution current-limiting fuses may also be provided with under-
oil mountings for use with distribution transformers. They are frequently used for
capacitor protection as well, with clips designed to mount to the capacitor.
100 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 66 - Current-limiting Power Fuses and Mountings
Current-limiting power fuses are typically used for short circuit protection of instrument
transformers, power transformers, and capacitor banks. Maximum Ratings for
Current-limiting Power Fuses 2.75 – 38 kV, page 101 gives maximum ratings for
medium-voltage current-limiting power fuses from 2.75 through 38 kV.
Table 14 - Maximum Ratings for Current-limiting Power Fuses 2.75 – 38 kV
Rated Maximum Voltage (kV) Continuous-current Ratings (A), Maximum Short-circuit Maximum Interrupting Ratings (kA
RMS symmetrical)
2.75 225, 450 a, 750 a, 1350 a 50.0, 50,0, 40.0, 40.0
2.75/4.76 450 a 50.0

5.5 225, 400, 750 a, 1350 a 50.0, 62.5, 40.0, 40.0
8.25 125,200a 50.0, 50.0
15.5 65, 100, 125 a,200a 85.0, 50.0, 85.0, 50.0
25.8 50, 100 a 35. 0, 35.0
38.0 50, 100 a 35. 0, 35.0

a Parallel Fuses
During interruption current-limiting fuses produce significant arc voltages. These must
be considered in selecting equipment. They are typically compared to the BIL level of
the equipment, including downstream equipment at the same voltage level. The
maximum permissible overvoltages for current-limiting power fuses are shown in
Maximum Permissible Overvoltages for Current-limiting Power Fuses, page 102 (see
IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power
Systems40).
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 101

Table 15 - Maximum Permissible Overvoltages for Current-limiting Power Fuses
Rated Maximum Voltage (kV, Maximum Peak Overvoltages (kV, Crest)

RMS)
0.5 A to 12 A Over 12 A
2.8 13 9
5.5 25 18
8.3 38 26
15.0 68 47
15.5 70 49
22.0 117 70
25.8 117 81
27.0 123 84
38.0 173 119
In practice, the arc voltages for current-limiting fuses generally indicate the use of the
smallest available fuse voltage class for the given system voltage, for example, 5.5 kV
fuses instead of 8.3 kV fuses for a 4160 V system.
After a fault interruption, in a three-phase set of current-limiting fuses all three fuses
are replaced, even if only one fuse interrupted the fault. This is due to the possibility of
damage to the other two fuses due to the fault, which could change their time-current
characteristics and make them unsuitable to carry load current without loss.
Because medium-voltage current-limiting fuses interrupt short circuits without the
expulsion of gas or flame, they are widely utilized in a variety of applications.
Power expulsion fuses generally consist of an insulating mounting and a fuse holder
which accepts the fuse refills. The fuse holder may be of the disconnecting or non-
disconnecting type. Only the refill is replaced when a fuse interrupts an overcurrent,
and if only one phase of a three-phase set interrupted the fault, only that fuse needs
replacement. Power expulsion fuses are typically used in substations and enclosed
equipment.
Distribution expulsion fuses are generally distribution fuse cutouts, which are adapted
to pole or cross arm mounting. They consist of the fuse holder and refill unit. The fuse
holder is usually of the disconnecting type. These are typically used as pole-mounted
fuses on utility distribution systems.
Expulsion fuses use the liberation of de-ionizing gasses to interrupt overcurrents.
Boric acid is typically used as the interrupting medium for power expulsion fuses and
bone fiber is typically used for distribution fuse cutouts. When an expulsion fuse
interrupts an overcurrent the interrupting medium liberates de-ionizing gas,
interrupting the overcurrent. The exhaust gasses are then emitted from the fuse,
accompanied by noise. The exhaust gasses for a boric acid fuse may be condensed
by an exhaust control device (commonly called an exhaust filter, silencer, or snuffler).
Unlike current-limiting fuses, expulsion-type fuses interrupt high overcurrents at
natural current zeros. They are therefore non-current-limiting, and as a result typically
have lower interrupting ratings than current-limiting fuses. Maximum Continuous
Current and Short Circuit Interrupting Ratings for Refill Type Boric-acid Expulsion-type
Power Fuses, page 103 shows the maximum continuous current and short-circuit
interrupting ratings for refill-type boric-acid expulsion-type power fuses (see IEEE
Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power
Systems41). Because expulsion-type fuses are non-current-limiting, they do not
produce the significant arc voltages that current-limiting fuses produce, and thus it is
permissible to use a fuse with a larger voltage class than the system, for example, a
14.4 kV-rated fuse on a 4160 V system. This makes expulsion-type fuses particularly
102 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

useful on systems which may be upgraded in the future to a higher voltage. However,
the lower interrupting ratings of expulsion-type fuses are often an issue versus.
current-limiting fuses as the largest expulsion-type fuse interrupting ratings require
larger physical dimensions which cannot always be easily accommodated in enclosed
equipment. Further, in some cases the expulsion-type fuses prohibit some space-
saving mounting configurations in enclosed equipment that are available with current-
limiting fuses.
Table 16 - Maximum Continuous Current and Short Circuit Interrupting Ratings for Refill Type Boric-acid
Expulsion-type Power Fuses
Rated Maximum Voltage (kV) Continuous-current Ratings (A), Maximum Short-circuit Maximum Interrupting
Ratings (kA, RMS Symmetrical)
2.8 200 ,400, 720 a 19.0, 37.5, 37.5
4.8 200, 400, 720 a 19.0, 37.5, 37.5
5.5 200, 400, 720 a 19.0, 37.5, 37.5
8.3 200,4 00, 720 a 16.6, 29.4, 29.4
14.4 200, 400, 720 a 14.4, 29.4, 29.4
15.5 200, 400, 720 a 14.4, 34.0, 29.4
17.0 200, 400, 720 a 14.4, 34.0, 25.0
25.8 200, 300, 540 a 10.5, 21.0, 21.0
27.0 200, 300 12.5, 20.0
38.0 200, 300, 540 a 8.45, 17.5, 16.8

a Parallel Fuses
E-ratings are used for power expulsion fuses. A typical time-current characteristic for
a 125E boric-acid fuse is given in Typical Boric Acid Power Expulsion Fuse Time-
current Characteristic, page 104.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 103

Figure 67 - Typical Boric Acid Power Expulsion Fuse Time-current

Characteristic
The characteristic extends to the available fault current (in this case, 29.4 kA), unlike
the current-limiting fuse. It is common practice to treat these as current-limiting fuses
so far as the E-rating is concerned, that is, the maximum load current is usually kept
below the E-rating. However, the boric-acid fuse is not subject to damage when
loaded above its E-rating, and they are often referred to in the industry as non-
damageable due to this fact.
When applying medium-voltage fuses, the voltage rating and the interrupting rating
are of importance. The maximum line-to-line voltage of the system should not exceed
the fuse voltage rating. The published interrupting rating for power fuses is typically for
a test X/R ratio of 15, and for distribution fuses the test X/R ratio is typically eight;
consult the fuse manufacturer for derating factors for X/R ratios above these values.
Also consult the manufacturer if the test X/R is in doubt.
Medium-voltage fuses provide economical short-circuit protection when applied within
their ratings, particularly for transformers, cables, and capacitors. For more
sophisticated protection at the medium-voltage level, employ other means.
104 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Medium-voltage Circuit Breakers

The medium-voltage circuit breaker is the device of choice when sophisticated system
protection at the medium-voltage level is required.
Most modern medium-voltage circuit breakers use a vacuum as the interrupting
means, although sulfur-hexafluoride (SF6), and other gas-insulated circuit breakers
exist. As with medium-voltage fuses, the same standards are used for both medium
and high-voltage circuit breakers. The applicable standards are ANSI/IEEE C37.04-
2018, IEEE C37.06-2018, and IEEE C37.09-2018. In addition, IEEE C37.010-2016
and IEEE C37.011-2019 give valuable application advise for these devices.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers are generally not equipped with integral trip units as
low-voltage circuit breakers are. Instead, protective relays must be used to sense
abnormal conditions and trip the circuit breaker accordingly.
Most modern medium-voltage circuit breakers are rated on a symmetrical current
basis. The following rating definitions apply (see IEEE Standard Rating Structure for
AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers43):
Rated Maximum Voltage: The highest RMS phase-to-phase voltage for which the
circuit breaker is designed.
Rated Power Frequency: The frequency at which the circuit breaker is designed to
operate.
Figure 68 - Medium-voltage Circuit Breaker, for Use In Metal-Clad Switchgear
Rated Dry Withstand Voltage: The RMS voltage that the circuit breaker in new
condition is capable of withstanding for one minute under specified conditions.
Rated Wet Withstand Voltage: The RMS voltage that an outdoor circuit breaker or
external components in new condition are capable of withstanding for ten seconds.
43. ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.04-1999, June 1999. Reaffirmed 6/12/2006.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 105

Rated Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage: The peak value of a standard 1.2 x 50
µs wave, as defined in IEEE Std 4-2013, that a circuit breaker in new condition is
capable of withstanding.
Rated Continuous Current: The current in RMS symmetrical amperes that the circuit
breaker is designed to carry continuously.
Rated Interrupting Time: The maximum permissible interval between the energizing
of the trip circuit at rated control voltage and the interruption of the current in the main
circuit in all poles.
Rated Short Circuit Current (Required Symmetrical Interrupting Capability): The
value of the symmetrical component of the short-circuit current in RMS amperes at the
instant of arcing contact separation that the circuit breaker shall be required to
interrupt at a specified operating voltage, on the standard operating duty cycle, and
with a DC component of less than 20% of the current value of the symmetrical
component.
Required Asymmetrical Interrupting Capability: The value of the total RMS short-
circuit current at the instant of arcing contact separation that the circuit breaker shall
be required to interrupt at a specified operating voltage and on the standard operating
duty cycle. This is based upon a standard time constant of 45 milliseconds (X/R ratio
=17 for 60 Hz and 14 for 50 Hz systems) and an assumed relay operating time of one-
half cycle.
Rated closing and latching capability: The circuit breaker shall be capable of
closing and latching any power frequency making current whose maximum peak is
equal to or less than 2.6 (for 60 Hz power frequency; 2.5 for 50 Hz power frequency)
times the rated short-circuit current.
Rated Short-Time Current: The maximum short-circuit current that the circuit
breaker can carry without tripping for a specified period of time.
Maximum Permissible Tripping Delay: The maximum delay time for protective
relaying to trip the circuit breaker during short-circuit conditions, based upon the rated
short-time current and short-time current-carrying time period.
Rated Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV): At its rated maximum voltage, a circuit
breaker is capable of interrupting three-phase grounded and ungrounded terminal
faults at the rated short-circuit current in any circuit in which the TRV does not exceed
the rated TRV envelope. For a circuit breaker rated below 100 kV, the rated TRV is
represented by a one-cosine wave, with a magnitude and time-to-peak dependent
upon the rated maximum voltage of the circuit breaker.
Rated Voltage Range Factor K: Defined in earlier versions of IEEE Standard Rating
Structure for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers44 as the factor by which the rated
maximum voltage may be divided to determine the minimum voltage for which the
interrupting rating varies linearly with the interrupting rating at the rated maximum
voltage by the following formula:
Ivop = Ivmax x (Vmax/Vop) (7–11)
Where:
• Ivmax is the rated short-circuit current at the maximum operating voltage.
• Vmax is the rated maximum operating voltage.
• Vop is the operating voltage where Vop V≥(Vmax/K()).
• Ivop is the short-circuit current interrupting capability where Ivop≤Ivmax.
For values of Vop below (Vmax ÷ K) the short-circuit interrupting capability was
considered to be equal to (Iv max x K). This model was more representative of older
technologies such as air-blast interruption. Because most modern circuit breakers
employ vacuum technology, the current version of IEEE Standard Rating Structure for
106 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers45assumes that K = 1, which gives the same short

circuit rating for all voltages below the rated voltage. However, in practice designs with
K > 1 still exist and are in common use.
Preferred Ratings for Indoor Circuit Breakers with k = 1.0, page 107 shows the
preferred ratings for circuit breakers from AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on
a Symmetrical Current Basis – Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities46
where K = 1. Preferred Ratings for Indoor Circuit Breakers with Voltage Range Factor
k > 1.0, page 108 shows the preferred ratings for circuit breakers where K > 1.
Table 17 - Preferred Ratings for Indoor Circuit Breakers with k = 1.0
Rated Rated Rated Rated Short- Rated TRV Rated Rated Rated
Maximum Voltage Contin-uous Circuit and Interrupting Max. Closing
Voltage, Range Current (A Short-Time Rated Peak Rated Time Time (ms) Permissi- and
(kV) Factor K RMS) Current (kA Voltage E2, to Peak T2, ble Latching
RMS) (kV peak) (µs) Tripping Current,
Time (kA Peak)
Delay Y (s)
4.76 1.0 1200,2000 31.5 8.9 50 83 2 82
4.76 1.0 1200, 2000 40 8.9 50 83 2 104
4.76 1.0 1200, 2000, 50 8.9 50 83 2 130

3000
8.25 1.0 1200, 2000, 40 15.5 60 83 2 104
3000
15 1.0 1200, 2000 20 28 75 83 2 52
15 1.0 1200, 2000 25 28 75 83 2 65
15 1.0 1200, 2000 31.5 28 75 83 2 82
15 1.0 1200, 2000, 40 28 75 83 2 104

3000
15 1.0 1200, 2000, 50 28 75 83 2 130
3000
15 1.0 1200, 2000, 63 28 75 83 2 164
3000
27 1.0 1200 16 51 105 83 2 42
27 1.0 1200, 2000 25 51 105 83 2 65
38 1.0 1200 16 71 125 83 2 42

38 1.0 1200, 2000 25 71 125 83 2 65
38 1.0 1200, 2000, 31.5 71 125 83 2 82

3000
38 1.0 1200, 2000, 40 71 125 83 2 104
3000
AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis – Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities46
Although 83 milliseconds or five cycles is the “preferred” value per IEEE Standard
Rating Structure for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers47for the rated interrupting time,
three-cycle designs are common.
Other related preferred ratings, such as dielectric ratings and capacitance switching
ratings, are also given in AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical
Current Basis – Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities46.

46. ANSI Standard C37.06-2000, May 2000.
47. ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.04-1999, June 1999. Reaff 6/12/2006.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 107

Table 18 - Preferred Ratings for Indoor Circuit Breakers with Voltage Range Factor k > 1.0
Rated Rated Voltage Rated Rated Short- Rated Rated Maximum Closing and
Maximum Range Factor K Continuous Circuit Current Interrupting Maximum Symmetri- Latching
Voltage, kV Current at 60 at Rated Time, Cycles Voltage cal Capability
Hz (A RMS) Maximum kV Divided by K, Interrupting 2.7 K Times
(kA RMS) kV RMS Capability Rated
and Rated Short-
Short-Time Circuit
Current (kA, Current (kA
RMS) Crest)
4.76 1.36 1200 8.8 5 3.5 12 32

4.76 1.24 1200, 2000 29 5 3.85 36 97
4.76 1.19 1200, 2000, 41 5 4.0 49 132

3000
8.25 1.25 1200, 2000 33 5 6.6 41 111
15.0 1.30 1200, 2000 18 5 11.5 23 62
15.0 1.30 1200, 2000 28 5 11.5 36 97
15.0 1.30 1200, 2000, 37 5 11.5 48 130

3000
38.0 1.65 1200, 2000, 21 5 23.0 35 95
3000
38.0 1.0 1200, 3000 40 5 38.0 40 108
AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis – Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities48
To apply medium-voltage circuit breakers, it is important to understand how the

system X/R ratio affects the circuit breaker interrupting rating. As stated above, for 60
Hz systems the asymmetrical interrupting capability is based upon an X/R ratio of 17.
Thus, for systems where the X/R ratio is 17 or lower, the circuit breaker has adequate
asymmetrical interrupting capability so long as 100% of the symmetrical short-circuit
current rating is equal to or above the available RMS symmetrical fault current. For X/
R ratios above 17, the available RMS symmetrical fault current must be compared to
the short-circuit current rating of the circuit breaker multiplied by a multiplying factor
determined from IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated
on a Symmetrical Current Basis49. Because the multiplying factors from IEEE
Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical
Current Basis49do not usually exceed 1.25, the fault current may be compared to 80%
of the circuit breaker interrupting rating regardless of X/R ratio in most cases. The
close and latch rating is evaluated using equation (7-9) to obtain the asymmetrical
fault current at the circuit breaker. Reference IEEE Application Guide for AC High-
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis49contains a full
method for determining the suitability of a circuit breaker for duty on a given system,
and along with the requirements for low-voltage short-circuit calculations from IEEE
Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures50forms the
basis for what the industry terms as ANSI short-circuit analysis. Capacitance
switching and generator applications are also areas of concern when applying
medium-voltage circuit breakers. Preferred capacitance switching values are given in
AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis – Preferred
Ratings and Related Required Capabilities48and must not be exceeded. Generator
applications, for generators rated above 3 MVA, must be approached with carefully
due to the high X/R ratios encountered. Often, breakers with longer interrupting times
are desirable in large generator applications to allow the fault current to decay to the
point that there is a natural current zero for interruption.
As stated above, medium-voltage circuit breakers are typically provided without
integral trip units. For this reason, custom protection must be provided via protective
relays, discussed in the next section. Circuit breakers are equipped with tripping and
48. ANSI Standard C37.06-2000, May 2000.

49. IEEE Std C37.010-2016, April 2017.
108 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

closing coils to allow tripping and closing operations via protective relays, manual
control switches, PLC’s, SCADA systems. The circuit breaker internal control circuitry
is arranged per IEEE C37.11-1997. Circuit breakers are also equipped with a number
of auxiliary contacts to allow interlocking and external indication of circuit breaker
position.
For medium-voltage protection applications, circuit breakers offer flexibility that cannot
be obtained with fuses. Further, they do not require a separate switching device as
fuses do. These benefits are gained at a price: Circuit breaker applications are more
expensive than fuse applications, both due to the inherent cost of the circuit breakers
themselves and due to the protective relays required. For many applications,
however, circuit breakers are the only choice that offers the flexibility required. Large
medium-voltage services and distribution systems and most applications involving
medium-voltage generation employ circuit breakers.
Protective Relays
For medium-voltage circuit breaker applications, protective relays serve as the
“brains” that detect abnormal system conditions and direct the circuit breakers to
operate. They also serve to provide specialized protection in low-voltage power circuit
breaker applications for functions not available in the circuit breaker trip units.
Most modern protective relays are solid-state electronic or microprocessor-based
devices, although older electromechanical devices are still available. Solid-state
electronic or microprocessor-based relays offer more flexibility and functionality than
electromechanical relays, including the ability to interface with common
communications protocols such as MODBUS for integration into a SCADA
environment. However, they do require “reliable” control power to maintain operation
during abnormal system conditions. This control power is most often provided by a DC
battery system, although AC UPS-based systems are also encountered.
Electromechanical relays are typically single-phase devices. Solid-state electronic
relays are typically available in single-phase or three-phase versions. Microprocessor-
based relays are typically three-phase devices. While electromechanical and solid-
state electronic relays typically incorporate one relay function per device,
microprocessor-based relays usually encompass many functions in one device,
making a single microprocessor-based relay capable of performing the same
functions that would require several electromechanical or solid-state relays. This
functionality usually makes microprocessor-based relays a good choice for new
installations.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 109

Figure 69 - Microprocessor-based Protective Relay
Protective relays are not rated for direct connection to the power system where they
are applied. For this reason, instrument transformers are used to reduce the currents
and voltages to the levels for which the relays are designed. Instrument transformers
generally fall into one of two broad categories: Current Transformers (CT’s) and
Voltage Transformers (VT’s). The loads on instrument transformers, such as relays
and meters, are known as burdens to distinguish them from power system loads.
A current transformer consists of a coil toroidally-wound around a ferromagnetic core.
The conductor for which the current is to be measured is passed through the center of
the toroid. The magnetic field generated by the current through the conductor causes
current to flow in the coil. In essence, a CT may be thought of as a conventional
transformer with one primary turn.
CT’s in the United States typically have 5 A-rated secondaries, with primary ratings
from 10 – 40,000 A and larger. For relaying applications in industrial facilities, CT
ratios are typically 50:5 – 4000:5. IEEE Std. C57.13-2016 designates certain ratios as
standard, as well as a classification system for relaying performance. The
classification system consists of a letter and a number. The letter may be C,
designating that the percent ratio correction may be calculated, or T, denoting that the
ratio correction has been determined by test. The number denotes the voltage that the
CT can deliver to a “standard burden” (as described in IEEE Std. C37.13-2016) at 20
times the rated secondary current without exceeding 10% ratio error. As a more
accurate alternative, manufacturer-published CT excitation curves may be used to
determine the accuracy. For a relaying application, the issue at hand is the
performance of the relay during worst-case short-circuit conditions, when the CT
secondary currents are the largest and may cause the secondary voltage to exceed
the CT’s rating due to the voltage developed across the relay input coil. This condition
causes the CT to saturate, significantly changing the ratio and thus the accuracy of
the measurement. For cases of severe CT saturation the relay may respond in an
unpredictable manner, such as not operating or producing “chatter” of its output
contacts.
110 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

CT's where the power conductor passes through the window formed by the toroidal
CT winding are known as window-type CT’s. CT’s designed with an integral bus bar
running through device are known as bus-bar type CT’s. Other designs, such as
wound primary CT’s for metering applications and non-saturating air-core CT’s, are
available. Additional information on CT application can be found in IEEE
Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power
Systems51.
Figure 70 - Current Transformer
Quasi-Physical Circuit
Arrangement Representation
Voltage transformers (VT’s) are used to step the power system voltage down to a level
that the relay can utilize. The operation of voltage transformers is essentially the same
as for conventional power transformers except that the design has been optimized for
accuracy. Like current transformers, voltage transformers are assigned accuracy
classes by IEEE Std. C57.13-2016. VT accuracy classes are designated W, X,M Y, Z,
and ZZ in order of increasing burden requirements. Refer to IEEE Recommended
Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial Power Systems51for more
information regarding the application of voltage transformers.
Protective relays are classified by function. To make circuit representations easier,
each function has been defined and assigned a number by IEEE Std. C37.2-2022.
The IEEE standard function numbers are given in Commonly Used Protective Relay
Device Function Numbers, page 112. Commonly Used Suffix Letters Applied to Relay
Function Numbers, page 112 gives the commonly-used suffix letters to further
designate protective functions IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
These designations can be combined in various ways. For example, 87T denotes a
transformer differential relay, 51N denotes a residual ground time-overcurrent relay,
87B denotes a bus differential relay.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 111

Table 19 - Commonly Used Protective Relay Device Function Numbers
Relay Device Function

Protection Function
Number
21 Distance
25 Synchronizing
27 Undervoltage
32 Directional Power
40 Loss of Excitation (field)
46 Phase unbalance (current unbalance, negative sequence current)
47 Phase-sequence Voltage (reverse phase voltage)
49 Thermal (generally thermal overload)
50 Instantaneous Overcurrent
51 Time-overcurrent
59 Overvoltage
60 Voltage unbalance (between two circuits)
67 Directional Overcurrent
81 Frequency (over and underfrequency)
86 Lockout
87 Differential
Table 20 - Commonly Used Suffix Letters Applied to Relay Function Numbers
Suffix Letter Relay Application
A Alarm only
B Bus protection
G Ground fault protection [relay current transformer (CT) in a system neutral circuit]
or generator protection]
GS Ground-fault protection (relay CT is toroidal or ground sensor)
L Line Protection
M Motor Protection
N Ground fault protection (relay coil connected in residual CT circuit)
T Transformer protection
V Voltage
Several commonly-used protective functions are described below. Where a protective

function is described it may be a dedicated relay (electromechanical, solid-state
electronic, or microprocessor-based) or a single protective function contained within a
microprocessor-based relay. In some manufacturer’s literature the individual functions
are referred to as elements.
Overcurrent Relays (Devices 50, 51)
Overcurrent relays are the most commonly-used protective relay type. Time-
overcurrent relays are available with various timing characteristics to coordinate with
other protective devices and to shield specific equipment. Instantaneous overcurrent
112 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

relays have no inherent time delay and are used for fast short-circuit protection. 50
and 51 Overcurrent Relay Characteristics, page 113 shows the timing characteristics
of several typical 51 time-overcurrent relay curve types, along with the 50
instantaneous characteristic.
Figure 71 - 50 and 51 Overcurrent Relay Characteristics
The pickup level is set by the tap setting, which may be primary, secondary, or per unit
current values. Each relay curve has a time dial/delay setting that allows the curve to
be shifted up or down on the time-current characteristic curve. In 50 and 51
Overcurrent Relay Characteristics, page 113, the time dial settings are different to
give enough space between the curves to show their differences.
The above are IEEE-standard curves; others are available, depending upon the relay
make and model. A solid-state electronic or microprocessor-based relay has all of
these curves available on one unit; electromechanical relays must be ordered with a
given characteristic that cannot be changed.
The 50 instantaneous function is only provided with a pickup setting. The 30
milliseconds delay shown in 50 and 51 Overcurrent Relay Characteristics, page 113
for the 50 function is typical and considers both the relay logic operation and the
output contact closing time. Most microprocessor-based units also have an adjustable
delay for the 50 function; when an intentional time delay is added the 50 is referred to
as a definite-time overcurrent function. On solid-state electronic and microprocessor-
based relays, the 50 function may be enabled or disabled. On electromechanical
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 113

relays, the 50 function can be added as an instantaneous attachment to a 51 time-

overcurrent relay. If a relay has both 50 and 51 functions present and enabled is
referred to as a 50/51 relay.
Typically, overcurrent relays are employed as one per phase. In solidly-grounded
medium-voltage systems, the most common choice for ground fault protection is to
add a fourth relay in the residual connection of the CT’s to monitor the sum of all three
phase currents. This relay is referred to as a residual ground overcurrent or 51N (or
50/51N) relay.
The CT arrangement for 50/51 and 50/51N relays for a solidly-grounded system is
shown in Overcurrent Relay Arrangement with CT’s, Including 50/51N, page 114.
Figure 72 - Overcurrent Relay Arrangement with CT’s, Including 50/51N
Source
Load
For a low-resistance-grounded system, the use of an overcurrent relay connected to a

CT in the service transformer or generator neutral is usually the preferred option. This
CT should have a ratio smaller than the phase CT’s, and the relay pickup range in
conjunction with the neutral CT should allow a pickup as low as 10% of the neutral
resistor rating. For a feeder circuit downstream from the service transformer, a zero-
sequence CT is recommended, again with a ratio small enough to allow a pickup as
low as 10% of the neutral resistor rating. When an overcurrent relay is utilized with a
zero-sequence CT it is referred to as a 50G, 51G or 50/51G relay depending upon
relay type used. Transformer Neutral and Zero-Sequence Ground Relaying
Applications for Resistance-grounded Systems, page 115 shows typical
arrangements for both these applications.
114 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 73 - Transformer Neutral and Zero-Sequence Ground Relaying

Applications for Resistance-grounded Systems
Transformer-Neutral
For ungrounded systems, little ground current flows during a single phase-to-ground
fault. Low-voltage solidly-grounded systems are discussed below.
The typical application of phase and residual neutral ground overcurrent relays in one-
line diagram form is shown in Typical Application of Overcurrent Relays, page 115.
Figure 74 - Typical Application of Overcurrent Relays
In Typical Application of Overcurrent Relays, page 115, the designation 52 is the IEEE
Std. C37.2-2022 designation for a circuit breaker. The phase relays are designated 51
and the residual ground overcurrent relay is designated 51N (both without
instantaneous function). IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 115

Coordination of Industrial Power Systems53 denotes that there are three phase
overcurrent relays and three CTs. The dotted line from the relays to the circuit breaker
denotes that the relays are wired to trip the circuit breaker on an overcurrent condition.
Another type of overcurrent relay is the voltage-restrained overcurrent relay 51V and
the voltage-controlled relay 51C. Both are used in generator applications to allow the
relay to be set below the generator full-load current due to the fact that the fault
contribution from a generator decays to a value less than the full-load current of the
generator. The 51C relay does not operate on overcurrent unless the voltage is below
a preset value. The 51V relay pickup current shifts as the voltage changes, allowing it
to only respond to overcurrents at reduced voltage. Both require voltage inputs, and
thus require voltage transformers for operation.
Directional Overcurrent Relays (Devices 67, 67N)
When fault currents can flow in more than one direction with respect to the load
current it is often desirable to determine which direction the fault current is flowing and
trip the appropriate devices accordingly. This is usually due to the need to de-energize
only those parts of the power system that must be de-energized to contain a given
fault.
Standard overcurrent relays cannot distinguish the direction of the current flow.
Directional relays (67, 67N) are required to perform this function.
An important concept in the application of directional overcurrent relays is
polarization. Polarization is the method used by the relay to determine the direction of
current flow. For phase directional overcurrent relays, this is accomplished by the use
of voltage transformers, which provide a voltage signal to the relay and allow it to
distinguish the current direction. The details of polarization methods are not discussed
here, but can be found in IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial Power Systems53. Because the voltage on a faulted phase
can be unreliable, each phase is restrained via the voltage from a different phase.
Care must be used when defining CT polarities as each manufacturer typically defines
a preferred polarity to match their standard connection diagrams.
Polarization for a 67N relay is more difficult. They must be polarized with zero-
sequence current or zero-sequence voltage. Electromechanical 67N relays must be
polarized via either a CT in the source transformer neutral (zero-sequence current
polarization) or three VT’s connected with a wye-connected primaries and broken-
delta connected secondaries (refer to A Ground Detection Method for Ungrounded
Systems, page 59 for an example of the wye-broken delta connection with
ferroresonance-swamping resistor). Solid-state 67N relays usually must be polarized
the same way but do sometimes offer a choice of either method. Microprocessor-
based relays typically offer a choice of either method and, in some cases, can self-
polarize by calculating the zero-sequence voltage from the measured three-phase line
voltage.
As an example of the effectiveness of directional overcurrent relays, consider the
primary-selective system arrangement from Radial System, page 37. The primary
main and tie circuit breakers and an example of protective relaying for those circuit
breakers are shown in Example Protective Relaying Arrangement for Closed-
Transition Primary-selective System, page 117.
116 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 75 - Example Protective Relaying Arrangement for Closed-Transition Primary-selective System
Utility Utility
Fault
Feed Feed Current
#1 #2 Flow
VT (3) VT (3)
Fault Fault
Current Fault
Flow Current
Flow
Aux Aux
(3) VT. VT. (3)
(3) (3)
CT 51 51 CT
600:5 600:5 Fault
(3) (3) Current
51N 51N Flow
52-M1 52-M2
67, 67N Fault 67, 67N

Trip Current Trip
Direction Flow Direction
CT 67N 67N CT
600:5 600:5
(3) 52-T (3)
67 N.C. 67
(3) (3)
(3)
51
51N
In Example Protective Relaying Arrangement for Closed-Transition Primary-selective

System, page 117 the bus tie circuit breaker is normally-closed, paralleling the two
utility feeds. Each main circuit breaker and the bus tie circuit breaker are protected via
51 and 51N relays. The mains also have 67 and 67N relays. The 67 relays are
polarized via the line voltage transformers, and auxiliary voltage transformers
connected in wye-broken delta are supplied for polarization of the 67N relays. The
polarization results in the indicated tripping directions for these relays. The need for
the 67 and 67N relays is demonstrated by considering a fault on one of the utility
feeds. Should utility feed #2, for example, experience a fault, the fault current is
supplied both from the upstream system feeding utility feed #2 and from utility feed #1
through circuit breakers 52-M1, 52-T, and 52-M2. Because the 51 and 51N relays for
52-M1 and 52-M2 are likely set identically, they both respond to the fault at the same
time, tripping 52-M1 and 52-M2 and de-energizing the entire downstream system. To
avoid this, the 67 and 67N relays are set to coordinate with the 51 and 51N relays,
respectively, so that the 67 and 67N relays trip first. For a fault on utility feed #2, the
67 and 67N relays for 52-M1 does not trip due to the fact that the current is flowing in
the direction opposite to the tripping direction. However, the 67 and 67N relays on 52-
M2 senses current in the tripping direction and trip 52-M2. The downstream system is
still energized by 52-M1 and 52-T after 52-M2 trips.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 117

Directional Power Relays (Device 32)

Directional power relays function when the measured real power flow in the tripping
direction is exceeded. They are used when the power flow in a given direction is
undesirable or harmful to system components.
One common use of 32 relays is at the utility service when onsite generators are
paralleled with the utility. Under normal conditions, the incoming power from the utility
is measured and generator power output is controlled so that power is not exported to
the utility. Should the generator controls malfunction, the generator may begin to
source power to the utility. The 32 relay then trips the service breaker offline, isolating
the system from the utility. Of course, this would not apply if surplus power is to be
intentionally sold to the utility in a co-generation arrangement.
Another use of the 32 relay is for the anti-motoring of generators, should prime-mover
power be lost.
32 relays are most often supplied as single-phase devices, or as a single-phase
function in the case of microprocessor-based relays. They require both current and
voltage sensing to function.
In most applications, 32 relays should be time-delayed allowing the system to ride
through momentary power surges.
Undervoltage Relays (Device 27)
Undervoltage relays operate when the system voltage falls below a pre-determined
level. They are used in multiple applications. The most common application is a bus
undervoltage relay, which alarms or trips a bus offline if the system voltage becomes
unacceptably low. In this application, the relay should be time-delayed to ride through
momentary dips in voltage, for example for a fault downstream from the relay.
27 relays are commonly used as the signal to an automatic bus transfer system to
initiate the transfer from a failed source to an active source. In this application, also,
they should be delayed to ride through momentary dips in voltage.
27 relays may also be used as permissive devices, for example to disallow closure of
a circuit breaker if the system voltage is not above a pre-defined level. In this
application the relay is typically configured to have instantaneous pickup, with time-
delayed drop-out so that that the system voltage has been above the preset level for a
specified period of time before circuit breaker closure is allowed.
Phase-Sequence Voltage Relays (Device 47)
47 relays generally detect the negative-sequence component of the system voltage,
and are thus inherently three-phase devices. They may be set in terms of voltage
balance or in terms of negative sequence voltage. They are used in a variety of
applications, usually in conjunction with 27 and/or 59 relays.
For protection of motors, 47 relays are useful since a loss of one phase may not be
detected for a running motor. This is due to the fact that a lightly-loaded motor (or
group of lightly-loaded motors) may keep the voltage on the lost phase high enough to
avoid pickup by a 27 relay on that phase. This fact usually justifies the use of the 47
relay whenever 27 relays are used for bus or motor protection.
47 relays may also be used for permissive functions in conjunction with a 27 relay, as
described above. In this role the 47 relay helps so that a circuit breaker does not close
if the system phase rotation is reversed, such as by the swapping of phase cables.
As with the 27 relay, the 47 relay should have a time delay to allow the system to ride
through transient conditions. When a 27 and 47 relay are combined into the same
electromechanical or solid-state electronic device, the device is referred to as a 27/47
relay.
E . Overvoltage Relays (Device 59)
59 relays respond to voltages above a pre-determined level. They are most often
used in conjunction with 27 relays in generator applications to shield voltage-sensitive
devices from overvoltage. They may also be used as permissive devices, usually in
118 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

conjunction with 27 relays. Either application gives a voltage “window” within which
the system is allowed to operate. In this application 59 relays should be time-delayed
just as 27 relays are.
59 relays may also be used for ground-fault detection on high-resistance grounded or
ungrounded systems. Application for a high-resistance grounded system is shown in
Pulsing Ground Detection System, page 62. For an ungrounded system the 59 relay
may be used across the broken-delta secondary of a ground-detection VT circuit, such
as the circuit shown in A Ground Detection Method for Ungrounded Systems, page
59.
When an electromechanical or solid-state electronic relay includes both 27 and 59
functions it is referred to as a 27/59 relay. When an electromechanical or solid-state
electronic relay includes 27, 47, and 59 functions it is referred to as a 27/47/59 relay.
F. Lockout Relays (Device 86)
The lockout relay is used to trip a device and prevent its reclosure until the lockout
relay is reset. In most cases the lockout relay is essentially a switch, and in fact is
typically mounted in close proximity to circuit breaker control switches. The relay is
spring-loaded, and a trip coil, when energized, causes the lockout relay to trip the
connected devices and prevent them from reclosing. There is typically a conspicuous
target on the lockout relay to alert operating personnel that it has tripped. When the
lockout relay is reset, the opening springs are compressed and the relay is ready for
the next tripping operation.
86 relays are commonly used where one protective relay must trip several protective
devices, and where reclosure of the tripped devices needs to be controlled to avoid
closing onto a fault.
G. Differential Relays (Device 87)
Differential relays operate on the principle that if the current flowing into a device does
not equal the current flowing out, a fault must exist within the device.
Differential relays generally fall within one of two broad categories: Current-differential
or high-impedance differential.
Current-differential relays are typically used to shield large transformers, generators,
and motors. For these devices detection of low-level winding-to-ground faults is
essential to avoid equipment damage. Current differential relays typically are
equipped with restraint windings to which the CT inputs are to be connected. For
electromechanical 87 current differential relays, the current through the restraint
windings for each phase is summed and the sum is directed through an operating
winding. The current through the operating winding must be above a certain
percentage (typically 15%-50%) of the current through the restraint windings for the
relay to operate. For solid-state electronic or microprocessor-based 87 relays the
operating windings exist in logic only rather than as physical windings.
A typical application of current-differential relays for protection of a transformer is
shown in Typical Application of Current-differential Relays for Delta-wye Transformer
Protection, page 120. In Typical Application of Current-differential Relays for Delta-
wye Transformer Protection, page 120, the restraint windings are labeled as “R” and
the operating windings are labeled as “O”. Because the delta-wye transformer
connection produces a phase shift, the secondary CT’s are connected in delta to
counteract this phase shift for the connections to the relays. Under normal conditions
the operating windings carry no current. For a large external fault on the load side of
the transformer, differences in CT performance in the primary vs. the secondary (it is
impossible to match the primary and secondary CT’s due to different current levels)
are taken into account by the proper percentage differential setting. Because the CT
ratios in the primary versus secondary is not always able to match the current
magnitudes in the relay operating windings during normal conditions, the relays are
equipped with taps to internally adjust the current levels for comparison. The specific
connections in this example apply to a delta primary/wye secondary transformer or
transformer bank only. The connections for other winding arrangement vary, to
properly cancel the phase shift. For many solid-state electronic and microprocessor-
based relays, the phase shift is made internally in the relay and the CT’s may be
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 119

connected the same on the primary and secondary sides of the transformer
regardless of the transformer winding connections. The manufacturer’s literature for a
given relay make and model must be consulted when planning the CT connections.
Figure 76 - Typical Application of Current-differential Relays for Delta-wye Transformer Protection
Source
Source
Relay Current Inputs
A B C
A-Phase
R R
B-Phase
R R
C-Phase
R R
A B C
Load
Load
Percentage-differential characteristics are available as fixed-percentage or variable

percentage. The difference is that a fixed-percentage relay exhibits a constant
percentage restraint, and for a variable-percentage relay the percentage restraint
increases as the restraint current increases. For an electromechanical relay, the
percentage characteristic must be specified for each relay; for solid-state electronic or
microprocessor-based relays these characteristics are adjustable. For transformers
relays with an additional harmonic restraint are available. Harmonic restraint restrains
the relay when certain harmonics, normally the 2nd and 5th, are present. These
harmonics are characteristic of transformer inrush and without harmonic restraint the
transformer inrush may cause the relay to operate.
An important concept in the application of differential relays is that the relay typically
trips fault interrupting devices on both sides of the transformer. This is due to the fact
that motors and generators on the secondary side of the protected device contributes
to the fault current produced due to an internal fault in the device. An example one-
line diagram representation of the transformer differential protection from Typical
Application of Current-differential Relays for Delta-wye Transformer Protection, page
120 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

120 is given in Transformer Differential Relay Application from Figure 76 in One-line

Diagram Format, page 121.
Figure 77 - Transformer Differential Relay Application from Figure 76 in One-line

Diagram Format
The secondary protective device is shown as a low-voltage power circuit breaker. It is

important that the protective devices on both sides of the transformer be capable of
fault-interrupting duty and suitable for relay tripping.
In High-impedance Differential Relay Concept, page 122 a lockout relay is used to trip
both the primary and secondary overcurrent devices. The lockout relay is designated
86T since it is used for transformer tripping, and the differential relay is denoted 87T
since it is protecting the transformer. The wye and delta CT connections are also
noted.
An important concept in protective relaying is the zone of protection; a zone of
protection is the area that a given protective relay and/or overcurrent device(s) are to
protect. While the zone of protection concept applies to any type of protection (note
the term zone selective interlocking as described earlier in this section), it is especially
important in the application of differential relays because the zone of protection is
strictly defined by the CT locations. In High-impedance Differential Relay Concept,
page 122 the zone of protection for the 87T relay is shown by the dashed-line box
around the transformer. For faults within the zone of protection, the currents in the
CT’s do not sum to zero at the relay operating windings and the relays operate.
Outside the zone of protection the operating winding currents should sum to zero (or
be low enough that the percentage restraint is not exceeded), and therefore the relays
do not operate.
The other major category of differential relays, high-impedance differential relays, use
a different principle for operation. A high-impedance differential relay has a high-
impedance operating element, across which the voltage is measured. CT’s are
connected such that during normal load or external fault conditions the current
through the impedance is essentially zero. But, for a fault inside the differential zone of
protection, the current through the high-impedance input is non-zero and causes a
rapid rise in the voltage across the input, resulting in relay operation. A simplified
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 121

schematic of a high-impedance differential relay is shown in High-impedance

Differential Relaying Applied to a Primary-selective System, page 123 to illustrate the
concept. The relay only has one set of input terminals, without restraint windings. This
means that any number of CT’s may be connected to the relay as needed to extend
zone of protection, so long as the CT currents sum to zero during normal conditions.
That a voltage-limiting MOV connected across the high-impedance input is shown.
This is to keep the voltage across the input during a fault from damaging the input.
Figure 78 - High-impedance Differential Relay Concept
High-impedance differential relays are typically used for bus protection. Bus protection
is an application that demands many sets of CT’s be connected to the relays. It is also
an application that demands that that relay be able to operate with unequal CT
performance, since external fault magnitudes can be quite large. The high-impedance
differential relay meets both requirements.
High-impedance Differential Relay Concept, page 122 shows the application of bus
differential relays to a primary-selective system. In High-impedance Differential Relay
Concept, page 122 the zones of protection for Bus #1 and Bus #2 overlap. Here the
86 relay is extremely useful due to the large number of circuit breakers to be tripped.
All circuit breakers attached to the protected busses are equipped with differential
CT’s and are tripped by that busses’ respective 86 relay. The 87 relays are denoted
87B since they are protecting busses. The same applies for the 86B relays. The
protective zones overlap; this is typical practice so that that all parts of the bus work
are protected.
The high-impedance differential relay is typically set in terms of voltage across the
input. The voltage setting is typically set so that if one CT is fully saturated and the
others are not the relay do not operate. By its nature, the high-impedance differential
relay is less sensitive than the current-differential relay, but since it is typically applied
to shield bussing, where fault magnitudes are typically high, the additional sensitivity
is not required.
122 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 79 - High-impedance Differential Relaying Applied to a Primary-selective

System
Other Protective Relays Types

Only a small selection of the most used protective relay types are given here. For
more in-depth descriptions of their application, and for descriptions of other protective
relay types, see reference IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Ground Fault Protection for Solidly-grounded Systems 600 V and

Below
Because the ground fault is the most common type of system fault, and because low-
voltage systems are necessarily the largest portion of most industrial and commercial
facilities, low-voltage ground-fault protection has become a specialized area of
development for system protection. Unlike the relayed ground-fault protection
systems shown in Protective Relays, page 109, these systems are specially designed
to provide sensitive protection for four-wire systems with imbalanced loads.
The The National Electrical Code55 requires ground-fault protection for most solidly-
grounded electrical systems 1000 A or more and above 150 V to ground but not
exceeding 600 V phase-to-phase. For this reason, the ground-fault systems described
herein are prevalent in systems meeting these criteria.
The low-ground fault protection methods in this section are for solidly-grounded
systems only and augment the ground detection methods given in System Grounding,
page 50 for ungrounded and high-resistance-grounded systems. Low-resistance
grounded systems at the low-voltage level are uncommon but can be protected per
the guidelines given above for relayed ground fault protection.

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 123

Ground-fault Protection for Radial Systems

Ground-fault protection for low-voltage radial systems is straightforward. For
electronic trip units the tripping logic is typically built into the circuit breaker, and only
the neutral CT or sensor must be connected to complete the ground fault protection
system. Such an arrangement is illustrated in Low-voltage Ground Fault Protection for
Four-wire Radial System with Electronic-trip Circuit Breaker, page 124.
Figure 80 - Low-voltage Ground Fault Protection for Four-wire Radial System with Electronic-trip Circuit
Breaker
Source
A B C N
Main or System
Electronic Trip Bonding
Circuit Breaker Jumper
Trip Unit
with GFT
CB Current (LSG,
Sensors LSIG)
Neutral Sensor
or CT
Safety Ground
may or may not
exist on Neutral
Sensor CT Circuit
Ground
Fault
Load
In Low-voltage Ground Fault Protection for Four-wire Radial System with Electronic-
trip Circuit Breaker, page 124 the neutral sensor may be an air-core CT or a
conventional iron-core CT. The ground fault current is diverted around the neutral
sensor when it is placed on the load-side of the main or system bonding jumper (see
System Grounding, page 50 for the definition of main and system bonding jumpers
and related discussion). Under normal unbalanced-load conditions the neutral sensor
detects the neutral current and stops the circuit breaker from tripping. If the system is
a three-wire system without a system neutral the neutral CT is omitted.
If the circuit breaker is not equipped with an electronic trip system, an external ground
fault relay may be used with a zero-sequence sensor to trip the circuit breaker. The
circuit breaker must be equipped with a shunt trip attachment in this case. Low-
voltage Ground Fault Protection for Four-wire Radial System Without Electronic Trip
Circuit Breaker, page 125 shows an example of this arrangement. In Low-voltage
Ground Fault Protection for Four-wire Radial System Without Electronic Trip Circuit
Breaker, page 125 the external ground fault relay is noted as “GS”. In low-voltage
systems this is the typical notation rather than “51G”, although “51G” could also be
124 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

used. In a three-wire system the neutral is omitted, and the zero-sequence sensor
includes the phase conductors only.
Figure 81 - Low-voltage Ground Fault Protection for Four-wire Radial System Without Electronic Trip Circuit
Breaker
Source
A B C N
Main or
System
Bonding
Jumper
Circuit Breaker
without ST
Electronic Trip
Zero-Sequence GS
Sensor or CT
Safety Ground
may or may not
exist on
Ground Zero-Sequence
Fault Sensor/CT Circuit
Load
These methods provide sensitive ground fault protection for solidly-grounded radial
systems. However, if multiple sources are involved a more involved system is required
to obtain acceptable ground-fault protection.
Modified-differential Ground Fault Systems
Because four-pole circuit breakers are not in common use in the United States, the
issue of multiple ground current return paths has a large effect upon ground-fault
protection in four-wire systems. To illustrate this point, consider a secondary-selective
system as shown in Secondary-selective System with Radial Ground-fault Protection
of Figure 80 Applied, page 126.
A ground fault on one bus has two return paths: Through its source-transformer main/
system bonding jumper or the other source-transformer main/system bonding jumper
neutral. How much ground fault current flows in each path is dependent upon the
ground or zero-sequence impedances of the system, which is difficult to evaluate.
Therefore, assume a factor of A x the total ground-fault current flows through the
source transformer main/system bonding jumper neutral and B x the total ground-fault
current flows through the other transformer main/system bonding jumper, where A + B
= 1. As can be seen from Secondary-selective System with Radial Ground-fault
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 125

Protection of Figure 80 Applied, page 126, the ground-fault protection for the faulted
bus can be de-sensitize or, worse, the wrong circuit breaker(s) may trip.
Figure 82 - Secondary-selective System with Radial Ground-fault Protection of Figure 80 Applied
The solution is the modified-differential ground fault system. A typical example of such
a system is shown in Secondary-selective System with Radial Ground-fault Protection
of Figure 80 Applied, page 126.
126 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 83 - Modified-differential Ground-fault Protection for Secondary-selective System
In Secondary-selective System with Radial Ground-fault Protection of Figure 80

Applied, page 126 the breaker internal sensors are shown, but the trip units are
omitted for clarity. The ground-fault function for CB-M1 is noted as GM1, for CB-M2 is
noted as GM2, and for CB-T is noted as GT. In this arrangement, regardless of the
ground current dividing factors A and B the correct circuit breakers sense the ground
fault and trip. This system works regardless of whether CB-T is normally-open or
normally-closed. Non-electronic circuit breakers could also be used, but external CT’s
and ground relays would have to be utilized.
For unusual system arrangements or arrangements with more than two sources, the
system of Secondary-selective System with Radial Ground-fault Protection of Figure
80 Applied, page 126 can be expanded. These are usually custom-engineered
solutions.
Four-pole Circuit Breaker
Another possible option, in lieu of the modified differential ground fault system, is the
use of four-pole circuit breakers. These switch the neutral as well as the phase
conductors, separating the neutrals of multi-source circuits. This method does not
work if sources are paralleled. Four-pole circuit breakers are not common in the
United States for this reason, as well the increased physical equipment sizes they
necessitate.
Ground Fault Time - Current Characteristics
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 127

Figure 84 - Typical Electronic-trip Circuit Breaker Ground-Fault Protection Time-

Current Characteristic
This characteristic is adjustable both for pickup and time delay. Discrete relays for use
with non-electronic circuit breakers are also available with similar characteristics.
Take care when coordinating ground-fault protection if multiple levels of ground-fault
protection do not exist downstream from the service or source of a separately-derived
system. The NEC Article 230.95 (A) service-entrance requirement The National
Electrical Code56for a maximum of 1200 A pickup and maximum one second delay at
3000 A ground-fault current can lead to a lack of coordination for downstream feeder
and branch-circuit ground faults. This is one of the reasons for the use of other than
solidly-grounded systems where maximum system reliability is to be achieved.
Surge Protection
Surge protection is protection of conductors and equipment against the effects of
voltage surges. These are usually due to lightning, although switching transients can
also cause damaging overvoltages. Unlike overvoltage relaying, surge protection is
directly connected to the power circuit, and for the maximum protection is usually
located as close as physically practical to the protected equipment.
128 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Medium-voltage Surge Protection

Medium-voltage surge protection is generally accomplished with surge arresters. A
surge arrester exhibits an impedance which decreases with the line voltage. Older
technologies included spark-gap arresters, which provided surge protection when the
voltage became high enough to ionize the air in an internal spark gap. Modern surge
arrestors employ metal-oxide varistor (MOV) technology, which exhibit a non-linear
resistance which changes with the applied voltage. These generally provide better
protection than spark-gap arrestors, although they do have limits on the continuous
voltage that may be applied to the arrester without damage.
Surge arrestors are connected phase-to-grounded, even on ungrounded systems.
When MOV surge arrestors are used, they must be sized for the maximum anticipated
phase-to-ground voltage. MOV surge arrestors have a duty-cycle voltage rating and a
maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV) rating; the MCOV rating is the
quantity to be compared to the phase-to-ground voltage. Also of importance is the
arrester’s classification as distribution-class, intermediate-class, or station-class;
these classes are defined in terms of the energy the surge arrestor can absorb without
damage, in ascending order as listed. Table 21 gives commonly-applied MOV surge
arrestor ratings versus the system voltage. In general, use of surge arrestors with the
lowest MCOV exceeding the anticipated line-to-ground voltage provides the maximum
protection. Detailed insulation coordination studies can also be performed with the
use of transient analysis software. For low-resistance-grounded systems, selection of
the lowest acceptable surge arrestor rating involves comparing the overvoltage versus
time characteristic of the surge arrestor to the maximum time a ground fault remains
on the system prior to tripping.
For motor circuits, surge capacitors are also often employed. These provide dV/dt
protection for the motor windings. Take care when sizing surge capacitors and the
effects of harmonic currents must be evaluated so that the capacitors do not rupture.
Both surge capacitors and surge arresters are applied without dedicated overcurrent
protection. For this reason, loss of these devices results in some equipment damage.
In the case of surge arresters, use of polymer housings results in minimal damage
should the arrester fail; the housing simply splits to relieve the internal overpressure.
Use of porcelain housings which can sustain large internal overpressures can result in
severe damage if the arrester fails. In the case of surge capacitors, since they are
typically filled with dielectric fluid and have steel housings, they can sustain high
internal overpressures, and failure of the housing due to internal overpressure can
result in catastrophic equipment damage and risk to personnel.
Applicable standards include IEEE Std. C62.11 and IEEE Std. C62.22.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 129

Table 21 - Commonly-applied Ratings for Metal-oxide Surge Arrestors
Duty-cycle Voltage (kV) MCOV (kV) Four-wire Effectively-grounded Three-wire Grounded and
Neutral System a Resistance-Grounded Wye Systemsb
3 2.6 4160Y/ 2400 2400

6 5.1 8320Y/ 4800 4160
4800
9 7.7 12000Y/ 6930 6900
12470Y /7200
10 8.4 13200Y/ 7620
13800Y/ 7970
12 10.2
15 12.7 20780Y/12000 12000
12470
18 15.3 22860Y/ 13200 13200
24940Y/ 14400 13800

21 17.0
24 19.5
27 22.0 34500Y/ 19920 20780
30 24.4 22860
36 29.0 24940
a Use of this system category requires a solid ground conductor (non-earth) path back to the upstream transformer or generator neutral.
b Includes grounded-wye systems where the path to the upstream transformer neutral includes an earth path
Low-voltage Surge Protection

Strictly speaking, low-voltage surge protection is via smaller versions of the MOV
arresters used in medium-voltage systems. Various versions of these are available,
including mountings which fit the circuit-breaker spaces in panelboards. These are
generally manufactured to the same standards as their medium-voltage counterparts.
A more commonly-used device is the surge protective device (SPD). The SPD is a
device classification unique to UL and is intended to provide a degree of protection for
sensitive utilization equipment against the effects of transient voltages. An SPD
usually include MOVs for voltage clamping as well as filtering for surge attenuation.
They are designed and manufactured to UL Std.1449, which requires consideration
for device loss modes due to the intended installation location. UL 1449 defines three
general installation classifications: Permanently Connected, Cord Connected, and
Direct Plug-In. SPDs are intended for use on the load side of an overcurrent protective
device such as a circuit breaker. They often include status indication for identification
of a failed unit. Surge Protector Devices are generally considered the preferred means
of low-voltage surge protection.
130 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Protection of Specific System Components

Power Cables
For low-voltage power cables, so long as they are protected at their ampacities per
NEC Article 240.5 The National Electrical Code, NFPA 7057 they can be considered
adequately protected.
For medium-voltage power cables, proper protection requires both sizing per the NEC
ampacity tables and comparing the overcurrent protective device time-current
characteristic with the cable damage characteristic per IPCEA Publication P-32-382.
The cable damage characteristic for a #1/0 AWG copper conductor is shown in
Medium-voltage Cable Protection Example, page 132 as compared with the time-
current characteristic of a 300E fuse. Per NEC Article 240.100 (C) The National
Electrical Code, NFPA 7057, the factor to be considered is the short-circuit
performance of the cable; indeed, NEC Article 240.101 (A) allows the rating of a fuse
protecting the conductor to be up to three times the ampacity of the conductors (six
times for a circuit breaker or electronically-actuated fuse). As seen in Medium-voltage
Cable Protection Example, page 132, the 300E fuse indeed does not provide overload
protection for the cable at its ampacity (200 A) but is within the limits of NEC 240.101
(A). Even though the fuse allows the cable ampacity to be exceeded, the continuous
load on the cable should not exceed the published conductor ampacity. The 300E
fuse does, however, adequately protect the cable for short-circuits, as evidenced by
the cable damage characteristic being to the right and above the fuse characteristic.
When overcurrent relays are used to protect medium-voltage power cables the
procedure is the same, but a 51 pickup of no more than 125%-150% of the maximum
load on the cable.
Transformer Protection
Transformer protection consists of both overload protection and short-circuit
protection.
Overload protection is usually accomplished via proper selection of the secondary
overcurrent protective device. NEC Article 450 The National Electrical Code, NFPA
7057 gives specific primary and secondary overcurrent device ratings that cannot be
exceeded. These vary depending upon the accessibility of the transformer to
unqualified persons and the impedance of the transformer. The smallest protective
device that allows the rated full-load current of the transformer gives the maximum
practical overcurrent protection. Increasing the secondary overcurrent device size
beyond this may be necessary for short-term overloads or for coordination with
downstream devices, but in any case, the requirements of NEC Article 450 must be
met.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 131

Figure 85 - Medium-voltage Cable Protection Example
Short-circuit protection involves comparison of the transformer damage curve per

IEEE Std. C57.109-2018 with the primary overcurrent device time-current
characteristic. In general, the damage curve must be to the right and above the
primary overcurrent device characteristic. Another constraint on the primary
overcurrent device is that it must be capable of withstanding the inrush of the
transformer without tripping (and without damage for current-limiting fuses). An
example time-current characteristic showing protection for a 1000 kVA 13.2 kV
Delta:480Y/277 V, 5.75% Z dry-type transformer is shown in Example Protection for a
1000 kVA, 13.2 kV Delta:480Y/27 7V, 5.75%Z Dry-type Transformer, page 133. The
transformer is protected with a 65E current-limiting primary fuses and a 1200 A
electronic-trip secondary circuit breaker. As seen from the figure, the fuses do
withstand the inrush without damage since the inrush point is to the left and below the
fuse minimum melt curve. The transformer is protected from short-circuits by the
primary fuses. The secondary circuit breaker provides overload protection at the full-
load current of the transformer. The primary fuse and secondary circuit-breaker
characteristics overlap for high fault currents; this is unavoidable and is considered
acceptable. The fuse curve and the transformer damage curve overlap; this is
unavoidable, but these should overlap at the lowest current possible. For currents
below the fuse/transformer damage curve overlap the secondary circuit breaker must
protect the transformer; the lower the point of overlap, the more likely the fault is an
external fault on the load side of the secondary circuit breaker and therefore greater
chance the secondary circuit breaker effectively protects the transformer for faults in
this region.
132 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Also, the transformer damage characteristic is shown twice. Because transformer is a

delta-wye transformer, a ground-fault on the secondary side of the transformer results
in only 57.7% of the maximum three-phase primary fault current while one secondary
winding experiences the full fault current. This is illustrated in Fault-current Flow for
Delta-Wye Transformer L-N Faults and Delta-Delta Transformer L-L Faults, page 134,
as well as the corollary for delta-delta transformers. The damage characteristic has
therefore been shifted to 57.7% of its published value to account for secondary line-to-
ground faults. Also, the shifted curve has another, more conservative curve shown;
this is the frequent-fault curve and is applicable only to the secondary overcurrent
device since faults between the transformer secondary and the secondary overcurrent
protective device should not be frequent.
Additional devices, such as thermal overload alarms/relays and sudden-pressure
relays, are also available for protection of transformers. These are typically specified
with the transformer itself and can provide very good protection. However, even if
these devices are installed the primary and secondary overcurrent devices must be
coordinated with the transformer as described above.
Figure 86 - Example Protection for a 1000 kVA, 13.2 kV Delta:480Y/27 7V, 5.75%Z
Dry-type Transformer
Differential protection for transformers, as described above, is very effective for

transformer internal faults. If differential protection is supplied, it is the primary
protection for internal faults and operates before the primary overcurrent device. The
primary overcurrent device serves as a backup protective device for internal faults in
this case.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 133

Figure 87 - Fault-current Flow for Delta-Wye Transformer L-N Faults and Delta-Delta Transformer L-L Faults
0.577 1.0
X1
H1
1.0 L-N
1.0
0.577 0 X3
0
0
0.577 X2
0
H3 H2
L-N Fault - Current values are per unit of the 3-ph fault current
0.866
0.866
X1
H1
L-L
0.866
0.866 0.289
0.289 0.577
0.577
0.289
0.289
0
X3 X2
H3 H2
L-L Fault - Current values are per unit of the 3-ph fault current
Generator Protection
The subject of generator protection is a complex one, and due to this fact it is not
presented here. Refer to IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial Power Systems58 for detailed descriptions of generator
protection methods, as well as descriptions of protective relay types that are not
discussed above that used for generator protection.
Other Devices and Additional Information
For protection other devices, refer to IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial Power Systems58 and/or the applicable standards for the
device in question. For additional information on the protection of cables and
transformers, refer to IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial Power Systems58.
Protection Selectivity
The selectivity of protection refers to its ability to isolate an abnormal condition to the
smallest portion of the system possible. In most cases selectivity is a function of how
well-coordinated the overcurrent protective devices in the system are. As an example,
consider the system of Example System for Selectivity Discussion, page 135.
134 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 88 - Example System for Selectivity Discussion
Example System for Selectivity Discussion, page 135 shows a small radial system
with a medium-voltage utility service, a service substation consisting of a primary
switch step-down transformer protected by a primary fuse, and a secondary
switchboard. One of the switchboard feeder circuit breakers is shown feeding al
lighting panel and other loads.
For optimum selectivity, a fault at point G should only cause its lighting panel feeder
circuit breaker to trip. The panel main circuit breaker and all devices upstream should
not be affected. If the lighting panel feeder circuit breaker time-current characteristic
does not coordinate with that of the lighting panel main, the main may trip, de-
energizing the entire panelboard.
Going upstream, a fault at point F should only cause the panelboard main circuit
breaker to trip and a fault at point E should only cause the switchboard main circuit
breaker to trip. A fault at point D may cause the switchboard main circuit breaker to
trip or the primary fuse to blow, but the effect on the system is the same since all of the
loads will be de-energized in either event. A fault at point C should only cause the
transformer primary fuse to blow.
Lack of selectivity causes more of the system to be de-energized for a fault in a given
location. The severity of the outage increases as the fault location is considered
farther and farther upstream. In this example, if the transformer primary fuses and the
upstream utility recloser, protective relays, or fuses are not coordinated the entire
utility distribution line, or a segment of the line, could be de-energized, affecting other
customers.
To analyze system selectivity, a time-current coordination study must be performed.
This study analyzes the time-current coordination characteristics of the protective
devices in the system and plots them on time current curves such as those illustrated
in this section. Coordination is achieved between two devices if their time-current
bands show sufficient clear space between them on the time-current curve or, in the
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 135

case of protective relays, if sufficient margin for overtravel, manufacturing tolerances,

circuit breaker speed, and safety are achieved
Coordination is not always possible to maintain in the high fault-current ranges.
However, in most cases an acceptable compromise can be reached since high-level
faults are a rare occurrence.
Another important concept is that of backup protection. In this case, for a fault at point
G if the lighting panel feeder circuit breaker fails to trip the panelboard main circuit
breaker should trip as dictated by its time-current curve. If selective coordination
exists between the panelboard main circuit breaker and the switchboard feeder circuit
breaker, then the switchboard feeder circuit breaker will not trip. So, backup protection
must consider one level upstream versus primary protection unless additional backup
protective devices are installed.
136 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Utility Considerations
Abstract: Nearly all utility companies have direct control over the requirements for
connections to their system. Many requirements align with published codes and
standards. However, take care to ensure each utility company’s exact standards are
met. In addition, special requirements for microgrids and other forms of distributed
generation may be involved.
Introduction
Most industrial and commercial facilities are served from public utilities. However, the
utility interface is often the most neglected aspect of system design. This is especially
true at the medium-voltage level. Often, the service equipment manufacturer is
expected to resolve issues that severely impact the design of the system. This can
result in unexpected costs and project delays. Address these issues during the
system design stage, where the impacts to system reliability and cost can be
adequately managed; only by knowing the utility’s requirements is this possible.
The Utility’s Jurisdiction

Because utilities must serve multiple consumers, they must take the steps they
consider necessary to maximize dependable service over their entire system.
Because of this, most utilities impose requirements on the design of the systems to
which they supply power.
Those elements of the system design over which the utility has jurisdiction vary from
utility to utility. The utility always dictates which service voltages are available for a
given size of service. The utility usually has some jurisdiction over the service
disconnect and service overcurrent protection. Certainly, the utility has jurisdiction
over (and usually the only access to) their revenue meters and metering instrument
transformers. However, in some cases the utility requires jurisdiction over the entire
service equipment, and can impose requirements upon system protection, equipment
control power, and other parts of the system design. In some cases, the over-all
arrangement of the system itself, including emergency/standby power systems, may
be dictated by the utility. Because in most cases the utility is the sole service provider
for a given region, negotiating these requirements is usually not feasible. Therefore,
knowledge of the utility’s requirements is vital to successful, on-time, on-budget
system design and construction.
Utility Service Requirement Standards

Each utility typically maintains its own series of standards for individual consumer
service requirements. Such requirements are often published in the form of a “service
requirements handbook” or similarly titled publication. The format of the standards,
and the standards themselves, vary from utility to utility. This can be challenging to
those engineers who design industrial and commercial facilities in different areas, and
to equipment manufacturers.
In recognition of this issue, EUSERC (Electric Utility Service Equipment Requirements
Committee) was formed in 1983, combining southern-California-based PUSERC and
northern-California-based WUESSC, which were older organizations formed in 1947
and 1950, respectively. The purposes of EUSERC are to promote uniform electric
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 137

service requirements among its member utilities, to publish existing utility service
requirements for electric service equipment, and to provide direction for development
of future metering technology. EUSERC publishes a manual EUSERC Manual59which
delineates requirements for electric service equipment through 34.5 kV. At the time of
publication, 80 utilities from 12 states are involved with EUSERC. While EUSERC
does not eliminate the need for individual utility requirements, it does help a great deal
in making electrical service equipment more standardized and less costly.
System Topology and Protection

Requirements for the system topology are designed to increase both the reliability of
the over-all utility system and with the reliability of service to the installation in
question. These requirements typically take the following forms:
• Restrictions on the size of services.
• Restrictions on, or requirements for, normal and alternate services and transfer
equipment between the two.
• Restrictions or requirements for the configuration of emergency and standby
power systems.
• Restrictions on the types of service disconnecting devices allowed.
• Restrictions on the types of service overcurrent protection allowed.
• Requirements for service cable compartments in service equipment.
• Requirements or restrictions on the number and types of protective relaying.
• Requirements for the service switchgear as a whole.
The most common requirement, which is applied to virtually every utility installation, is
that the service overcurrent device must coordinate with the upstream utility
overcurrent device, typically a recloser or utility substation circuit breaker. If there is
standby power on the premises, the utility typically requires that paralleling the
alternate power source with the utility source not be possible unless stipulated in the
rate agreement for the service in question.
Requirements for restricted access to service cable termination and service
disconnect compartments in the service switchgear are another common. In some
cases, these must be in a dedicated switchgear or switchboard section, increasing the
service equipment footprint. In many cases grounding means must be provided with
the equipment to allow the utility’s preferred safety grounding equipment to be
installed. In some cases, requirements may be imposed on the entire service
switchgear, such as electrical racking for circuit breakers or barriers that are not
standard for the equipment type used.
In some cases, the control power for the service switchgear, such as a battery, must
be designed to the utility’s specifications.
Additional protective relaying may be required to minimize abnormal conditions which,
although not harmful to the system being served, affect the reliability of the utility
system. In some cases, the makes and models of protective relays for the service
overcurrent protection are restricted to those the utility has approved.
Revenue Metering Requirements

Often the utility’s revenue metering requirements can have an effect the over-all
system topology. There are two basic utility revenue metering arrangements:
59. Electric Utility Service Equipment Requirements Committee, 2005 Edition.
138 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Hot-Sequence Metering: The metering instrument transformers are placed ahead of

the service disconnect.
Cold-Sequence Metering: The metering instrument transformers are placed on the
load side of the service disconnect.
With hot-sequence metering, the instrument transformers and meters may be placed
on the last distribution pole for overhead services, or in a dedicated utility-supplied
metering compartment outside the facility to be metered for underground services. In
these cases, the effect of the utility’s instrument transformers and meters on the over-
all design for the facility power system and equipment is usually minimal. However, in
many cases the end-user, at their expense, must supply a utility instrument
transformer compartment which houses the instrument transformers. The design
requirements for these compartments are often detailed and are present to ensure
that no tampering occurs with the instrument transformers or meters. These
compartments typically take an entire section, or part of a section, of the service
switchgear or a switchboard, increasing the footprint of this equipment. In some
cases, the service equipment must provide housing for the meters as well, along with
convenient access for the utility’s personnel. The utility typically provides and installs
the instrument transformers and meters, although a few utilities require the end-user
or equipment manufacturer to install these. In extreme cases the end-user must
supply the instrument transformers and send them to the utility for testing. Identifying
the requirements early in the design process helps to insure that all parties are aware
of the costs involved.
Utility revenue metering instrument transformers for services up to 600 V typically
consist of two or three current transformers depending upon the system configuration,
unless the service is small enough to be directly metered. In some cases, voltage
transformers may be required as well. Both the current and voltage transformers are
designed for metering, with the current transformers typically being bar or wound-
primary type. For services over 600 V, both voltage and current transformers are
required, either two or three of each depending upon the system configuration. In
some cases, the utility will not allow the voltage transformers to be fused.
Additional Regulatory Requirements

In some cases, there may be additional state regulatory requirements which apply.
These are typically concern distributed generation and may severely restrict or
otherwise impact the system design. These requirements must be fully understood
before the system design is begun to avoid expensive changes later in the process.
The Public Service Commission or similar governmental regulatory agency for the
region in question typically controls these requirements.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 139

Utility Information Requirements for System Design

In designing the power system for any commercial or industrial facility the following
information is crucial to adequate system design:
• Nominal service voltage.
• Maximum available fault current and associated X/R ratio.
• Minimum available fault current.
• Data on the utility’s nearest upstream protective device (device type and ratings,
relay type and settings if applicable).
• Latest edition of the utility’s service handbook or similar publication.
• Latest edition of additional state regulatory requirements, if applicable.
• Contact information for utility’s system engineer or equivalent for the region in
question.
• Utility rate agreement, if available.
All of these, except items six and eight, should be available from the serving utility.
Item six should be available from the regional Public Service Commission or similar
governmental regulatory agency. Item eight may not be available at the outset but
should be taken into consideration as soon as it becomes available.
140 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Power Quality Considerations

Abstract: Power system health is paramount to the longevity of power distribution
system equipment and the reliability of continuous power. Power quality affects
distribution equipment, as well as downstream process level equipment and loads. It
is vital that power quality is considered in the design of a system as well as allowing
for monitoring functionality after the equipment is installed and commissioned to
monitor health, troubleshoot issues, and capture issues and occurrences.
Introduction
The term power quality may take on any one of several definitions. The strict definition
of power quality is “the concept of powering and grounding electronic equipment in a
manner that is suitable to the operation of that equipment and compatible with the
premises wiring system and other connected equipment” (see IEEE Recommended
Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment60). In practice, however,
the term power quality is often used to denote the proximity of the system voltage to
its sinusoidal form at the nominal voltage level. Deviation from this sinusoidal norm
therefore denotes a power quality issue. Strictly speaking, this deviation is a power
disturbance, defined as “any deviation from the nominal value (or from some selected
thresholds based upon tolerance) of the AC input power characteristics” IEEE
Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment60. The
most common power disturbances are, as defined by IEEE Recommended Practice
for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment60:
Overvoltage: An RMS increase in the AC voltage, at the power frequency, for a
period of time greater than one minute. Typical values are 110% - 120% of nominal.
Undervoltage: An RMS decrease in the AC voltage, at the power frequency, for a
period of time greater than one minute. Typical values are 80 – 90% of nominal.
Swell: An increase in RMS voltage or current at the power frequency for durations
from .5 cycle – one minute. Typical values are 110% - 180% of nominal.
Sag: An RMS reduction in the AC voltage, at the power frequency, for durations from
½ cycle to a few seconds.
Interruption: The complete loss of voltage. A momentary Interruption is a voltage
loss (<10% of nominal) for a time period between .5 cycles and three seconds). A
temporary interruption is a voltage loss (<10% of nominal) for a time period between
three seconds and one minute. A sustained interruption is the complete loss of
voltage for a time period greater than one minute.
Notch: A switching (or other) disturbance of the normal power system voltage
waveform, lasting less than ½ cycle; which is initially of opposite polarity to the
waveform, and is thus subtractive from the normal waveform in terms of the peak
value of the disturbance voltage. This includes a complete loss of voltage for up to ½
cycle.
Transient: A subcycle disturbance in the AC waveform that is evidenced by a sharp
discontinuity of the waveform. It may be of either polarity and may be additive to, or
subtractive from, the nominal waveform.
Flicker: A variation in input voltage, either magnitude or frequency, sufficient in
duration to allow visual observation of a change in electric light source intensity.
Harmonic Distortion: The mathematical representation of distortion of the pure sine
waveform. This refers to the distortion of the voltage and/or current waveform, due to
the flow of non-sinusoidal currents.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 141

Electrical Noise: Unwanted electrical signals that produce undesirable effects in the
circuits of the control systems in which they occur. Noise may be further categorized
as transverse-mode noise, which is measurable between phase conductors but not
phase-to-ground, and common-mode noise, which is measurable phase-to-ground
but not between phase conductors. This noise may be conducted or radiated. Also
referred to as RFI (radio-frequency interference) or EMI (electro-magnetic
interference).
The causes of the common power disturbances listed can vary greatly. Common
causes are listed in Common Power Disturbance Causes, page 142.
Table 22 - Common Power Disturbance Causes
Disturbance Common Causes
Overvoltage Voltage regulator malfunction
Improperly set transformer taps
Improperly applied power factor correction capacitors
Undervoltage Voltage regulator malfunction
Improperly set transformer taps
Large source impedance (“weak” system)
Voltage swell Recovery of system voltage following a fault
Remote switching (capacitors, etc.)
Voltage sag Remote fault
Cold-load pickup (motor starting, transformer energization.)
Large step loads
Transient (Typically voltage Lightning strikes

surges)
Close-in switching (capacitors,)
Complex circuit phenomena such as current chopping, restrikes,

system resonance.
Flicker Arcing Loads such as arc furnaces
Also, same sources that cause voltage sags and swells
Notches and harmonic Power electronic converter equipment such as rectifiers, inverters,
distortion drives, which produce non-sinusoidal load current and commutation
notches
Interruptions Faults causing overcurrent protective device operation
Utility maintenance activities
Electrical noise Power Electronic converter equipment such as drives
Conductors and power equipment which carry large amounts of

current
Arcing in overcurrent protective devices
Power disturbances can greatly affect utilization equipment. For example, sensitive
electronic medical equipment can malfunction, adjustable speed motor drives may trip
off-line. Interruptions can cause microprocessor-based equipment such as computers
to lose data. In extreme conditions, such as for voltage surges caused by direct
lightning strikes, both power equipment and utilization equipment may be subject to
stop functioning. With the high reliability requirements imposed upon power systems,
it is imperative that power system disturbances, or potential disturbances, be
mitigated to avoid down-time, equipment loss, and risk to human life.
142 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Power Quality Metrics

There are various methods for categorizing the severity of power disturbances. The
most typical indices for measuring power quality disturbances are:
Distortion Factor: The ratio of the root square value of the harmonic content to the
root square value of the fundamental quantity, expressed as a percentage of the
fundamental, also known as total harmonic distortion 61.
(13–1)
Where:
• Vh is the RMS harmonic voltage (or current) value at a frequency of n times the
fundamental frequency.
• V1 is the RMS fundamental-frequency voltage or current.
Alternate forms for the distortion factor are given in IEEE Recommended Practices
and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems62 as
percentages of the nominal voltage or demand load current for the system under
consideration, for use in evaluation of the harmonic content of the system voltage or
current. These are referred to as Total Harmonic Distortion (THDVn) and Total Demand
Distortion (TDD), defined as follows:
Where:
• Vh is the RMS value of the nth harmonic component of the voltage.
• Vn is the RMS nominal fundamental voltage value.
• Ih is the RMS value of the nth.
• IL is the maximum demand load current, typically the average maximum monthly
demand over a 12-month period.
Crest Factor: The ratio of the peak value of a periodic function to the RMS value, that
is:
Crest factor (cf) = ypeak/yrms (13–4)
Where:
• Ypeak is the peak value of a periodic function.
• Yrms is the RMS value of the function.
61. IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment, IEEE Std. 1100-2005, December 2005.
62. IEEE Std. 519-2014, June 2014.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 143

Because power system voltages and currents are nominally sinusoidal, the nominal
crest factor for these would be √2 , which is 1.414 (see Electric Power Fundamentals,
page 10 for details).
Notch Area: A notch in the power system voltage (or current) is illustrated in Common
Power Disturbance Causes, page 142 IEEE Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems63:
Figure 89 - Voltage (or Current) Notch Illustration
The notch area for the notch as illustrated in Common Power Disturbance Causes,
page 142 is defined as:
an = t x d
(13–5)
Where:
• An is the notch area in volt-microseconds.
• t is the notch time duration in microseconds.
• d is the notch depth in Volts.
Recovery Time: This is the time needed for the output voltage or current to return to a
value within the regulation specification after a step load or line change.
Displacement Power Factor: The ratio of the active power of the fundamental wave,
in Watts, to the apparent power of the fundamental wave, in VA. This is the traditional
definition of power factor.
Total Power Factor: The ratio of the total input power, in watts, to the total VA input.
This includes the effects of harmonics.
K Factor: A measure of a transformer’s ability to serve non-sinusoidal loads. The K
factor is defined as:
(13–6)
Where:
• Ih is the harmonic component at h times the fundamental frequency.
• h is the harmonic order of Ih in multiples of the fundamental frequency.
• hmax is maximum harmonic order present.
63. IEEE Std. 519-2014, June 2014.
144 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Voltage Surges
The causes of voltage surges may be split into two major categories: Power system
switching and environmental (see IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and
Grounding Electronic Equipment64). Both exhibit decaying oscillatory transients.
Capacitor switching close to the point under consideration is the most common cause
of switching surges, while lightning is the most common cause of environmentally-
induced voltage surges. Both can cause severe damage to unprotected power system
components, with the potential for lightning damage being the most severe; in the
worst case, lightning damage can be catastrophic.
Surge arrestors, as described in System Protection, page 69, are typically used to
minimize voltage surges. On low-voltage systems surge protective devices (SPD),
also described in System Protection, page 69 are also used. For motors, surge
capacitors are an option. In severe cases, custom-designed R-C snubber circuits may
be required as well.
Voltage Sags, Swells and Interruptions

Voltage sags, swells and interruptions have many causes. Remote switching or
lightning strikes can cause voltage swells, as can the recovery of the system voltage
after a fault. Voltage sags can be caused due to transformer or motor inrush or large
step loads, especially on systems without large amounts of available fault current.
Voltage interruptions are generally caused due to protective device operation.
Protection of sensitive equipment against voltage sags and swells can be difficult.
Fast-acting voltage regulators offer one means of defense against these phenomena,
although any voltage regulator must be properly applied to avoid worsening the
problem. Fast-acting voltage regulators can generally be classified as tap-switching,
buck-boost, or ferroresonant (also known as CVT “constant voltage transformer”)
types (see IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic
Equipment64). New solid-state tap switching technologies for voltage regulators
provide faster response than older, electromechanical switching technologies. Other
devices, such as “power line conditioners” which combine some TVSS functions with
voltage regulation and noise reduction, and motor-generator sets, are also used (see
IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment64).
Protection of sensitive loads against voltage interruptions is efficiently performed with
an uninterruptible power supply or UPS. This device is available in several different
topologies and is crucial where microprocessor-based devices are to be powered.
UPS discussed in more detail in Emergency Power Distribution Equipment, page 184.
Harmonic Distortion
Harmonic distortion is a subject of great interest in modern power systems. Harmonic
distortion results from non-sinusoidal load currents. These currents are the result of
non-linear loads, such as drives, which employ power electronic devices to rectify the
AC waveform. These devices draw non-sinusoidal currents which, in turn, cause non-
linear voltages to be developed in the system.
IEEE Standard 519-1992 IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems65 gives recommended limits for current
distortion due to consumer loads and voltage distortion in the utility supply voltage.
Both are referenced at the point on the utility system where multiple customers can be
served, referred to as the Point of Common Coupling (PCC). The requirements from
IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical

65. IEEE Std. 519-2014, June 2014.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 145

Power Systems66 for current distortion limits on general distribution systems 120 V –
69 kV are given in Harmonic Distortion, page 145. IEEE 519-1992 Harmonic Voltage
Distortion Limits, page 146 shows the corresponding utility voltage distortion limits.
The current limits are given both as limits on the individual harmonic levels and a limit
on the TDD, and that as the ratio Isc/IL increases the limits also increase. The reason
for this is that the current distortion limits are designed to limit the voltage distortion at
the PCC, and the voltage distortion for a given current distortion worsens with a larger
source impedance (V̄ = Ī • Z̄)
Table 23 - IEEE 519-1992 Harmonic Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems 120 V Through
69 kV
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL

Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
Lsc/IL <11 11<h<17 17≤h<23 23≤h<35 35≤h TDD

<20* 4.0 2.0 01.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above.
Current distortions that result in a DC offset, half-wave converters, are not allowed.
*All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual L SC /IL.
Where:
ISC = maximum short-circuit current at PCC
IL = maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC
IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems66
Table 24 - IEEE 519-1992 Harmonic Voltage Distortion Limits
Bus Voltage at PCC Individual Voltage THDVn

Distortion
(%)
(%)
69 kV and below 3.0 5.0

69.001 through 161 kV 1.5 2.5
161.001 kV and above 1.0 1.5
NOTE: NOTE – High-voltage systems can have up to 2.0% THD where the cause is an HVDC
terminal that attenuates by the time it is tapped for a user.
IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems,
IEEE Std67
Mitigation of harmonic distortion is generally accomplished by one of the following

means:
• Passive tuned filters
• Use of phase multiplication on power conversion equipment
Passive tuned filters are simple series L-C filters. A single tuned passive filter can
effectively mitigate one harmonic frequency. They are generally tuned to a value
below the harmonic frequency to be attenuated to avoid a resonance condition at that
frequency. These are custom-engineered solutions that must be designed specifically
66. IEEE Std. 519-2014, June 2014.

67. 519-2014, June 2014.
146 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

for the circuit in question. Passive filters are also used for power factor correction.
However, there is a limit to their effectiveness and if higher-order harmonics must be
attenuated their use is generally not cost-effective. Take care in all cases to balance
the harmonic and power factor correction considerations.
Phase multiplication operates on the principle that if m six-pulse rectifiers are shifted
60/m degrees from each other, are controlled by the same delay angle, and are
loaded equally, the only harmonics present are:
h = kq ± 1 (13–7)
Where:
• h is a harmonic order present.
• q = 6m and is known as the pulse number of the circuit.
• k is any integer.
Thus, for standard six-pulse rectifiers the harmonic orders present are 5, 7, 11, 13,….
18-pulse rectifiers are the current state-of-the-art; for an 18-pulse rectifier (m = 3), the
harmonic orders present are 17, 19, 35, 37, …,. For an 18-pulse converter, the lower-
order harmonics are thus eliminated. For systems with large numbers of phase-
multiplied converters the harmonic current limits in NFPA Emergency Power System
Levels, page 186 are increased by the factor (q/6)1/2, where q is the pulse-number of
the predominate non-linear load on the system. In this case the limits for the harmonic
orders that do not fit equation (11-7) for the q of the predominate non-linear load are
multiplied by a factor of 0.25. Phase-shifting transformer connections are used to
achieve the 60/m degree phase shift between six-pulse rectifier units.
Active Harmonic Filters (AHF) can help greatly reduce harmonics and bring systems
in compliance with IEEE-519 or other harmonic limits imposed by the utility
companies. Current state-of-the-art designs measure the current, filter out the
fundamental frequency of the measured current, and inject current that is the negative
of the result into the system to cancel the harmonics up to a given harmonic order.
These systems are generally used in existing installations that have existing six-pulse
drives where replacing the drives is not a cost-effective solution, or where multiple
smaller six-pulse drives are utilized since phase multiplication for a drive below 100
HP is generally not cost-effective. State-of-the-art units can also dynamically correct
the power factor as well as phase imbalance and are advantageous vs. passive filters
both in their effectiveness and their flexibility in power factor correction.
Figure 90 - Active Harmonic Filters
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 147

Power Quality Monitoring

Power quality monitoring is vital when sensitive equipment or processes are to be
powered, and for the overall reliability of the system. Microprocessor-based
technology allows the most common power-quality instrumentation to be combined
into a single monitoring device which incorporates waveform capture, measures of the
power quality metric values per the above discussion, and conventional current,
voltage, power, and energy measurements, with minimum/maximum logging
capabilities. These devices are typically true RMS-reading instruments, with
measurements up to a given harmonic (typically 31st harmonic or higher). The
capabilities and sampling rate of the PQ meter must be matched to the sensitivity of
the equipment that is being monitored. Not all PQ meters have the required sampling
rate to capture fast transients.
Another important consideration is the Disturbance Direction Detection feature that is
available in some PQ meters. This feature allows facility staff to quickly pinpoint and
isolate the source of the PQ problem and rapidly recover from a potential outage.
Refer to the image below.
148 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 91 - Power Quality Monitoring
Utility
Meter #1
A D
Meter #2
Power Consumer
In most cases, a power quality centric EPMS (Energy & Power Monitoring Software) is
required to analyze the waveforms, timestamps, sequence of events, etc. to realize a
cohesive view of the power quality issues in a facility. Refer to Electrical Energy
Management, page 220 for more details.
The inclusion of power monitoring equipment in the initial power system design makes
diagnosis of any subsequent power quality issues, if they arise, much easier and more
efficient. Reference IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power
Quality68 contains much information on power quality monitoring and should be
consulted for further reference.
68. IEEE Std. 1159-2019, August 2019.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 149

Safety Considerations
Arc Flash Hazard
Abstract: The precedence for eliminating arc flash hazards has evolved into a major
consideration for both the design and implementation of power distribution systems
and the operation and maintenance of the gear. Awareness of high incident energy
and overall high risks and hazard present in customer facilities has changed the
landscape for the better. To reduce hazards and risks, equipment design and layout,
and operational practices have improved to keep operators and bystanders safer.
Introduction
The method of which to analyze arc flash hazards has evolved through several
iterations of NFPA 70E, NPFA 70, and IEEE 1584 standards which modified the
calculation methods to provide more accurate data based on testing, as well as UL
2986. Analysis of hazards has also evolved to consider both the actual arc flash
hazard and the impeding risk or chance of an occurrence. Manufacturer design and
engineered controls have also taken into consideration these changes. Energy
reducing methods are also now required for certain applications.
Background
Electrical arcs form when a medium that is normally an insulator, such as air, is
subjected to an electric field strong enough to cause it to become ionized. This
ionization causes the medium to become a conductor which can carry current. The
phenomenon of electrical arcing is as old as the world itself. Lightning is a natural form
of electrical arcing. Man-made electrical arcs exist in devices such as arc furnaces.
However, utilization of electrical energy invariably requires equipment where
unintentional arcing between conductors becomes a possibility.
Electric arcs in equipment liberate large amounts of uncontrolled energy in the form of
intense heat and light. Unintentional arcing in power equipment can impose several
different types of hazards:
• Heat from arc can cause severe flash burns many feet away (temperatures can
reach 20,000 K, four times the temperature at the surface of the sun.).
• Byproducts from the arc, such as molten metal spatter, can cause severe injury.
• Pressure wave effects caused by the rapid expansion of air and vaporization of
metal can distort enclosures and cause doors and cover panels to be ejected with
severe force, injuring personnel.
• Sound levels can damage hearing.
Example of Arcing Damage to Equipment, page 151 gives an indication of the amount
of uncontrolled energy an arc can contain, as seen by the amount of damage to the
equipment shown.
Electrical safety has traditionally been concerned only with electric shock hazards.
The recognition of arc flash hazards began formally in 1981 with a paper “The Other
Electrical Hazard: Arc Blast Burns” 69by Ralph Lee, presented at the 1981 IEEE IAS
Annual Meeting. This paper established theoretical modeling for the heat energy
incident upon a surface a given distance from the arc. Subsequent developments
followed over the next 20 years, including testing to develop more accurate empirical
calculation methods and to evaluate protective clothing.
69. Lee, R., “The Other Electrical Hazard: Electrical Arc Blast Burns,”, vol. 1A-18, no. 3, May/June 1982.
150 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 92 - Example of Arcing Damage to Equipment
At the time of publication, there are two basic standards which establish requirements
for arc flash hazards. The first is NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the
Workplace70, which defines the basic practices to be followed for electrical safety,
including protective clothing levels which must be worn for given levels of arc flash
incident energy and what steps must be taken prior to live work on electrical
equipment. The second is the IEEE Guide for Performing Arc-Flash Hazard
Calculations, IEEE 1584-201871 which gives the engineer the methods for calculating
the severity of arc flash incident energy levels. The NEC The National Electrical Code,
NFPA 70,72 requires only that certain equipment (switchboards, panelboards,
industrial control panels, meter socket enclosures, and motor control centers in other
than dwelling occupancies and likely to require examination, adjustment, servicing, or
maintenance while live) be field marked to warn qualified persons of potential electric
arc flash hazards.
NFPA 70E Requirements for Arc Flash Hazards

NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace70is divided into four
chapters: Safety Related Work Practices (Chapter 1), Safety Related Maintenance
Requirements (Chapter 2), Safety Requirements for Special Equipment (Chapter 3),
and Installation Safety Requirements (Chapter 4). The discussion here is centered
upon Chapter 1.
Several terms are of particular importance when discussing arc flash hazards (see
Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace70):
Flash Hazard: A dangerous condition associated with the release of energy caused
by an electric arc.
Incident Energy: The amount of energy impressed on a surface, a certain distance
from the source, generated during an electrical arc event. One of the units used to
measure incident is calories per square centimeter (cal/cm2).
Flash Hazard Analysis: A study investigating a worker’s potential exposure to arc-
flash energy, conducted for the purpose of injury prevention and the determination of
safe work practices and appropriate levels of PPE.
Live Parts: Energized conductive components.
70. NFPA 70E, The National Fire Protection Association, 2021 Edition.
71. IEEE 1584-2018, September 2018.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 151

Exposed (as applied to live parts): Capable of being inadvertently touched or

approached nearer than a safe distance by a person. It is applied to parts that are not
suitably guarded, isolated, or insulated.
Shock Hazard: A dangerous condition associated with the possible release of energy
caused by contact or approach to live parts.
Flash Protection Boundary: An approach limit at a distance from exposed live parts
within which a person could receive a second degree burn if an electrical arc flash
were to occur.
Limited Approach Boundary: An approach limit at a distance from an exposed live
part within which a shock hazard exists.
Restricted Approach Boundary: An approach limit at a distance from an exposed
live part within which there is an increased risk of shock, due to electrical arc over
combined with inadvertent movement, for personnel working in close proximity to the
live part.
Qualified Person: One who has skills and knowledge related to the construction and
operation of the electrical equipment and installations and has received safety training
on the hazards involved.
Working on (live parts): Intentionally coming in contact with live parts with the hands,
feet, or other body parts, with tools, probes, or with test equipment, regardless of the
personal protective equipment a person is wearing. There are two categories of
“working on”: Diagnostic (testing) is taking readings or measurements of electrical
equipment, circuit parts with approved test equipment that does not require making
any physical change to the electric equipment, conductors, or circuit parts. Repair is
any physical alteration of electrical equipment, conductors, or circuit parts.
Working near (live parts): Any activity inside the Limited Approach Boundary.
Electrically Safe Work Condition: A state in which the conductor or circuit part to be
worked on or near has been disconnected from energized parts, locked/tagged in
accordance with established standards, tested to ensure the absence of voltage, and
grounded if determined necessary.
NFPA 70E 73 Chapter 1 covers personnel responsibilities (both the employer and the
worker have specific responsibilities for safety), training requirements, the
establishment of an electrical safety program, and the establishment of an electrically
safe working condition. These are not discussed in detail here, but the reader is
strongly encouraged to refer to the NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the
Workplace74 to become more familiar with them as they are important topics.
For arc flash hazard considerations, the focus is on Article 130, “Working On or Near
Live Parts”. The basic requirement is that live parts over 50 V to ground to which an
employee might be exposed should be put into an electrically safe work condition prior
to working on or near them, unless the employer can demonstrate that de-energizing
introduces additional or increased hazards or is infeasible due to equipment design or
operational limitations. In this case live work requires an Energized Electrical Work
Permit, for which the requirements are given in Article 130.2. Some exemptions are
given to the requirement for an electrical work permit, such as testing,
troubleshooting, performed by qualified persons.
The approach boundaries to live parts are defined above, and are illustrated in
Approach Boundaries, page 154. These form a series of boundaries from exposed,
energized electrical conductor(s) or circuit part(s). The requirements for crossing
these become increasingly restrictive as the worker moves closer to the exposed live
part(s). The limited, restricted, and prohibited approach boundaries are shock
protection boundaries and are defined in NFPA 70E table 130.4(E)(a) Standard for
Electrical Safety in the Workplace74. Qualified persons can approach live parts 50 V or
higher up to the restricted approach boundary, and can only cross this boundary if
they are insulated or guarded and no uninsulated part of the body crosses the
73. The National Fire Protection Association, 2021 Edition.

152 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

prohibited approach boundary, if the person is insulated from any other conductive
object, or if the live part is insulated from the person and from any other conductive
objects at a different potential. Unqualified persons must stay outside the limited
approach boundary unless they are escorted by a qualified person. Unqualified
persons cannot cross the restricted approach boundary.
An Arc Flash Risk Assessment must be performed to protect personnel from the
possibility of injury due to arc flash. This can be done by identifying the arc flash
hazard and using the table found in 130.5(C) to estimate the likelihood of occurrence
of an arc flash incident, and to determine if any additional protective measures are
required, including the use of PPE. This is called the “Arc Flash PPE Category
Method”. Using this method is only permissible if equipment is in a proper state as
recommended by the manufacture. The second method permissible for determine the
appropriate PPE is by performing an 130.5(G) Incident Energy Analysis Method.
Arc flash boundary is covered in 130.5(E) which can be determined two ways:
• The arc flash boundary shall be the distance at which the incident energy equals
1.2 cal/cm2 or
• using the Table 130.7(C)(15)(a) or Table 130.7(C)(15)(b).
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 153

Figure 93 - Approach Boundaries
Flash
Protection
Boundary
Limited
Approach
Boundary
Limited
Space
Any point on an
exposed, energized
electrical conductor
or circuit part
Restricted
Approach
Boundary
Restricted
Space
Prohibited
Approach
Boundary
Prohibited
Space
154 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Approach Boundaries, page 154 is from Standard for Electrical Safety in the
Workplace75
Per 130.5(H) All electrical equipment, such as switchboards, panelboards, industrial
control panels, meter socket enclosures, and motor control centers that are in other
than dwelling units and that are likely to require examination, adjustment, servicing, or
maintenance while energized shall be marked with a label containing all of the
following information. (1) Nominal system voltage (2) Arc flash boundary (3) At least of
the of the following: Available incident energy, minimum arc rating of clothing or site-
specific level of PPE.
The classifications for personal protective equipment (PPE) for arc flash protection
are given in NFPA Table 130.7 (C)(15)(c), reproduced below as Table 22. PPE for arc
flash protection is given an Arc Rating in cal/cm2, which must be compared to the arc
flash incident energy for the location in question to select the proper clothing.
Employees working within the flash protection boundary must wear nonconductive
head protection wherever there is a danger of head injury from electric shock or burns
or from flying objects resulting from electrical explosion. Face, neck, chin and eye
protection must be worn wherever there is a danger of injury from electric arcs or
flashes or from flying objects resulting from electrical explosion. Body protection, in
the form of flame-retardant (FR) clothing as defined in Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE), page 155, must be worn where there is possible exposure to arc flash incident
energy levels of 1.2 cal/cm2; an exception allows Category 0 clothing to be worn for
exposures of 2 cal/cm2 or lower. An example of a full flash suit is shown in Example of
a Full Flash Suit, page 156.
Table 25 - Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Arc-flash PPE PPE

Category
1 Arc-rated Clothing, Minimum Arc Rating of 4 cal/cm2 (16.75 J/cm2)a

Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt and pants or arc-rated coverall
Arc-rated face shieldb or arc flash suit hood
Arc-rated jacket, parka, high-visibility apparel, rainwear, or hard hat liner (AN)f
Protective Equipment
Hard hat
Safety glasses or safety goggles (SR)
Hearing protection (ear canal inserts)cHeavy-duty leather gloves, arc-rated gloves, or rubber insulating gloves with leather
protectors (SR)d
Leather footwear e (AN)
2 Arc-rated Clothing, Minimum Arc Rating of 8 cal/cm2 (33.5 J/cm2)a

Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt and pants or arc-rated coverall
Arc-rated flash suit hood or arc-rated face shield b and arc-rated balaclava
Arc-rated jacket, parka, high-visibility apparel, rainwear, or hard hat liner (AN) f
Hard hat
Hearing protection (ear canal inserts) c
Heavy-duty leather gloves, arc-rated gloves, or rubber insulating gloves with leather protectors (SR) d
Leather footwear e
3 Arc-rated Clothing Selected so that the System Arc Rating Meets the Required Minimum Arc Rating of 25 cal/
cm2 (104.7 J/cm2)a
Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt (AR)
Arc-rated pants (AR)
Arc-rated coverall (AR)
Arc-rated arc flash suit jacket (AR)
Arc-rated arc flash suit pants (AR)
Arc-rated arc flash suit hood
Arc-rated gloves or rubber insulating gloves with leather protectors (SR) d
Hard hat
Leather footwear e
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 155

Table 25 - Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (Continued)
4 Arc-Rated Clothing Selected, Minimum Arc Rating of 40 cal/cm2 (167.5 J/cm2)a

Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt (AR)
Arc-rated pants (AR)
Arc-rated coverall (AR)
Arc-rated arc flash suit jacket (AR)
Arc-rated arc flash suit pants (AR)
Arc-rated arc flash suit hood
Arc-rated gloves or rubber insulating gloves with leather protectors (SR) d
Hard hat
Leather footwear e
AN: As needed (optional). AR: As required. SR: Selection required.
a Arc rating is defined in Article 100.
bFace shields are to have wrap-around guarding to protect not only the face but also the forehead, ears, and neck, or,
alternatively, an arc-rated arc flash suit hood is required to be worn.
cOther types of hearing protection are permitted to be used in lieu of or in addition to ear canal inserts provided they are
worn under an arc-rated arc flash suit hood.
d Rubber insulating gloves with leather protectors provide arc flash protection in addition to shock protection. Higher
class rubber insulating gloves with leather protectors, due to their increased material thickness, provide increased arc
flash protection.
e Footwear other than leather or dielectric shall be permitted to be used provided it has been tested to demonstrate no
ignition, melting or dripping at the minimum arc rating for the respective arc flash PPE category.
fThe arc rating of outer layers worn over arc-rated clothing as protection from the elements or for other safety purposes,
and that are not used as part of a layered system, shall not be required to be equal to or greater than the estimated
incident energy exposure.
Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace76
Figure 94 - Example of a Full Flash Suit
156 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

IEEE 1584
IEEE 158477 is the guide for determining arc flash incident energy levels and
protection boundaries. It contains an empirical calculation method based upon
extensive test results using a Design-of-Experiments (DOE) method, resulting in a
95% confidence level. In situations where the empirical method does not apply, the
“Lee” method from Lee, R., “The Other Electrical Hazard: Electrical Arc Blast Burns,”78
is recommended, and is described in IEEE 1584. IEEE 1584 only considers the heat
of an arc, and not the secondary effects such as molten metal spatter and pressure-
wave effects.
IEEE 1584 Empirical Method
This method is valid for the following systems with the following characteristics:
• Voltages in the range of 208 V–15 kV, three-phase
• Frequencies of 50 Hz or 60 Hz
• Bolted fault current in the range:
◦ LV: 500–106 kA
◦ MV: 200–65 kA
• Grounding of all types, not a variable in 2018 calculations
• Standard box per voltage level; Max dimension “49”
• Gaps between conductors:
◦ LV: 6.35–76.2 mm
◦ MV: 19.05–254 mm
• Working distance >12 in.
• Electrode configurations:
◦ VCB: Vertical electrodes in a cubic box enclosure (equivalent to 2002 in box)
◦ VCBB: VCB with electrodes terminating in an insulating barrier
◦ HCB: Horizontal electrodes in a cubic box enclosure
◦ VOA: Vertical open-air (equivalent to 2002 open air)
◦ HOA: Horizontal open-air
• Enclosure Size Correction Factor: enclosure correction factor de-rates incident
energy for larger-than-standard box sizes.
Steps for performing calculations:
1. Determine electrode configuration.
2. Arcing current calculation.
• Ibf is the bolted fault current for three-phase faults (symmetrical rms) (kA)
• Iarc 600 is the average rms arcing current at Voc = 600 V (kA)
• G is the gap distance between the electrodes (mm)
• k1 to k 10 are the coefficients provided in Table 5 of IEEE1584–2018
• lg is log10
3. Determine clearing time based on the arcing current in Step 1. The use of time
current curves (TCC) may be used for this step. Ensure the clearing time
considers this such as the condition of equipment, alternate fault sources, or time
delays in the control circuit.
77. IEEE Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations, IEEE 1584-2018, September 2018.
78. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 1A-18, no. 3, May/June 1982.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 157

4. Determine the Incident Energy.
E≤600 = 12.552/50(Tx10){k1+ k2lgG + (k3I arc 600/k4Ibf7 + k5Ibf6 + (8–1)

k6Ibf5 + k7Ibf4 + k8Ibf3 + k9Ibf2 + k10Ibf) + k11lgIbf + k12lgD +
k13lgIarc + lg(1/CF)]
5. Determine the Arc Flash Boundary.
AFB≤600 = {k1+ k2lgG + (k3I arc 600/k4Ibf7 + k5Ibf6 + k6Ibf5 + k7Ibf4 (8–2)
+ k8Ibf3 + k9Ibf2 + k10Ibf) + k11lgIbf + k13lgIarc + lg(1/CF)] - lg(20/
T)]/-k12
Arcing Current Variation: First pass in the calculations is done with 100% arcing
current, as used in Step 2. To ensure the worst case is used, the following formulas
are used to provide minimum arc rating. Use the worst case incident energy.
Iarc min = Iarc x (1 – 0.5 x VarCf) (8–3)

VarCf = k1Voc6 + k2Voc5 + k3Voc4 + k4Voc3 + k5Voc2 + k6Voc + k7
The incident energy is proportional to the arcing time, which is set by the overcurrent
protective device time-current characteristic and the arcing current level. Because
overcurrent protective device tripping times are lower for larger currents due to
inverse time-current characteristics, this is an important point. Larger bolted fault
currents lead to larger predicted arcing fault currents, which lead to generally lower
values of arc flash incident energy. Lower bolted fault currents lead smaller predicted
arcing fault currents, which lead to generally higher values of incident energy.
“Lee” Method
Where the IEEE 1584 empirical method cannot be used due to being outside the limits
of applicability as defined above, the theoretically-derived “Lee” method per A. C.
Parsons, “Arc Flash Application Guide Arc Flash Energy Calculations for Circuit
Breakers and Fuses”79 may be used. This is based upon maximum power transfer
and is very conservative above 15 kV. To calculate the incident energy with this
method, the following equations are used (see IEEE Guide for Performing Arc Flash
Hazard Calculations80):
E = 5.12 × 106VIbf(t/D2 ) (8–4)
Db = √5.12 x 105VIbf(t/Eb) (8–5)
Simplified Device Equations

Further testing was performed for circuit breakers and current-limiting fuses, and
simplified equations of the form (A+Blog⁡Ibf) were developed. These are given in IEEE
Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations80. The equations for fuses are
applicable within the bolted fault current ranges given in IEEE Guide for Performing
Arc Flash Hazard Calculations80. The equations for circuit breakers yield conservative
results and should only be used when they are within the ranges of applicability given
in IEEE Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations 80 and where nothing
else about a particular circuit breaker is known.
Manufacturers also publish device-specific equations for certain devices, such as
fuses and some high-performance circuit breakers. These are preferred versus the
IEEE 1584 Empirical Method since they more accurately model the arc-flash
performance of a given device.
79. Square D/Schneider Electric Engineering Services, August 2004.

80. IEEE 1584-2018, September 2018.
158 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Application Guidelines
Arc Flash Calculations
The following guidelines are helpful when performing arc flash calculations (see The
National Electrical Code, NFPA 70,81):
• When choosing a calculation method, be sure the system conditions fall into the
calculation method’s range of applicability.
• Use the newest methods given in IEEE 1584-2018. Older methods given in
previously published papers are superseded by this standard.
• If the manufacturer publishes device-specific equations, use them.
• Use realistic fault current values. The actual minimum available fault current,
rather than the worst-case values typically used for short-circuit analysis, give
more conservative (and realistic) results.
• Consider the effects of arc fault propagation to the line side of the main
overcurrent device when determining which device to use to calculate the arcing
time. For example, for the electrical panel in Example Electrical Panel, page 159,
device A would be used rather than device B for calculating the arcing time for a
fault on the panelboard bus, since the fault can propagate to the line side of
device B. Make similar considerations for switchboards, MCC’s.
Figure 95 - Example Electrical Panel
• Quantify the variables. The working distance, bus gap, equipment configuration,
and system grounding are all dependent upon the particular installation and must
be accurately determined.
• Be aware of motor contribution. Motor contribution can both increase and
decrease the arc flash incident energy, depending upon where in the system the
arcing fault occurs.
• Use a computer for analysis. This is the most efficient way to accurately calculate
the incident energies and flash protection boundaries where multiple sources,
such as generation and motor contribution, must be taken into account. Several
commercial software packages are available for arc flash hazard analysis. Be
aware, though, what the user-configurable options for the software are and be
sure they are set correctly for accurate results.
System Design
Arc flash hazard analysis is typically performed after the system design process,
including the time-coordination study, is complete. This can result in the need for
“tweaking” of overcurrent protective device settings to obtain acceptable arc flash
results or, in the worst case, system re-design with additional equipment. The
following guidelines, if observed during the system design phase, can serve to
minimize the need for such activities:
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 159

• Use a dedicated main overcurrent device at transformer secondaries. The

secondary of a transformer is one of the most difficult places to achieve
acceptable arc flash hazard levels. If multiple mains are used for transformer
secondaries, the arc flash hazard level downstream from the main but ahead of
the feeders must be calculated using the transformer primary device timing
characteristics, significantly increasing the incident energy. If the secondary main
and feeders are in the same switchboard or panel, this is usually not be
applicable due to arc fault propagation to the line side of the main device as
described above. For ANSI low-voltage switchgear per ANSI C37.20.1, however,
this can be of real benefit, as well as in cases where the secondary overcurrent
device is remote from the feeders.
• Closely coordinate devices where possible. The lower the clearing time for the
predicted arcing current, the lower the arc flash incident energy.
• Use high-performance devices, such as low-arc-flash circuit breakers, where
possible. These significantly reduces the arc flash incident energy.
• Use bus differential protection and/or zone selective interlocking where possible.
This is high-speed protection that can significantly lower the arc flash incident
energy.
Another code required can be found in NFPA 70, article 240.87 The National Electrical
Code, NFPA 70,82. Where the highest continuous current trip setting for which the
actual overcurrent device installed in a circuit breaker is rated or can be adjusted is
1200 A or higher, one of the following means shall be provided and be set to operate
at less than the available arcing current:
• Zone-selective interlocking.
• Differential relaying.
• Energy-reducing maintenance switching with local status indicator.
• Energy-reducing active arc flash mitigation system.
• An instantaneous trip setting. Temporary adjustment of the instantaneous trip
setting to achieve arc energy reduction shall not be permitted.
• An instantaneous override function.
• An approved equivalent means.
Arc Flash Avoidance: Help personnel avoid the hazards or add distance between
hazard and operator.
Table 26 - Arc Flash Mitigation Types and Impacts
Arc Flash Protection Protection Reduced Recovery Impact Impact Modify- Ca- OpEx
Mitigation During During Incident Energy Time on on ing pEx
Types Operation Maintenance / (cal / cm2) Foot- Commis- Existing
Abnormal print sioning Equip-
Operation ment
Remote Yes No Yes N/A Low None Easily $ $

operation 83
Time Delay Limited No Yes83 N/A None None Easily $ $

Switch (TDS
operation)
Absence of Limited No Yes N/A None None Possible $ $

voltage tester 83
Infrared (IR) Limited No Yes N/A None None Easily $ $

windows 83
Close door Limited No Limited N/A None None Possible $ $

racking

83. A. C. Parsons, “Arc Flash Application Guide Arc Flash Energy Calculations for Circuit Breakers and Fuses”, Square D/Schneider Electric
Engineering Services, August 2004.
160 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Table 26 - Arc Flash Mitigation Types and Impacts (Continued)
Remote racking Yes No Yes N/A None None Easily $ $

system 84
Partial de- Limited Limited Limited Partial High Medium Difficult $$ $

energization / operation
load hours / days
redundancy
multiple
sources (Main-
Tie-Main)
Table 27 - Prevention Methods That Reduce Arc Flash Risk
Prevention By Protection Protection Reduced Recov- Impact Impact Modify- CapEx OpEx
Design: Arc During During Incident Energy ery Time on on ing
Flash Operation Maintenance / (cal / cm2) Foot- Commis- Existing
Mitigation Abnormal print sioning Equip-
Types` Operation ment
Barriers / ANSI Yes Limited No N/A None Low Applica- $ $

compartmental- tion
ization depend-
ent
High resistance Limited Limited No N/A Low High Possible $$ $
grounding
Gas insulated Yes Limited No N/A Improves Medium No

switchgear
Shielded solid Yes Limited No N/A Improves Medium No

insulatedswitch-
gear
IR Increases Increases No Predi- None None N/A $ $$

thermographic exposure exposure citve
study
Continuous Alert only Alert only No Predi- Low Low Possible $$ $

thermal citve
monitoring
Continuous Alert only Alert only No Predi- None Low Easily $

humidity citve
monitoring
Table 28 - Incident Energy Reduction Methods
Prevention By Protection Protection Reduced Recovery Impact Impact Modify- CapEx OpEx
Design: Arc During During Incident Energy Time on on ing
Flash Operation Maintenance (cal / cm2) Foot- Commis- Existing
Mitigation / Abnormal print/ sioning Equip-
Types` Operation Commis- ment
sioning
Energy Limited Limited Less than 8/12 Hours / None Low Possible $$ $
reducing daysa, /Low
page 162
maintenance
switch depend-
ing on
ERMS
switch
been turn-
ed on
Circuit breaker Limited Limited Less than 8/12 Hours / None Medium Limited $$ $
with days /Medium
instantaneous
or override
below arcing
level
84. A. C. Parsons, “Arc Flash Application Guide Arc Flash Energy Calculations for Circuit Breakers and Fuses”, Square D/Schneider Electric
Engineering Services, August 2004.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 161

Table 28 - Incident Energy Reduction Methods (Continued)
Adaptive Limited No Less than 40 Weeks / None Low Possible $ $

settings months /Low
Current-limiting Limited Limited Less than 8/12 Hours / Medium Low Limited $$ $
circuit breakers days /Low
/fuses
Digital multi- Yes Yes Less than 8/12 Weeks / Low/High High Possible $ $
function relay months
Zone selective Yes Yes Less than 12 Hours / None Medium Possible $$ $
interlocking days a, /Medium
page
162de-
pending
on calorie
availabili-
ty
Differential Limited Limited Less than 8/12 Hours / Low/High High Possible $$$ $
protection days
Transfer trip Yes Yes Less than 8/12 Hours / Low Medium Possible $$ $
scheme (virtual days /Medium
main)
Arc flash Yes Yes Less than 8/12 Hours / Medium Medium Applica- $$ $
detection days /Medium tion
device (optical depend-
sensors) ent
High speed Yes Yes Less than 1.2 Hours / High/High High Possible $ $
shorting switch days
(quenchers)
Line side Yes Yes Less than 1.2 Hours / Low/Low Low Possible $ $
isolation with days
passive
reduction
a For additional information on arc flash mitigation methods, refer to Schneider Electric Arc Flash Mitigation Guide V11.
NFPA 70E article 205.32 states that a single-line diagram, where provided for the
electrical system, shall be maintained in a legible condition and shall be kept current.
If utilizing the incident energy analysis method of determine the arc flash hazard, the
analysis must be reevaluated when changes occur in the electrical system that could
affect the results of the analysis and reevaluated at intervals not to exceed five years,
per NFPA 70E article, 130.5(G). An effective method of accomplishing this is to have a
study performed and maintained to be kept current. The concept of a digital twin can
accomplish this.
The general approach of a digital twin model is a virtual representation of a distribution
system that can be as simple as a single-line diagram with relevant data to complex,
updated real-time data, via digital readings through networked metering and
communication. Digital twins can create a foundation for the customer and clients to
support reliability assessment, asset management, real-time interfaces for SCADA
systems, and system studies.
162 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Electrical Distribution Equipment

Power Distribution Equipment
ABSTRACT: Many factors affect the type and layout of power equipment. Ultimately,
cost, resiliency, and maintainability will drive the equipment selection. Many
companies are adopting zero energized work policies. Take care in equipment and
layout selections to meet these policies.
Introduction
Power Distribution Equipment is a term generally used to describe any apparatus
used for the generation, transmission, distribution, or control of electrical energy. This
section concentrates upon commonly used power distribution equipment:
Panelboards, Switchboards, Low-Voltage Motor Control Centers, Low-Voltage
Switchgear, Medium Voltage Power and Distribution Transformers, Medium-Voltage
Metal Enclosed Switchgear, Medium Voltage Motor Control Centers, and Medium-
Voltage Metal-Clad switchgear. Each has its own unique standards and application
guidelines, and one facet of good power system design is the knowledge of when to
apply each type of equipment and the limitations of each type of equipment. The
equipment described herein are typically custom-engineered on a per-order basis.
NEMA Enclosure Types

One common characteristic of the equipment types covered in this section is that they
are all enclosed for safety. The enclosures for enclosed equipment generally follow
the guidelines set forth in NEMA 250-2003 Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000
Volts Maximum)85, and, although this standard is intended for equipment less than
1000 V, it is also true of medium-voltage power equipment.
The most common NEMA enclosure types are as follows (see Enclosures for
Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum)85):
Type 1: Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of protection to
personnel against access to hazardous parts and to provide a degree of protection of
the equipment inside the ingress of solid foreign objects.
Type 3R: Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree
of protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts; to provide a degree of
protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign
objects (falling dirt and windblown dust); to provide a degree of protection with respect
to harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow); and
that is undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.
Type 4: Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree of
protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts; to provide a degree of
objects (falling dirt and windblown dust); to provide a degree of protection with respect
to harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow,
splashing water, and hose directed water); and that is undamaged by the external
formation of ice on the enclosure.
Type 4X: Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree
of protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts; to provide a degree of
objects (windblown dust); to provide a degree of protection with respect to harmful
85. NEMA Standards Publication 250-2023.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 163

effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow, splashing
water, and hose directed water); that provides an additional level of protection against
corrosion; and that is undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.
Type 5: Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of protection to
personnel against access to hazardous parts; to provide a degree of protection of the
equipment inside the enclosure against the ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt
and settling airborne dust, lint, fibers, or other items); and to provide a degree of
protection with respect of harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress of water
(dripping and light splashing).
Type 12: Enclosures constructed (without knockouts) for indoor use to provide a
degree protection to personnel against access to hazardous parts; to provide a
degree of protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid
foreign objects (falling dirt and circulating dust, lint, fibers, or other items); and to
provide a degree of protection with respect to harmful effects on the equipment due to
the ingress of water (dripping and light splashing).
Table 29 - Panelboards: Quick Reference
Available Voltage Ratings 120–600 V
Available Current Ratings 30–6001200
Available Short-circuit Ratings Through 200 kA
Major Industry Standards UL 50, UL 67, CSA C22.2 No. 29, CSA C22.2 No. 94, NEMA PB 1,
Federal Specification W-P-115C, NEC
Typical Enclosure Types 1, 3R, 5, 12
Primary NEC Requirements Article 408
Panelboards are the most common type of power distribution equipment. A

panelboard is defined as “a single panel or group of panel units designed for assembly
in the form of a single panel, including buses and automatic overcurrent devices, and
equipped with or without switches for the control of light, heat, or power circuits;
designed to be placed in a cabinet or cutout box placed in or against a wall, partition,
or other support; and accessible only from the front” (see The National Electrical
Code86). It typically consists of low-voltage molded-case circuit breakers arranged
with connections to a common bus, with or without a main circuit breaker.
Panelboards, page 165 shows typical examples of panelboards.
164 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 96 - Panelboards
Panelboards are used to group the overcurrent protection devices for several circuits
together into a single piece of equipment. In small installations they may serve as the
service equipment. The NEC The National Electrical Code87 divides panelboards into
two categories:
Lighting and Appliance Branch-Circuit Panelboard: A panelboard having more
than ten percent of its overcurrent devices protecting lighting and appliance branch
circuits.
Power Panelboard: A panelboard having ten percent or fewer of its overcurrent
devices protecting lighting and appliance branch circuits.
Separated Distribution Panelboard: A panelboard combining the above Lighting
and Appliance Branch-Circuit and Power Panelboards.
Lighting and appliance branch-circuit panelboards are limited to a maximum of 42
overcurrent devices, excluding mains. UL 67 UL Standard for Safety for Panelboards,
UL 67, Underwriters Laboratory, Inc.88 designates Class CTL Panelboard as the
marking for appliance and branch circuit panelboards; CTL stands for “circuit limiting”.
In some manufacturer’s literature lighting and appliance branch-circuit panelboards
for residential or light commercial use are referred to as load centers.
Panelboards are available with built-in main devices or as main lugs only (MLO). The
NEC The National Electrical Code87 requires appliance and branch circuit
panelboards to be individually protected on the supply side by not more than two main
circuit breakers or two sets of fuses having a combined rating no greater than the
rating of the panelboard. Lighting and appliance branch circuit panelboards are not
required to have individual protection if the feeder overcurrent device is no greater
than the rating of the panelboard.
88. November 2003.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 165

Power panelboards must be protected by an overcurrent device with a rating not

greater than that of the panelboard (see The National Electrical Code89).
Various methods for attaching the circuit breakers to the panelboard bus are available,
such as plug-on, bolt on. The circuit breakers are typically purchased separately.
Often, the enclosure, interior, and trim assemblies for the panelboard itself are
purchased separately as well. This is typically true of larger panelboards and gives a
great deal of flexibility about use of the same interior with different enclosures and
trims.
Panelboards are available with several accessories. Subfeed lugs allow taps directly
from the panelboard bus without the need for overcurrent devices. Circuit breaker
locking devices allow locking of circuit breakers in the open or closed position (the
breakers still trip on an overcurrent condition). Various types of trims are available,
with various locking means available for trims that are equipped with doors. Various
digital solutions are available for communications, metering, maintenance mode
switching and surge protection.
Switchboards
Table 30 - Switchboards: Quick Reference
Available Current Ratings 800–5000 A
Major Industry Standards UL 891, NEMA PB 1, NEC
Typical Enclosure Types 1, 3R
The definition of a switchboard is “a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels

on which are mounted on the face, back, or both, switches, overcurrent and other
protective devices, buses, and usually instruments” (see The National Electrical
Code90). Switchboards are free-standing equipment, unlike panelboards, and are
generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front. They may consist of
multiple sections, connected by a common through-bus. Unlike panelboards, the
number of overcurrent devices in a switchboard is not limited.
Switchboards generally house molded case circuit breakers or fused switches. They
are generally the next level upstream from panelboards in the electrical system, and in
some small to medium-size electrical systems they serve as the service equipment.
Switchboards, page 167 shows an example of a switchboard.
166 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 97 - Switchboards
Switchboards are available with a main circuit breaker or fusible switch, or as main
lugs only. The available ampacities and multi-section availability makes them more
flexible than panelboards. They are generally available utilizing either copper or
aluminum bussing, and with a variety of bus plating options. Custom bussing for
retrofit applications is also possible.
Switchboard circuit breakers may be stationary-mounted (also referred to as fixed-
mounted), where they can be removed only by unbolting of electrical connections and
mounting supports, or drawout-mounted, where they can be without the necessity of
removing connections or mounting supports. It is possible to insert and remove
drawout devices with the main bus energized. The section that contains the main
circuit breaker(s) or service disconnect devices is referred to as a main section. A
section containing branch or feeder circuit breakers is referred to as a distribution
section.
Devices mounted in the switchboard may be either panel mounted (also referred to as
group mounted), where they are mounted on a common base or mounting surface, or
individually mounted, where they do not share a common base or mounting surface.
Individually mounted devices may or may not be in their own compartments. A device
which is segregated from other devices by metal or insulating barriers and which is not
readily accessible to personnel unless special means for access are used is referred
to an isolated device. Group and Individually-mounted Devices, page 168 shows
examples of sections with group and individually-mounted devices.
The main through-bus is often referred to as the horizontal bus. The bussing in a
section which connects to the through-bus is referred to as the section bus (also
known as vertical bus). The bussing that connects the section bus to the overcurrent
devices is referred to as the branch bus. Section and branch busses may be smaller
than the main through-bus; if this is the case UL 891 (see The National Electrical
Code91) gives the required section bus size as a function of the number of overcurrent
devices connected to it.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 167

Figure 98 - Group and Individually-mounted Devices
Group-mounted Individually-mounted
Switchboards are available with several accessories, including custom-engineered

options such as utility metering compartments, automatic transfer schemes, and
modified-differential ground fault for switchboards with multiple mains. However, the
internal barriering requirements are minimal.
Low-voltage Motor Control Centers

Table 31 - Low-voltage Motor Control Centers: Quick Reference
Major Industry Standards NEMA ICS-18, UL 845, NEC
Typical Enclosure Types 1, 1A, 3R, 12
A motor control center (MCC) is defined as “a floor-mounted assembly of one or more

enclosed vertical sections typically having a common power bus and typically
containing combination motor control units” (see UL Standard for Safety for Motor
Control Centers92). Motor control centers are used to group several combination
motor controllers together at a given location with a common power bus. MCCs are
typically found in large commercial or industrial buildings where there are many
electric motors that need to be controlled from a central location. Low-Voltage Motor
Control Center, page 169 shows an example of a motor control center.
92. UL 845, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., August 2021.
168 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 99 - Low-Voltage Motor Control Center
MCCs are classified into two classes by UL Standard for Safety for Motor Control
Centers93and Motor Control Centers94:
Class I Motor Control Centers: Mechanical groupings of combination motor control
units, feeder tap units, other units, and electrical devices arranged in an assembly.
Class II Motor Control Centers: A Class I motor control center provided with
manufacturer-furnished electrical interlocking and wiring between units, as specifically
described in overall control system diagrams supplied by the user.
MCC wiring is classified by UL Standard for Safety for Motor Control Centers93and
Motor Control Centers95 into three types:
Type A Wiring: User (field) load and control wiring are connected directly to device
terminals internal to the unit; provided on Class I MCCs only.
Type B Wiring: User (field ) control wiring is connected to unit terminal blocks; the
field load wiring is connected either to power terminal blocks or directly to the device
terminals.
Type C Wiring: User (field control wiring is connected to master terminal blocks
mounted at the top or bottom of vertical sections which contain combination motor
control units or control assemblies; the field load wiring is connected to master power
terminal blocks mounted at the top or bottom of vertical sections or directly to the
device terminals.
93. UL 845, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., August 2021.

94. NEMA Standards Publication ICS 18-2007.
95. NE MA Standards Publication ICS 18-2001.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 169

MCCs generally consist of a common power bus and a vertical bus for each section to
which combination motor controllers are plugged on. The combination starter consists
of motor starter, fuses or circuit breakers, and power disconnect. MCCs may also
have push buttons, indicator lights, variable-frequency drives (VFDs), programmable
logical controllers (PLCs), and metering equipment. The individual plug-in units are
often referred to as buckets and may be inserted and removed with the main bus
energized so long as the disconnecting device for the individual unit is open. A vertical
wireway is supplied internal inter-unit connections and field connections within each
section.
MCCs offer the opportunity to group several motor starters together in one location
with a space-efficient footprint versus individual control cabinets, and like
switchboards are available with many options. Removable plug-on units allow quick
change-outs if spare units are kept on hand for the most common sizes of starters in
the facility. Low-voltage soft-starters and variable-speed drives may also be mounted
within MCCs.
Low-voltage Switchgear
Table 32 - Low-voltage Switchgear: Quick Reference
Major Industry Standards ANSI/IEEE C37.20.1, ANSI/IEEE C37.51, NEMA SG-5, CAN/CSA
C22.2 NO 31-M89, UL 1558
Low-voltage switchgear, more properly termed metal –enclosed low-voltage power

circuit breaker switchgear, is defined per IEEE Standard for Metal-Enclosed Low-
Voltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear96 as ”LV switchgear of multiple or individual
enclosures, including the following equipment as required:
• Low-voltage power circuit breakers (fused or unfused) in accordance with IEEE
Std. C37.13-2015 or IEEE C37.14-2015
• Bare bus and connections
• Instrument and control power transformers
• Instruments, meters, and relays
• Control wiring and accessory devices
Low-voltage power switchgear is the preferred equipment for medium to large
industrial systems where the advantages of low-voltage power circuit breakers,
discussed in System Protection, page 69, can be utilized to enhance coordination and
reliability. It is typically used as the highest level of low-voltage equipment in a facility
of this type and, if the utility service is a low-voltage service, the service entrance
switchgear as well. Low-voltage Switchgear, page 171 shows an example of low-
voltage switchgear.
Low-voltage switchgear, although it performs the same functions and has comparable
availability of voltage and ampacity ratings as switchboards, represents a different
mode of development from switchboards and is, in general, more robust, both due to
the construction of the switchgear itself and due to the characteristics of low-voltage
power circuit breakers versus. molded-case circuit breakers. For this reason, it is
preferred over switchboards where coordination, reliability, and maintenance are of
primary concern.
96. IEEE Std. C37.20.1-2001, October 2002.
170 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Low-voltage switchgear is typically built as “rear accessible” meaning the access to

load cabling and connections are from the rear of the equipment. In situations where
space is limited, low-voltage switchgear may be built as “front accessible” where the
access load cabling and connections are from the front of the equipment. This allows
the low-voltage switchgear lineup to be placed against a wall. This configuration is
also useful in electrical house applications where no exterior doors are necessary to
access the back side of the equipment.
Figure 100 - Low-voltage Switchgear
Low-voltage switchgear is compartmentalized to reduce the possibility of internal fault

propagation. ANSI C37.20.1 (see IEEE Standard for Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage
Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear97) requires each breaker to be provided with its own
metal-enclosed compartment. Optional barriers are usually available to separate the
main bus from the cable terminations, forming separate bus and cable compartments
within a section, as well as side barriers to separate adjacent cable and bus
compartments.
All low-voltage switchgear is required to pass an AC withstand test of 2.2 kV for one
minute (see IEEE Standard for Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker
Switchgear97).
As with switchboards, low-voltage switchgear is available with many options. The
options are generally more numerous than those for switchboards due to the nature of
switchgear service conditions.
97. IEEE Std. C37.20.1-2001, October 2002.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 171

Low-voltage Transformer
“A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction” (https://www.se.com/). The main
applications of a transformer include converting utility voltage to building distribution
voltage, and converting distribution voltage to application voltage requirements.
These units can be classified into multiple types: Dry-type, Control Power, and Mini
Power-zone.
Table 33 - Low-voltage Transformers: Quick Reference
Available Primary Voltage Ratings 208, 240, 480, 600 Vac Delta
Available Secondary Voltage Ratings 208Y/120, 240 Vac Delta 120V, 480Y/277, 204/120
Available kVA Rating 15–1000 kVA
Major Industry Standards NEMA ST-20
UL1561 and CSA22.2 No.47
Energy Efficient Registration – Department of Energy 10 CFR 429
CE Marking (Control Power)
EN 60 204 and EN 61 558 (Control Power)
Typical Enclosure Types Type 1, Type 2, Type 3R, Type 4X
Dry-Type: Dry-type distribution transformers are designed to transform voltages for

supplying electrical power to a building or load center. For classification as a low
voltage dry-type distribution transformer, the transformer must have an input voltage
of 34.5 kV or less, have an output voltage of 600 V or less, be rated for operation at a
frequency of 60 Hz, and have the capacity of 15-2500 kVA (see 0100CT1901 Low-
voltage Transformers).
Dry-type transformers windings are air-cooled; and are not permitted to use oil as a
coolant. When voltage is applied to the input winding of the transformer, there can be
a brief period of inrush current until the transformer core stabilizes, which lasts for
about six power cycles (0.1 seconds). The magnitude of the inrush varies depending
on when the switch closes on the power wave, meaning the inrush can range from
zero to greater than the full load current rating of the transformer (7400CT1901).
172 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 101 - Low Voltage Dry-type Transformers. Left to right: Dry-type Ventilated Enclosure, Dry-type Non-
ventilated Enclosure, Open Core and Coil
Additionally, the impedance of the supply system can influence the amount of inrush
current the transformer can draw. To avoid tripping circuit breakers or blowing fuses
on the primary side of the transformer during energizing, it is essential to carefully
coordinate fuse sizes or breaker handle ratings, and magnetic trip settings. To provide
optimal coordination and minimize inrush nuisance tripping, adjust the primary
overcurrent protection based on the maximum inrush current. This results in the
primary overcurrent protection exceeding the 125% allowance in the NEC for primary-
only protection, and secondary protection is required (see 7400CT1901).
Due to concerns regarding the impact on the efficiency of the transformers and market
needs for improvements in energy consumption, low voltage distribution transformers
are regulated through the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (7400CT1901). The
Department of Energy (DOE) evaluates and sets minimum efficiency standards for
low voltage dry-type distribution transformers. Transformer efficiency can be defined
as the percentage of power out compared to the percentage of power in. A perfect
zero loss transformer would have the same power in as out and would be 100%
efficient (see 7400CT1901). The efficiency of the transformers shall be no less than
that which is required for their kVA rating, as shown in Energy Conservation
Standards for Low Voltage Dry-type Distribution Transformers, page 173.
Table 34 - Energy Conservation Standards for Low Voltage Dry-type Distribution Transformers
Single Phase Three Phase
kVA Efficiency % kVA Efficiency %
15 97.70 15 97.89
25 98.00 30 98.23
37.5 98.20 45 98.40
50 98.30 75 98.60
75 98.50 112.5 98.74
100 98.60 150 98.83
167 98.70 225 98.94
250 98.80 500 99.14
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 173

Table 34 - Energy Conservation Standards for Low Voltage Dry-type Distribution Transformers (Continued)
— — 750 99.23
— — 1000 99.28
The following low-voltage dry-type transformers must comply with the DOE efficiency
standards as shown in Energy Conservation Standards for Low Voltage Dry-type
Distribution Transformers, page 173:
• Three- and single-phase transformers
• Step-up and step-down transformers
• General purpose ventilated transformers
• Harmonic-mitigating transformers
• General purpose open core and coil transformers
The following low-voltage dry-type transformers are not required to comply with the
efficiency standards as shown in Energy Conservation Standards for Low Voltage
Dry-type Distribution Transformers, page 173:
• Auto-transformers
• Drive-isolation transformers
• Non-ventilated transformers
• Resin-encapsulated transformers
• Buck-boost transformers
• Control-power transformers
• Medical isolation panel transformers
Control Power: Industrial control power transformers are designed with low
impedance windings for voltage regulation and can accommodate the high inrush
current associated with contractors, starters, solenoids, and relays. Their function is to
meet the diverse needs of panel builders and machinery OEMs. They are typically 50/
60 Hz rated and are designed with various temperature classes as shown in
Temperature Rises for Low-voltage Transformers, page 174.
Table 35 - Temperature Rises for Low-voltage Transformers
Transformer Type Temperature Rise (°C)
Dry-type Distribution 55, 80, 115, or 150
Control Power 55, 80, 115
Mini Power-Zone 80, 115
Figure 102 - Control Power Transformer
174 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Mini Power-Zone: Mini Power-Zone combines a transformer and circuit breaker

distribution panel into a single wall mounted substation. The substation includes a
primary main circuit breaker, sealed step-down transformer, secondary main circuit
breaker, and distribution panelboard. They are typically built in a NEMA Type 3R
enclosure, making them suitable for indoor and outdoor use, but can also be built for
Type 4X applications. Typical applications for these units can include assembly lines,
emergency power, temporary power, areas with limited space, and more.
Figure 103 - Mini Power-Zone
Mounting
Brackets
Lifting
Eye
Transformer
Durable,
permanently
legible nameplate
Hinged cover —
weather-protective
with horizontal
locking features
Ample knockouts
accessible through
bottom of enclosure
Medium-voltage Advanced Design Guide

For information on medium-voltage basics according to IEC and IEEE standards
please reference Medium Voltage Technical Guide.
Medium-voltage Power and Distribution Transformers

Table 36 - Medium-voltage Power and Distribution Transformers: Quick Reference
Available Primary Voltage Ratings 2400–38 kV
Available Secondary Voltage Ratings 120–15 kV
Available kVA Ratings Through 10,000 kVA
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 175

Table 36 - Medium-voltage Power and Distribution Transformers: Quick Reference (Continued)
Major Industry Standards ANSI/IEEE C57 Series (All types)
UL 1562 (Dry and Cast-resin types)
Medium-voltage power and distribution transformers are used for the transformation
of voltages for the distribution of electric power. They can be generally classified into
two different types:
Dry-Type: The windings of this type of transformer are cooled via the circulation of
ventilating air. The windings may be one of several types, including Vacuum Pressure
Impregnated (VPI), Vacuum Pressure Encapsulated (VPE), and cast-resin. The cast-
resin types generally are more durable and less likely to absorb moisture in the
windings than the VPI or VPE types. In some cases, the primary windings are cast-
resin and the secondary windings are VPI or VPE.
Liquid-Filled: The windings of this type of transformer are cooled via a liquid medium,
usually mineral oil, silicone, or paraffinic petroleum-based fluids.
Liquid-filled units have a generally low in first-cost, but the requirements in NEC The
National Electrical Code, NFPA 7098 Article 450 must be reviewed so that installation
requirements can be adequately met, and maintenance must be taken under
consideration since fluid levels should be monitored and the condition of the fluid
examined on a regular basis. They have an expected service life of approximately 20
years. VPE and VPI dry-type transformers also generally have low first-costs, have
longer lifetimes than liquid-filled units, and are much easier than liquid-filled types to
install indoors; however, give consideration to the absorption of moisture by the
windings if these are used outdoors. Installed indoors, these have expected service
lifetimes of around 30 years. Cast-resin dry-type transformers have generally high
first-costs compared to the other types but have the same installation requirements as
dry-type transformers and have the longest expected service life (around 40 years).
Enclosure styles may also be divided into two basic types: pad-mounted, which is a
totally-enclosed type generally mounted outdoors and with specific tamper-resistance
features to minimize inadvertent access by the general public, and unit substation
type, which is an industrial-type enclosure suitable for close-coupling into an
integrated unit substation lineup with primary and secondary equipment (unit
substation-style transformers may also be equipped with cable termination
compartments as well).
Medium Voltage Power and Distribution Transformers, page 177 shows typical
examples of medium-voltage power and distribution transformers.Top to bottom: cast-
coil dry type with unit substation-style enclosure, VPI dry-type with unit substation-
style enclosure, liquid-filled type with unit substation-style enclosure, and dry-type with
pad-mounted enclosure.
176 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 104 - Medium Voltage Power and Distribution Transformers
Medium-voltage power and distribution transformer capacities may be increased with

the addition of fans. Cooling types are listed as AA (ambient air) for dry-type
transformers without fans, and AA/FA (ambient air/forced air) for dry-type
transformers with fans, for an increase of 33% in kVA capacity. The cooling type for a
liquid-filled transformer is listed as OA for units without fans, OA/FA for units with fans,
with an increase of 15% kVA capacity for units 225 - 2000 kVA, and 25% for units
2,500 – 10,000 kVA. “FFA” (future forced air) options are usually available for both dry
and liquid-filled types, although experience has shown that the fans are almost never
added in the field.
Typical BIL Levels for Medium-voltage Power and Distribution Transformers, page
177 gives typical BIL levels for medium-voltage power and distribution transformers.
These apply to both the primary and secondary windings. Typical Design Temperature
Rises for Medium-voltage Power and Distribution Transformers, page 177 gives
typical design temperature rises.
Table 37 - Typical BIL Levels for Medium-voltage Power and Distribution

Transformers
kV Class VPI/VPE Dry-type BIL (kV) Liquid-filled and Cast- resin

Dry-type BIL (kV)
1.2 10 30
2.5 20 45
5.0 30 60
7.2 30 60
8.7 45 75
15.0 60 95
25.0 110 125
35.0 N/A a, page 177 150
a VPI/VPE dry-type transformers are typically not available above 25.0 kV Class.
Table 38 - Typical Design Temperature Rises for Medium-voltage Power and

Distribution Transformers
Transformer Type Temperature Rise (°C)
VPI/VPE Dry-type 80, 115, or 150
Cast-coil Dry-type 80 or 115
Liquid-filled 55/65 or 65
Impedance levels vary; the manufacturer must be consulted for the design impedance
of a specific transformer. In general, units 1000–5000 kVA typically have 5.75%
impedance ± 7.5% tolerance.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 177

Medium-voltage power and distribution transformers are typically available with

several types of accessories, including connections to primary and secondary
equipment, temperature controllers and fan packages, integral fuses for transformers
with padmount-style enclosures.
Medium-voltage Metal-enclosed Interrupter Air-insulated

Switchgear
Table 39 - Medium-voltage Metal-enclosed Switchgear: Quick Reference
Available Voltage Ratings 2400 V–38 kV
Available Current Ratings 600–2000
Major Industry Standards ANSI/IEEE C37.20.3
Metal-enclosed power switchgear is defined by IEEE Standard for Metal-Enclosed

Interrupter Switchgear99 as “a switchgear assembly enclosed on all sides and top with
sheet metal (except for ventilating openings and inspection windows) containing
primary power circuit switching or interrupting devices, or both, with buses and
connections and possibly including control and auxiliary devices. Access to the
interior of the enclosure is provided by doors or removable covers.” Metal-enclosed
interrupter switchgear is defined by IEEE Standard for Metal-Enclosed Interrupter
Switchgear99 as “metal-enclosed power switchgear including the following equipment
as required:
• Interrupter switches (or vacuum circuit breaker)
• Power fuses (current-limiting or noncurrent- limiting)
• Bare bus and connections
• Instrument transformers
• Control wiring and secondary devices
Metal-enclosed interrupter switchgear is typically used for the protection of unit
substation transformers and as service-entrance equipment in small- to medium-size
facilities. Metal-enclosed Interrupter Switchgear, page 179 shows an example of
metal-enclosed interrupter switchgear.
99. IEEE Std. C37.20.3-2001, August 2001.
178 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 105 - Metal-enclosed Interrupter Switchgear
In the case of fusible equipment, overcurrent protection flexibility is limited, however

with current-limiting fuses this equipment has high (up to 65 kA rms symmetrical)
short-circuit interrupting capability. The load interrupter switches in this class of
switchgear are designed to interrupt load currents only and may use air as the
interrupting medium or SF6. They may be arranged in many configurations of mains,
but ties, and feeders as required by the application.
As for Vacuum-circuit breaker Metal-enclosed gear, all use a combination of vacuum
circuit breaker and protective relays; design features like compartmentalization, bus
insulation and for breakers to be withdrawable Is not required by IEEE standards.
This type of switchgear is frequently used as the primary equipment of a unit
substation line-up incorporating primary equipment, a transformer, and secondary
equipment.
Voltage Withstand Levels for Metal-enclosed Interrupter Switchgear, page 179 shows
the BIL levels of metal-enclosed interrupter switchgear, per 100. The power frequency
withstand is a one-minute test value. Momentary (ten cycle) and short-time (two
seconds) current ratings are also assigned for this type of switchgear.
Table 40 - Voltage Withstand Levels for Metal-enclosed Interrupter Switchgear
Rated Maximum Voltage (kV) Power Frequency Withstand Impulse Withstand (kV)
(rms) (kV)
4.76 19 60
8.25 36 95
15.0 36 95
27.0 60 125
38.0 80 150
100. IEEE Standard for Metal-Enclosed Interrupter Switchgear, IEEE Std. C37.20.3-2001, August 2001.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 179

Internal barriering requirements for medium-voltage areas within the switchgear are
minimal. All low-voltage components are required to be separated by grounded metal
barriers from all medium-voltage components. Interlocks are required to minimize
access to medium-voltage fuses while their respective switch is open and to minimize
closing their respective switch while they are accessible. In the rare case that this type
of switchgear contains drawout devices, shutters must be provided to minimize
accidental contact with live parts when the drawout element is withdrawn.
Available options for this type of switchgear include shunt trip devices for the
switches, motor operators for the switches, blown fuse indication. Relaying of any
type, including voltage relaying, must be carefully reviewed to avoid exceeding the
limits of the switches. The application of overcurrent relaying to this type of switchgear
is not recommended unless a short-circuit interrupting element is included, such as a
vacuum interrupter.
Medium-voltage Motor Control Centers

Table 41 - Medium-voltage Motor Control Centers
Available Voltage Ratings 2400 V–7.2 kV
Available Current Ratings Through 3000 A
Major Industry Standards NEMA ICS-3, UL 347
Medium-voltage motor controllers are used to control the starting and protection for
medium-voltage motors. They generally utilize vacuum contactors rated up to 400 A
continuous, in series with a non-load-break isolation switch and R-rated fuses, fed
from a common power bus. The motor starting methods in Arc Flash Hazard, page
150 are all generally supported, including soft-start capabilities. Class E2 units per
Industrial Control and Systems: Medium Voltage Controllers Rated 2001 to 7200 Volts
AC101, which employ fuses for short-circuit protection, are generally the most
common. Medium-voltage MCC, page 181 shows a typical example of a medium-
voltage MCC.
Medium-voltage MCC’s are generally available with several options depending upon
the manufacturer, including customized control and multi-function microprocessor-
based motor protection relays The contactors are generally of roll-out design to allow
quick replacement.
Above 7200, metal-clad switchgear is generally used for motor starting.
101. NEMA Standards Publication ICS 3-1993.
180 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 106 - Medium-voltage MCC
Medium-voltage Metal-clad Switchgear

Table 42 - Medium-voltage Metal-clad Switchgear
Available Voltage Ratings 2400 V–38 kV (27 kV for SE)
Available Current Ratings Through 3000 A (4000 A for SE)
Metal-clad switchgear is defined by102 as “metal-enclosed power switchgear

characterized by the following necessary features:
• The main switching and interrupting device is of the removable (drawout type)
arranged with a mechanism for moving it physically between connected and
disconnected positions and equipped with self-aligning and self-coupling primary
disconnecting devices and disconnectable control wiring connections.
• Major parts of the primary circuit, that is, the circuit switching or interrupting
devices, buses, voltage transformers, and control power transformers, are
completely enclosed by grounded metal barriers that have no intentional
openings between compartments. Specifically included is a metal barrier in front
of, or a part of, the circuit interrupting device so that, when in the connected
position, no primary circuit components are exposed by the opening of a door.
• All live parts are enclosed within grounded metal compartments.
• Automatic shutters that cover primary circuit elements when the removable
element is in the disconnected, test, or removed position.
• Primary bus conductors and connections are covered with insulating material
throughout.
• Mechanical interlocks are provided for proper operating sequence under normal
operating conditions.
• Instruments, meters, relays, secondary control devices, and their wiring are
isolated by grounded metal barriers from all primary circuit elements except for
short lengths of wire such as at instrument transformer terminals.
102. IEEE Standard for Metal-Clad Switchgear, IEEE Std. C37.20.2-1999, July 2000.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 181

• The door through which the circuit interrupting device is inserted into the housing
may serve as an instrument or relay panel and may also provide access to a
secondary or control compartment within the housing.
Medium-voltage metal-clad switchgear is generally used as the high-level distribution
switchgear for medium- to large-sized facilities. It is also the preferred choice for
service entrance equipment for these types of facilities.Metal-clad Switchgear, page
182 shows an example of metal-clad switchgear.
Figure 107 - Metal-clad Switchgear
Metal-clad switchgear uses high-voltage circuit breakers, as described in System

Protection, page 69, fed from a common power bus. It is configurable in many
different arrangements of main, bus tie, and feeder devices to suit the application.
Relays are usually required since the circuit breakers generally do not have integral
trip units. This type of switchgear is the preferred means for accomplishing automatic
transfer control and complex generator paralleling applications; the control may be
placed in the switchgear itself or in a separate panel, depending upon the application
and specific end-user preferences.
A new generation of Metal-clad switchgear with narrower footprint, offers an average
space saving of 25% when compared to traditional metal-clad. Its native digital
operation and monitoring enhances safety and efficiency.
The construction requirements per103 ensure that metal-clad switchgear is the safest
type of switchgear in terms of operator safety.
The BIL and withstand voltage requirements for this switchgear are the same as for
metal-enclosed switchgear as given in Medium-voltage Metal-clad Switchgear, page
181.
This type of switchgear has many options available to suit the application, such as
electric racking for circuit breakers, ground and test units that allow the grounding/
testing of stationary contacts with a circuit breaker withdrawn.
Retrofit Solutions
Retrofit solutions are pre-engineered solutions that are designed with a new breaker
element truck and carriage used to be installed in the existing switchgear. The
interfaces with the existing structure maintain all safety interlocks inherent with the
original design. The interior of the existing cell is not modified. These types of
solutions work well with any brand of legacy switchgear.
103. IEEE Standard for Metal-Clad Switchgear, IEEE Std. C37.20.2-1999, July 2000.
182 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

• For low-voltage switchgear a cradle-in-cradle design is utilized as replacement to

make a connection to the existing cell bus connections. The retrofit solutions
allow interchangeability of the breaker element with other OEM switchgear of the
same rating.
• For medium-voltage switchgear a new truck element is designed to match the
existing cell. Design the electrically operated mechanism to match the existing
air-magnetic circuits. The mechanism utilized in the design have a passive
interlock to block the insertion or removal of a closed breaker.
• The solutions are designed and tested to IEEE Std C37.59 or to ANSI C37.50
standards.
Medium-voltage Gas Insulated Switchgear

Table 43 - Medium-voltage Gas Insulated Switchger: Quick Reference
Available Voltage Ratings 2400 V–38 kV
Available Current Ratings Through 2500 A
Gas Insulated switchgear is a relatively compact, multi-component assembly,

enclosed in a grounded metallic housing in which the primary insulating medium is a
compressed gas. It is typically characterized by the following features:
• 1-high or Single-high construction
• Fixed vacuum circuit breaker
• Front-access only design
• Front cable connections and testing
• Internal disconnect and grounding mechanism
• Bottom and top cable entry, with T-body connectors
• Arc resistant and seismic design
• CTs and VTs accessible outside the gas tank
• VTs are isolated with integrated grounding switch
• Modular design of switchgear sections
Medium-voltage gas-insulated switchgear is generally used as the high-level
distribution switchgear for medium- to large-sized facilities. It is also the preferred
choice for Power or E-houses and power distribution rooms where gas-insulated
switchgear’s compact design maximizes equipment space savings.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 183

Figure 108 - GHA and CBGS-0
Retrofills for Upgrade and Modernization

A retrofill solution is a custom engineered solution that involves modifying the cell and
bus to accept the new low or medium voltage circuit breaker. The new circuit breaker
provides new racking mechanism, primary and secondary disconnects, as well as
new doors. For low-voltage switchgear a cradle-in-cradle design is utilized as
replacement to make a connection to the existing cell bus connections. The retrofit
solutions allow interchangeability of the breaker element with other OEM switchgear
of the same rating:
• For medium-voltage switchgear a new truck element is designed to match the
existing cell. Design the electrically operated mechanism to match the existing
air-magnetic circuits. The mechanism utilized in the design have a passive
interlock to block the insertion or removal of a closed breaker.
• The solutions are designed and tested to IEEE Std C37.59 or to ANSI C37.50
standards.
Emergency Power Distribution Equipment

Introduction
Emergency and standby power systems are designed to provide an alternate source
of power if the normal source of power, typically the electric utility service, should fail.
Reliability of these types of systems is critical and good design practices are essential.
Codes and Standards

Classification of Emergency and Standby Power Systems
184 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

• Emergency Power System: NEC Article 700 specifies electrical safety

requirements for circuits and equipment that must operate to enable the
evacuation of buildings where large numbers of people assemble, such as hotels,
theaters, areas, and healthcare facilities. Circuits and equipment that provide
emergency illumination are covered by Article 700. Examples of other systems to
which Article 700 may apply include ventilation systems, fire alarm systems,
elevators, fire pumps, and industrial processes where interruption of power could
result in a serious safety risk or health hazard. For instance, if power interruption
could result in a release of a hazardous material from industrial process
machinery, the associated circuits and equipment could be subject to the
provisions of Article 700. The systems are also classified as Level 1, critical to life
safety. When power is lost, emergency systems are required to provide alternate
power within ten seconds or less.
• Legally Required Standby Systems: NEC Article 701 specifies electrical safety
requirements for legally required standby systems circuits and equipment that
must operate when the normal supply or system is interrupted. Article 700
addresses equipment and systems that are needed to provide required
illumination for building egress or power for equipment essential for safety of life,
Article 701 specifies the requirements to provide power to aid support personnel
responding to emergencies or supporting recovery from emergency events. For
example, while emergency circuits under Article 700 powers lighting required to
exit a building, legally required circuits may power lighting that enables
responders to view controls for critical building equipment, such as controls for
valves, transfer switches, power distribution panels, and other electrical or safety
equipment. When power is lost, legally required standby systems are required to
provide alternate power within 60 seconds or less.
• Optional Standby Systems: NEC Article 702 specifies requirements for the
“installation and operation of optional standby systems, both those that are
permanently installed in their entirety and those arranged for connection to a
portable supply …. where life safety does not depend on the performance of the
system.” [702.1, 702.2] Examples of systems covered by Article 702 include
those in (1) residences provided to avoid inconvenience or discomfort; (2)
business facilities installed to avoid interruption in the operation of revenue-
generating equipment, and (3) warehouses where loss of refrigeration would
result in product spoilage and business losses.
The National Electrical Code
The National Electrical Code contains requirements for emergency systems in Article
700, legally required standby systems in Article 701, optional standby systems in
Article 702 and critical operations power systems in Article 708. In addition, Article
445 (Generators), 517 (Health Care Facilities), 665 (Integrated Electrical Facilities),
705 (Interconnected Electrical Power Production Sources) and Article 240.87 (Arc
Energy Reduction) are all of particular interest for emergency and standby power
systems.
NFPA 110
NFPA 110 Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems, defines how
emergency and standby power systems are to be installed and tested. It contains
requirements for energy sources, transfer equipment, and installation and
environmental considerations. It divides Emergency Power Supply Systems (EPSS)
into Types, Classes, and Levels.
The Type refers to the maximum time that an EPSS can remain unpowered after a
loss of the normal source. The types are listed in NFPA 110 Emergency Power Supply
System Types NFPA 110 Table 4.1(b), page 185.
Table 44 - NFPA 110 Emergency Power Supply System Types NFPA 110 Table 4.1
(b)
Type Power Restoration Time
U Basically Uninterruptible (UPS Systems)
10 10 seconds
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 185

Table 44 - NFPA 110 Emergency Power Supply System Types NFPA 110 Table 4.1
(b) (Continued)
60 60 seconds
120 120 seconds
M Manual stationary or nonautomatic – no time limit
The Class of an EPSS refers to the minimum time, in hours, for which the system is
designed to operate at its rated load without being refueled or recharged. The classes
for emergency power systems are shown in NFPA 110 Emergency Power System
Classes NFPA 110 Table 4.1(A), page 186.
Table 45 - NFPA 110 Emergency Power System Classes NFPA 110 Table 4.1(A)
Class Power Restoration Time

0.083 0.083 hour (5 minute)
0.25 .25 hour (15 minute)
2 2 hour
6 6 hour
48 48 hour
X Other time, in hours, as required by the application, code, or user.
The Level of an EPSS refers to the level of equipment installation, performance, and
maintenance requirements. The levels for emergency power systems are shown in
NFPA Emergency Power System Levels, page 186.
Table 46 - NFPA Emergency Power System Levels
Level When Installed

1 When loss of the equipment to perform could result in loss of human life or serious
injuries (A4.4.1)
2 When loss of the equipment to perform is less critical to human life and safety and
where the authority having jurisdiction shall permit a higher degree of flexibility than
that provided by a Level 1 system (A4.4.2)
NFPA 101
NFPA 101 [4], Life Safety Code, addresses those construction, protection, and
occupancy features necessary to minimize danger to life from fire, including smoke,
fumes, or panic. It defines the requirements for what systems the Emergency Power
System supplies.
NFPA 99
NFPA 99 defines establishes criteria to minimize the hazards of fire, explosion, and
electricity in health care facilities. It defines several specific features of electric power
systems for these facilities.
Power Sources
Generators are the most prevalent source of power for emergency and standby power
systems. For most commercial and industrial power systems these are engine-
generator sets, with the prime-mover and the generator built into a single unit. For
reciprocating engines, diesel engines are the most popular choice of prime-mover for
generators, due to the cost of the diesel engines as compared to other forms of power
and the relative ease of application. Engine generator sets can also run on natural
186 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

gas, however natural gas engines typically have slower response times, than diesel
units.
Another option available is the turbine generator, typically powered by natural gas.
Gas-turbine generator sets are generally lighter in weight than diesel engine-
generator sets, run more quietly, and generally require less cooling and combustion
air, leading to lower installation costs. Turbine generators typically are utilized in large
capacity applications, when lengthy continuous operation is required and in combined
heat and power (CHP) applications. Gas-turbine generator sets are more expensive
and typically less efficient than diesel engine-generator sets. They have more
complex controls and require longer starting times (normally around 30 seconds
compared to the 10-15 seconds or less for diesels). The long starting-time
requirement, cost, and lack of available small sizes (< 500 kW) makes the gas-turbine
generators infeasible in most emergency and standby power applications.
Considerations for generator installations include the combustion and cooling air
required by the generator and prime mover, provisions for the removal of exhaust
gases, noise abatement, expected run time hours and emissions. These
considerations can increase the installation costs, especially for diesel engines. Fuel
supply must also be considered; building code and insurance considerations may
force the fuel storage tank to be well removed from the generator(s), usually forcing
the addition of a fuel transfer tank near the generator(s).
Engine-generator sets must be sized properly for the application. Several ratings exist
for the output capability of an engine generator set. The continuous rating is typically
the output rating of the engine-generator set on a continuous basis with a non-varying
load. The prime power rating is typically the continuous output rating with varying
load. The standby rating is typically the output rating for a limited period of time with
varying load. The manufacturer must be consulted to define the capabilities of a given
unit.
Automatic-transfer Switches
A means must be provided to switch the critical loads from the normal utility source to
the standby power source. Several types of devices are available for this.
An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is defined as “self-acting equipment for
transferring one or more load conductor connections from one power source to
another” [1]. Automatic-transfer switches are the most common means of transferring
critical loads in Emergency Power Supply Systems (EPSS). An automatic-transfer
switch consists of a switching means and a control system that senses both normal
and emergency supply voltage and frequency. The major functions of an automatic-
transfer switch include the following:
• Carry current continuously
• Detect power failures
• Initiate the alternate source (Send a start signal to an engine generator)
• Transfer load
• Sense restoration of the normal source
• Retransfer load to the normal source
• Withstand and close on fault currents – ATS Withstand Current Rating (WCR)
An automatic-transfer switch determines when an outage occurs and after an
adjustable time delay (Typically one to six seconds in the event of a momentary
outage) sends a start signal to the emergency generator. Upon sensing the generator
has achieved acceptable voltage and frequency the automatic-transfer switch
transfers the load to the alternate source. When the normal source returns and after
an adjustable time delay the automatic-transfer switch controls sense the normal
source voltage and frequency and transfer the load back to the normal source when it
has achieved acceptable voltage and frequency levels. automatic-transfer switches
are available in ratings from 30 - 4000 A, and up to 600 V [1]. Low Voltage Transfer
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 187

Switches are listed to UL1008. There are options for medium-voltage transfer
switches up to 15 kV that are listed to UL 1008A. Because automatic-transfer
switches are designed to continuously carry the loads they serve, even under normal
conditions, take care in sizing these so that the potential for loss is minimized.
Similarly, pay attention to available short circuit current at each transfer switch so that
proper Withstand Current Rating (WCR) capability is provided. Automatic-test
switches with adjustable pickup and dropout setpoints and integral testing capability
should be included.
Figure 109 - Automatic-transfer Switch One-line Diagram Representation
Automatic-transfer switches can be provided in open-transition, closed-transition or

delayed-transition modes.
Open-transition is the simplest mode of transferring load between two power sources.
Open-transition operates in a “Break before Make” sequence which results in a
momentary interruption of power, typically 30 to 50 milliseconds.
Figure 110 - Open-transition Sequence
Closed-transition operation transfers between two acceptable power sources without

interrupting power to the load in a “Make before Break” sequence. Closed-transition
operation connects the normal and alternate sources together for a short (100
milliseconds or less) time when switching between two acceptable sources. Closed—
transition switches are typically applied in critical applications to avoid interruption to
load when switching between two acceptable sources. Examples include returning to
normal after an outage, when load transfers are planned or in test mode. Take special
care when transferring motor loads or high inrush current loads.
188 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 111 - Closed-transition Sequence
When power is disconnected from a motor it can become self-excited, delivering

energy until they slow to a stop. In addition, if connection to a source were to occur
when the motor is 180° out of phase with the source it is transferring to the motor and
motor coupling could be subjected to potential damage. There are two methods that
can be used to manage transfer of motor loads. One is inphase monitoring which
measures the real time phase angle difference between the sources and allows
transfer to occur when the sources approach synchronism. This approach is typically
used with Open-transition transfer switches. A second method is a Delayed-transition
mode of operation. Delayed Transition operation includes an automatic-transfer
Switch with a center-off position for the switching contacts. In this mode of operation,
the ATS disconnects all loads from both power sources for a brief user adjustable time
period, allowing voltage from inductive loads to decay. At the expiration of the time
period the ATS transfers to the alternate source.
Figure 112 - Delayed-transition Sequence
Manual versions of transfer switches are also available. A one-line representation of

an automatic-transfer switch is shown in Automatic-transfer Switch One-line Diagram
Representation, page 188.
In critical applications when loads cannot be de-energized for long periods of time,
combined Automatic-transfer/Bypass-isolation switches (ATS/BPS) are used to
bypass the automatic-transfer switch and connect the source to the load via the
bypass switch. This allows isolation of the transfer switch for maintenance purposes.
Because emergency power circuits must always be available to serve life-safety
equipment, NEC Article 700.5(B) specifies that “Means shall be permitted to bypass
and isolate the transfer equipment.” Automatic transfer switches equipped with
bypass isolation provide continuous power to loads when the ATS is removed from
service for inspection, testing, and maintenance. Bypass/isolation Switch Application,
page 190 shows a typical automatic-transfer/bypass - isolation switch arrangement.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 189

Figure 113 - Bypass/isolation Switch Application
In Bypass/isolation Switch Application, page 190 the bypass switch contacts bypass
the automatic-transfer switch, and isolation contacts serve to isolate the automatic-
transfer switch. The Bypass/isolation switch is typically manually operated. Bypass/
isolation switches are available with a "make before break” feature allowing bypass of
the automatic-transfer switch to be completed without disconnecting the load.
Automatic-transfer/Bypass-isolation switches are available in Open-transition, Closed-
transition and Delayed-transition configurations as described above.
Figure 114 - Automatic-transfer- Bypass/isolation Swtiches
190 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Uninterruptible Power Supplies

Definition
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is an electrical device that supplies temporary
power to a load when the input power source fails. This differs from a standby
generator in that the UPS provides near-instantaneous protection from power
interruptions such that the load is not subject to any power interruption. Energy is
provided via a stored energy source discussed later in this document. Continuous
power is provided by an upstream generator / ATS source, or through resumption of
utility power.
Application
UPS products can range from 200 VA single-phase up to over 1.5 MW three-phase,
with a variety of voltages and frequencies available for global applications. They are
typically installed in applications that require continuous power so as not to lose
critical data, such as financial information, critical process information, sensitive
electronics, and lighting, manufacturing, specific health care (MRI, CT, etc.) and other
applications that are highly desired to keep up through a temporary power disruption.
A byproduct of most larger UPS products is that they provide tightly controlled, highly
conditioned power to those sensitive loads, by nature of the double conversion
process.
Types of UPS
The three most common types of UPS are offline/standby; line-interactive; and double
conversion. The type is typically indicative of the power level and criticality of the load,
that is offline/standby are normally small VA capable devices, from 200 W - 2 KW
single phase, line-interactive 500 W - 5 kW single phase, and double conversion from
5 KW single phase to the largest sizes of double conversion. The bulk of the
discussion in this paper focuses on the three-phase double conversion market:
• Offline/standby: This product offers surge protection and battery backup, but is
normally in a standby condition, allowing utility to pass through to the critical load
during normal operations. These are most commonly used on a personal
desktop, at point-of-sale systems in stores, and other small applications.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 191

• Line Interactive: This product is similar to standby, with the additional feature of
an autotransformer that adjusts to ongoing sag and surge conditions to provide
conditioned power. These are a lower cost options to compared to double
conversion and are typical implemented in small back office computer rooms, to
keep small servers and network switches energized during brief outages.
Figure 115 - Line-interactive
Surge
Suppressor Filter
AC
Source
Transfer
Switch
Output
Load
Battery
Charger Battery Inverter
Figure 116 - Line-interactive 2
Transfer Tap-changing AVR

AC Switch Transformer
Source
Output
Load
Battery Converter
192 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

• Double Conversion: The majority of large scale three-phase UPS in the world
utilize double conversion systems. As the name suggests, takes input utility,
converts it to DC via a rectifier and charges the Direct Current (DC) source while
simultaneously converting back to AC off the DC bus via an inverter. This system
provides highly conditioned and controlled AC power to more susceptible critical
loads. A bypass static switch allows for continuous power to the load in the case
of power train loss in the double conversion system. These UPS modules
typically start at five - ten KVA single-phase and can be as large 1.5 MW.
Additional system capacity can be achieved by paralleling multiple units together.
Total system capacity is limited to paralleling bus and breaker sizes as well as
limiting control capabilities. Rarely are system capacities see greater than 3.2
MW.
Figure 117 - Double Conversion
Static Bypass
Switch
Rectifier Inverter
AC Output
Source Load
Battery
Use Examples
UPS systems are used in a wide variety of locations. In the home, personal desktop
computers may be backed up by a small offline/standby system. In small business
operations, the back-office server, phone switch, network equipment, and other
business critical components may be protected by a line-interactive UPS. Typically,
units are placed in the bottom of the two-post rack.
In larger applications, double-conversion UPS are used for a variety of purposes.
Applications include lighting inverter support for emergency lighting, CT/MRI/PET
scanning systems, data centers to back up the critical computing facility, and
manufacturing processes to prevent production losses. Many times, a UPS is used to
back up the controls portion of whatever process is occurring. This allows for the PLC,
computer, or whatever is controlling, for example, the manufacturing process to stay
energized through a temporary outage, and thus knows where the process left off until
power is restored for the process to continue.
Codes and Standards
Uninterruptible Power Supplies are UL listed conforming to UL1778. Special
application standards include UL924 for emergency lighting. Recent DC storage
adoptions have seen the rise of UL1973 for lithium batteries, and large-scale fire
testing to UL9540A test standards. DC Energy sources are directly coupled with the
UPS. They are governed by International Building Code (IBC), International Fire Code
(IFC), and National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) standards, addressed later in this
document.
Design Considerations
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 193

The use of UPS topologies for different applications also requires specific design
considerations. This is specifically true for larger double-conversion UPS. The
following sub-sections outline the most common design considerations.
• Transformer versus Transformer-less: Double-conversion UPS have seen a
fundamental transformation over the last ten years. Prior generations of UPS
included output transformers (a transformer in series with the inverter) for
waveform shaping and electrical isolation. Some also included an input isolation
transformer, either for galvanic isolation, or to allow for special rectifier
configurations. With inverter technology improvements, transformers on both
input and output have been all but eliminated. The only common remaining
transformer is in UL924 lighting inverter systems at 480 V. Since lighting is many
times at 277 V off a 480/277 V system, the UPS takes 480 V 3 W+G input and
provides an output isolation transformer, 480-480/277 V 4 W+G, developing the
neutral to support lighting loads.
• Bypass: A second major design improvement has been in the static bypass
switch technology. Higher efficiency requirements have driven more efficient
modes, such as ECO or E-Conversion, whereby power is transferred to the load
via the static bypass. In the event of a power outage, the UPS transfers back to
double conversion mode. This requires the static bypass to be a 100%
continuous duty rated component. Previous components were typically
momentary duty rated with wraparound contractors.
• Power Factor: Power factor and power capability of UPS have been transformed
in the last decade as well. In the 1990s, UPS were typically .8 power factor (pf).
For example, a 500 kVA UPS could only provide 400 kW of usable power. In the
early 2000s, these were improved to .9 pf (500 kVA/450 kW). Power electronics
improvements have now made unity power factor the de facto standard, where
kVA equals kW (kVA/kW).
• Input Voltages: Input versus output voltage of data center UPS remains a
common confusion point. Incoming utility transformation is typically to 480/277 V
main switchboard use. From here, lighting panels, mechanical loads, and the
UPS are fed. While the other equipment (lighting and mechanical loads) might
use the neutral and require it to be pulled, the UPS typically does not require, nor
desire, a neutral to be run. Downstream of the UPS, in the data center, or point of
use, most IT loads utilizes 208/120 V, or something similar. Therefore, a Power
Distribution Unit (PDU) incorporates a transformer to develop the 208/120 V
required. Thus, a UPS can be 480 V 3 W+G input and output, feeding the 480 V
input of the PDU to provide appropriate transformation. This can be a significant
cost saver in not requiring a neutral run, four-pole breakers for bypass operation,
complexity of operation, and other issues.
208 V is a common voltage for double conversion in the range between 10 kVA
and 150 kVA, and frequently used in small to medium size data centers, as well
as Medium Distribution Facilities (MDF) and larger edge computing deployments.
194 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

• Redundancy and Reliability: UPS design configurations are often described by

nomenclatures using the letter “N” in a calculation stream. For instance, a parallel
redundant system may also be called an N+1 design, or a system plus system
design may be referred to as 2N. “N” can simply be defined as the “need” of the
critical load. In other words, it is the power capacity required to feed the protected
equipment. An N system is a system comprised of a single UPS module, or a
paralleled set of modules whose capacity is matched to the critical load
projection. This type of system is by far the most common of the configurations in
the UPS industry. Schneider Electric’s White Paper 75 is available for further
information on this topic: https://www.apc.com/us/en/support/resources-tools/
white-papers/.
In large data centers, reliability is a key metric. Mean Time Between Failure
(MTBF) has historically been a key indicator of consistent performance. This
metric measures the number of hours between component failures within a UPS
that resulted in a load loss. Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) is another key metric
that determines the amount of time in hours from onset of component loss to
complete repair and return of that UPS to operation. While both metrics are key,
in modern UPS topologies with modularized design implementations, MTBF
values continue to extend while MTTR continues to be reduced dramatically.
Schneider Electric’s White Paper 96 is available for further information on this
topic: https://www.apc.com/us/en/support/resources-tools/white-papers/.
• Breaker and Generator Sizing: UPS input breaker sizing is an important topic.
UPS sizes are stated for their output capacity. They are considered a constant
kW device. As such, it is necessary to provide a larger input breaker than
expected. This is due to the losses experienced through the UPS, as well as the
additional load required on the input to charge the DC voltage source. A typical
rule of thumb is to use a breaker that is 125% of nominal UPS output. UPS
manufacturers provide detailed breaker sizing information in their literature.
Generator and Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) components must also be
oversized to account for this additional input load, and to account for UPS input
filters that can present leading power factors at low load levels. A 1.5 rating factor
was common in previous generations of UPS topologies. With the introduction of
power factor corrected rectifier assemblies, Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) input technology, and other advancements, that generator rating factor
can be reduced to 1.1-1.25 in modern UPS installations.
Direct Current Energy Sources
UPS modules can use a variety of DC energy storage systems to provide the
necessary energy during outages. These vary from different battery technologies to
flywheels. In large data center grade UPS, as the most common voltage is 480 Vac in/
out, and the DC bus voltages is 480 Vdc to connect to the DC energy storage source.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 195

• Battery Technologies: Battery technologies that are most commonly seen:

Flooded Lead Acid, Valve Regulated Lead Acid, Lithium, and Nickel-Zinc. Each is
discussed in the following paragraphs.
Flooded Lead Acid (FLA) batteries are by far the most space consuming and
most expensive choice, which also must include spill containment and room
ventilation measures. They were the most common battery types up until the mid-
2000s. Since then, they have seen a sharp decline in use, mainly due to size and
cost. They are a 20-year product, with a common life expectancy of 13-15 years
in UPS applications. They require quarterly maintenance to keep the electrolyte
levels constant.
Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) have been a common second choice to FLA
for decades, due to space savings as well as significant initial cost savings.
However, VRLA are a ten-year product, with three-five year life expectancy. They
require semi-annual maintenance, and it is recommended to use a battery
monitoring system to be alerted when they begin to fail.
Lithium batteries (LiB) are a recent addition (2016) to the large UPS market.
Initially at a significant price disadvantage to VRLA, volume of sales has driven
their price point to or on par with VRLA. Due to their longevity of 15 service years,
size and weight savings, they are a very attractive choice in modern data center
and other designs. Recently, IFC/IBC and the NFPA have all provided updated
standards (IFC/IBC 2018, and NFPA855), which require limitations on lithium
battery technology. The most common lithium offerings have received UL1973
listings for stationary application and have passed large scale fire testing as
required under those standards (UL9540A test standard).
Nickel-Zinc batteries (Ni-Zn) are a relatively recent addition to battery technology
used in UPS applications. They offer similar savings to weight and footprint
compared to LiB. As this is an emerging technology, they come at a significant
price disadvantage. However, they do not pose the same fire concerns, and can
be placed in greater quantities without restrictions.
• Flywheel: In some applications, frequently seen in hospital installations,
flywheels are also being used as an available energy source. Flywheels allow for
very short ride through times of 20-40 seconds, just sufficient to get to generator
on the UPS input. Flywheels are relatively expensive, yet use only a very small
amount of space, rivaling LiB and Ni-Zn. They do require extensive maintenance
periodically, such as bearing and oil replacements. Service support and
availability needs to be considered when considering flywheels as an energy
source.
• Warranted Life: Warranty for batteries has also evolved over the last 15 years.
FLA typically carries a three - five year full warranty, with a pro-rated value over
the remaining 15 years. VRLA commonly carry a three-year full warranty, without
subsequent pro-ration. Previously, both technologies offered a cycle life warranty.
This required a battery monitoring system to provide the required data. Cycle life
warranties have been mostly eliminated in the current battery market. LiB and Ni-
Zn commonly carry 10-year performance guarantees, with offerings for full
warranty coverage.
• UPS Backup Time: UPS back up times vary widely. Specialty applications such
as UL924 have a mandated 90 minute required run time.
Smaller facilities are typically limited by space and cost, which leads to backup
times such as five minutes or less.
Data Centers are typically in a range of 5-15 minutes on the longer end. However,
data centers are nearly always provided with a backup generator, and the actual
run time on the UPS is in the 15-40 second timeframe, regardless of actual
battery installation.
An additional design consideration is the battery technology used and its limitations,
as well as the overall design of the electrical infrastructure. If a generator exists,
consider minimal battery run time, as the additional run time is never needed.
However, battery chemistries may limit just how short that time can be. A chemical
phenomenon known as “coup de fouet” limits VRLA batteries to be not less than five
minutes, unless a thin plate pure lead style of VRLA is used, then one - two minutes
are common. LiB have a specific amount of energy available (one jar style with a
196 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

specific amp-hour), therefore they have very specific run times available, from as little
as two minutes to commonly five-seven minutes, depending on UPS KW. Ni-Zn will
have similar considerations to LiB.
These LiB installations are typically referred to as using “Power” batteries. As
described, they can discharge the entire stored energy rapidly (min. versus hours).
Energy batteries, also LiB, on the other hand, allow to discharge the stored energy
over a much longer period (hours vesus minutes). Just recently are these types of
implementation considered to support additional use cases, such as Demand
Reduction and Energy Arbitrage to reduce overall electrical utility charges.
Conclusion
UPS implementations are used to protect against power disruptions in many diverse
applications. The two main reasons are to protect against financial losses or life-safety
concerns. This includes data centers and hospitals or control systems and entire
manufacturing processes. While those fundamentals of the different UPS
technologies have not changed dramatically over the last decades, what has
changed, due to advancements in power electronic components, are improvements in
the overall efficiency, energy storage systems, and the reduction of physical size of
the UPS. We have witnessed the use of mainly transformerless UPS in system
designs, the use of Li-Ion batteries, and the shift from monolithic to modular UPS
architectures. The most used UPS technologies are offline/standby, line interactive
and double conversion. They range from a few hundreds of watts to multiple
megawatts.
Power System Configurations

Standby and Emergency Power Systems can be configured in customizable bus
configurations including single isolated bus, segmented bus, common utility/
emergency, main-tie-main bus and ring bus. Several operational modes, including
open transition, closed transition and soft load operation can be provided.
Configurations include single engine applications and multiple generator paralleling
applications. Examples of some of the most common arrangements are shown here.
Basic Single Engine Configuration
The most basic configuration of an emergency or standby power system is a single
engine with single or multiple transfer switches shown in Simple Emergency/Standby
System Arrangement, page 198. The transfer switch(es) transfer the emergency/
standby loads to the alternate source upon loss of the normal source. This
configuration is the most cost effective emergencny system however a loss of the
engine generator or any single component can result in loss of service to the
emergency/standby loads.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 197

Figure 118 - Simple Emergency/Standby System Arrangement
Normal Emergency
Source Source
Automatic
Transfer
Switch
Normal
Loads
Emergency/Standby
Loads
For Emergency Power Systems with a single alternate power source, NEC Article
700.3(F) requires a means of connecting temporary or portable power, an example is
shown in Provisions for Connection of a Temporary or Portable Power Source, page
199.
198 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 119 - Provisions for Connection of a Temporary or Portable Power

Source
Multiple Generator Paralleling System Configuration

Multiple engine generator paralleling paralleling/synchronizing switchgear refers to the
controls and equipment required for connection of multiple sources, usually
generators to a common bus and/or a utility source and the load control necessary for
the specific application in the event of a power outage. Utilizing multiple generators
inherently provides redundancy and a higher degree of reliability by design compared
to a single larger generator. N+1 configurations can be provided for capacity and
maintainability. For example, a three-engine generator N+1 Emergency System is
designed so that any two-engine generators can support the full system load. If one
engine generator were to stop functioning, the full load is still supported by the
remaining two engine generators. In these applications, system priority load control
for load adding and shedding is implemented to so that the most critical loads are
connected to backup power when required. Generator paralleling systems are
available for a low voltage system up to 600 V and medium voltage systems up to 15
kV. An example of a typical low voltage multiple generator paralleling system with
multiple automatic transfers is shown in Low Voltage Multiple Generator Paralleling
System with Multiple Automatic Transfer Switches, page 200.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 199

Figure 120 - Low Voltage Multiple Generator Paralleling System with Multiple
Automatic Transfer Switches
Synchronizing: Paralleling/synchronizing engine generators requires additional

controls and attention must be paid to the engine generator selection. An engine
typically is provided with the same kW size rating and with the same pitch. Voltage
regulators and speed controls should also be matched. An automatic synchronized
device is required for each engine generator. Synchronization matches a generator’s
speed. frequency and voltage with another source, typically another engine generator.
Synchronization is necessary when connected generators together to control power
surges, avoid reverse power conditions, reducing electrical stress on generators and
switchgear and reduces mechanical stress and damage to prime movers. Several
conditions must be met to synchronize sources:
• The number of phases must be the same.
• The direction of rotation must be the same.
• The voltage amplitudes must be closely matched (±5%).
• The frequencies must be closely matched (±5 Hz).
• The phase angles must be closely matched (±5º).
Automatic Priority Load Control: In paralleling swtichgear applications loads are
assigned priorities so that they are added to the Emergency or Standby Power
System in priority order. The highest priority loads are added first following by second
highest. Typically priorities are sized in blocks to match the capacity of a single engine
generator. For example, a two-engine paralleling system as shown in Low Voltage
Multiple Generator Paralleling System with Multiple Automatic Transfer Switches,
page 200 with two 1000 kW engines would have two priority blocks each sized to the
capacity of one of the engines. If load shedding is required due to bus overload or
engine loss, the lowest priority loads are shed first. Load control can be provided by
operating prioritized automatic transfer switches or electrically operated circuit
breakers. Automatic transfer switch load control is most common in low voltage
applications. Medium voltage applications typically utilize electrically operated circuit
breakers for load control. Prioritized load can be added in blocks or steps as shown in
Prioritized Block Load Control and Prioritized Step Load Control, page 201.
200 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 121 - Prioritized Block Load Control and Prioritized Step Load Control
Modes of Operation: Emergency and Standby Power Systems as shown in Low

Voltage Multiple Generator Paralleling System with Multiple Automatic Transfer
Switches, page 200 can operate in open transition or closed transition modes. In the
example shown open transition or closed transition automatic transfer switches as
described in System Arrangements, page 36 can be provided. Closed transition
transfer switches provide no interruption to load when transferring between two
acceptable sources. Closed transition operation occurs on return to the normal source
after an outage and during transfer switch test mode. Closed transition operation
occurs at each automatic transfer switch as shown in Low Voltage Generator
Paralleling System with Closed Transition Automatic Transfer Switches, page 201.
Figure 122 - Low Voltage Generator Paralleling System with Closed Transition
Automatic Transfer Switches
Multiple Generator Paralleling System with Segmented Bus and Tie Circuit
Breaker
Tie circuit breakers can be employed in Emergency and Standby Systems to achieve
connection of loads in ten seconds for Emergency Systems per NEC Article 700. In
this configuration the highest priority loads are split between the two bus segments. In
Segmented Bus Configuration, page 202 the tie circuit breaker 52T is normally open.
When the transfer switches sense a normal power outage all engine generators are
signaled to start. Individual generators are concurrently connected to isolated
segments of the bus without the need for synchronizing first, bringing multiple engine
generators online simultaneously and connecting the highest priority loads within the
ten second requirement. As additional engines become available, they are
synchronized with the connected generators, connected to the bus and the lower
priority loads are transferred to the emergency system. After all the generators are
connected and all the transfer switches have transferred their loads to the emergency
system the tie breaker can be signaled to close by the emergency system Master
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 201

Controls. Because the tie circuit breaker 52T is connecting sources together a
synchronizing device is required across the tie circuit breaker to synchronize the bus
segments prior to it closing. Configurations of this type are common in healthcare
applications.
Figure 123 - Segmented Bus Configuration
Medium Voltage Main-Tie-Tie-Main Configuration with Multiple Engine

Generators
A medium voltage Main – Tie – Main or Main – Tie – Tie Main system can integrate an
emergency/standby system into the overall design. More Complex Medium Voltage
Main-Tie-Tie-Main system with Multiple Generators Configuration, page 203 illustrates
the integration of a multiple engine paralleling system into a Main – Tie – Tie – Main
configuration. There are different variations of the configuration shown below,
however all are more complex than a single common bus or a segmented bus with a
single tie circuit breaker. The additional complexity however adds additional
redundancy to the system design by introducing a second utility connection.
In this application the ties, shown as main breakers 52GM1 and 52GM2, are normally
open and the utility circuit breakers 52U1 and 52U2 are normally closed feeding loads
on their respective buses. Utility sensing via a protective relay is provided on each
utility circuit breaker. Size each utility to carry the system full load. In the event one
utility were to go offline as detected by the utility protective the system master controls
open the offline utility circuit breaker, close both 52GM1 and 52GM2 allowing the
remaining utility to power the entire facility load.
Additionally, the engine generators can be started in the event one utility is lost and
operate as reserve capacity in the event the remaining utility were to go offline. In the
event the remaining utility were to go offline, the engine generators are already
running and available to assume load. Take care when running engines without load
connected to avoid wet stacking. In this type of sequence, with one utility available,
the engines can be run for set period of time, typically 20 minutes. At the expiration of
a time delay and with the remaining utility serving the load the engines are shutdown.
In the event both utilities go offline as sensed by their respective protective relays, the
system master controls open both utility circuit breakers 52U1 and 52U2 and the
engine generators are signaled to start. When the first engine generator is connected
to the dead bus circuit breakers, 52GM1 and 52GM2 are closed, and the highest
priority loads are connected via operation of electrically operated feeder circuit
breakers shown as 52F. As subsequent engines are synchronized and connected
additional loads are connected via their respective feeder circuit breakers, until all
loads are connected to the emergency bus. If load shedding is required due to a bus
overload or engine loss the lowest priority loads are shed first.
202 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 124 - More Complex Medium Voltage Main-Tie-Tie-Main system with

Multiple Generators Configuration
When normal power is restored, several options are available to retransfer load back
to the normal source. Retransfer sequences can be open transition, closed transition
or closed transition/soft load. In the example shown in More Complex Medium Voltage
Main-Tie-Tie-Main system with Multiple Generators Configuration, page 203 all
retransfer sequences occur between the respective utility and main breakers as
follow:
Open Transition Retransfer: When normal power is restored main circuit breakers
52GM1 and 52GM2 are opened and utility circuit breakers 52U1 and 52U2 are then
closed in a “Break before Make” operation, assuming facility load. The engine
generator circuit breakers are opened, the engine generators enter a cooldown period
and then shutdown. Provide electrical Interlocks so that the respective main and utility
circuit breaker pairs from both cannot be closed at the same time.
Closed Transition Retransfer: When normal power is restored main circuit breakers
52GM1 and 52GM2 remain closed. Both utilities are synchronized with the live bus via
additional synchronizing devices provided for each utility. Once in synchronism circuit
breakers 52U1 and 52U2 are then closed in a “Make before Break” operation. Closed
transition overlap time is typically 100 milliseconds or less. Both main circuit breakers
52GM1 and 52GM2 are opened and each utility assumes facility load on its respective
bus segment. The engine generator circuit breakers are opened, the engine
generators enter a cooldown period and then shutdown. Additional synchronizing
controls are required at each utility for closed transition operation. Benefits of closed
transition operation include no interruption to loads when transferring between two
acceptable sources or during system test modes.
Soft Load/Closed Transition Retransfer: Soft load sequence is similar to the closed
transition sequence however the overlap time is extended, allowing load to be ramped
off of the generators on onto the utility. Interconnection can be approximately 30
seconds to several minutes. Benefits are similar to closed transition but also include
less wear and tear on circuit breakers and UPS systems. Utility company approval is
required for soft load operation and may require specific utility approved protective
relaying at each utility circuit breaker. Synchronizing devices are required at each
utility circuit breaker.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 203

Figure 125 - Three-Generator Medium Voltage Emergency/Standby System
Hospital Applications and Configuration

Hospital Emergency Systems are code driven and have very specific requires.
Applicable codes are NEC Article 700 “Emergency Systems” and Article 517 “Health
Care Facilities, NFPA 99 “Health Care Facilities and NFPA 110 “Emergency &
Standby Systems. NEC Article 700 requires emergency systems to be designed to
automatically supply power for exit lighting, fire detection and alarm systems,
elevators, fire pumps, and public safety communications systems and may also
provide power for ventilation where it is essential to maintain life.
The emergency system is classified as an Essential Electrical System and is
described in NFPA 99 as “A system comprised of alternate sources of power and all
connected distribution systems and ancillary equipment, designed to allow for
continuity of electrical power to designated areas and functions of a health care facility
during disruption of normal power sources, and also to minimize disruption within the
internal wiring system.” Essential Electrical Systems are also divided into two types.
Type 1 are Critical Care Spaces and Type 2 are General Care Spaces. Additionally,
there are areas of a hospital that are classified as Non-Essential were an Essential
Electrical System is not required. These areas include waiting rooms, general lighting
and non-critical service equipment.
NFPA 99 assigns a risk category to each space within the healthcare facility based on
the risk associated with a loss of the power distribution system serving that space. A
summary of risk categories from NFPA 99, Chapter 4 is shown inFrom NFPA 99,
Chapter 4, page 205. Most hospitals are Risk Category 1.
204 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 126 - From NFPA 99, Chapter 4
Essential Electrical Systems for hospitals are separated into three distinct branches
as described in NEC Article 517.32-34 as follows:
• Life Safety Branch: The Life Safety Branch of the EES provides power for
lighting, receptacles to those functions or warning systems that are required to
allow building occupants to safely leave the building in an emergency. Transfer
switches feeding the Life Safety Branch must be automatic and must be non-
delayed. Emergency power must be supplied to the life safety branch within ten
seconds of a normal source power outage. Typically, these loads are served by
automatic-transfer/bypass-Isolation switches. Often these switches are provided
with Closed Transition features. Wiring for the Life Safety Branch is kept
independent of all other wiring.
• Critical Branch: The Critical Branch serves loads that either have immediate
impact on patient well-being or are essential to the clinical functionality of the
health care facility. Transfer switches feeding the critical branch must be
automatic. Emergency power to the critical branch must be supplied within 10
seconds of a normal source power outage. Typically, these loads are served by
automatic-transfer/bypass-Isolation switches. Often these switches are provided
with Closed Transition features. Wiring for the Critical Branch is kept independent
of all other wiring.
• Equipment Branch: The Equipment Branch serves loads for major electrical
equipment required for patient care. The equipment branch of the EES consists
of large electrical equipment loads can include chillers, compressed air systems,
exhaust systems and sump pumps needed for patient care and basic facility
operation facility. Transfer switches feeding equipment loads are configured for
delayed connection to the emergency system.
An example of an Emergency System for a Hospital Application is shown below in
Hospital Essential Electrical System with Life Safety, Critical and Equipment
Branches, page 206.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 205

Figure 127 - Hospital Essential Electrical System with Life Safety, Critical and Equipment Branches
Essential Electrical Systems are required to have two independent sources of power,
the normal utility source and a backup generator or multiple paralleled generators.
When normal source power is lost the generator(s) must be started and Life Safety
and Critical Branch Automatic Transfer Switches must transfer to the emergency
system and provide power to their loads within ten seconds of the normal source
power outage. Life Safety Branch transfer switches must transfer to the emergency
source immediately upon sensing the availability of emergency power without a delay.
Life Safety automatic transfer switches are always considered Priority 1 loads. Critical
Branch automatic transfer switches may have a delay to allow the Life Safety
automatic transfer switches to connect to emergency power first but must be
connected to emergency power within ten seconds of a normal power source outage.
Equipment Branch automatic transfer switches can be delayed and are always
considered a lower priority than Life Safety or Critical Branch ATS. Automatic transfer
switches are required for equipment loads that serve suction.
Hospital Essential Electrical Systems have specific testing requirements as follow:
• NFPA 110 Chapter 8 specifies that an Essential Power Supply System (EPSS)
including its transfer switches "shall be exercised under load at least monthly”.
• System testing is required 12 times a year, at intervals not less than 20, or more
than 40 days – All ATS must be tested monthly.
• The essential electrical system must be maintained to supply emergency power
within 10 seconds of loss of normal power. If the ten second criteria is not met
during regular testing, the organization must have a process to confirm on an
annual basis that the ten second criteria can be met. Joint Commission
requirement based on NFPA 99.
• Tests must be run in accordance with NFPA 110 Requirements.
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Distributed Energy Resources

Microgrids
Introduction
With the proliferation of distributed energy resources (DERs) like solar PV and other
clean energy generation, battery energy storage systems (BESS), emergency
generator arrays etc., the entire landscape of electrical distribution is undergoing a
radical transformation. “Microgrids” – as defined by the U.S. Department of Energy, “a
group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources within clearly defined
electrical boundaries that acts as a single controllable entity with respect to the grid” –
are becoming an integral part of the modern electrical distribution domain. The
connection of local microgrids to larger capacity utility grids brings a whole host of
design challenges to engineering and operations, both at individual facilities and at
utilities. These parameters can be broadly classified in two categories:
• Electrical: The rise of “prosumers” (proactive consumers) means that protection
and control, grid stability etc. must now be designed with a distributed microgrid
infrastructure in mind.
• Data (Digitization): Design of a modern digital system architecture warrants a
thorough understanding of requirements in terms of data models, software
interfaces and interchange of data between various sub-systems.
Market Drivers for Microgrid Adoption

Three factors are responsible for accelerating the adoption of microgrids. Firstly, the
economics of deploying distributed energy resources, especially renewables like solar
photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage systems (BESS), has changed
dramatically over the last decade. The installed cost of solar PV has fallen
significantly, and many vendors now offer packaged BESS solutions. Many states and
local governments offer incentives for “net zero” energy consumption or other
economic incentives to export generation capacity back to the utility grid. Facilities can
get significant savings by optimizing their local generation to take advantage of rate
tariffs or reduce peak demand charges.
Secondly, many companies now embrace sustainability directives to evolve to “green”
consumption. ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) metrics for many
companies now include sustainability and renewable energy targets, driving microgrid
projects.
Finally, the importance of facility resilience and dependable power has magnified
enormously. Costs of power interruptions are astronomical at mission-critical facilities,
driving microgrid projects to increase local generation to ride out natural disasters like
the California wildfire related power shutoffs of 2019 and the Texas winter storm
disruptions of 2021. Additionally, there is a strong impetus for all backup generation
(both existing and new) to switch to low carbon sources like solar PV.
The scale and size of microgrids varies widely, ranging from commercial and industrial
microgrids (very large) serving smart cities, municipalities, manufacturing plants, large
military bases. all the way to the small and medium microgrids serving individual
buildings, gas stations, supermarkets, schools, supermarkets. This scale/size factor
influences design criteria such as the complexity of controls, resilience, or the need to
operate in islanded mode, and the interconnection with utilities.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 207

Industry Standards
Industry standards related to microgrids (both ANSI and IEC) are evolving rapidly and
can be classified roughly as operating at three different levels.
• Individual DER, or component level: These include microgrid related language
within component-level switchboard or panelboard standards, solar PV inverter
standards.
• System level: These include explicit microgrid system standards relating to
energy management or controls that involve multiple DERs operating as a
synchronized unit. For example, the IEEE 2030.7 standard includes control
functions for microgrid as a system that can manage itself, operate autonomously
or grid connected, and seamlessly connect to and disconnect from the main
distribution grid.
• Interconnection level: These focus specifically on the interconnection and
interoperability between local microgrids or DERs with utility electric power
systems (EPSs). These standards provide requirements relevant to the
performance, operation, testing, safety considerations, and maintenance of the
interconnection. For example, California Rule 21 has specific requirements on the
types of data to be shared between microgrids or local smart DERs and the utility
energy management system. Architectural details about the interconnection such
as protocols of data interchange (IEEE2030.5), frequency of data updates, are
also specified in California Rule 21.
Microgrid Standards, page 209 classifies the various standards pertinent to the
deployment of microgrids but is not intended to be comprehensive. Many local, state,
and regional jurisdictions may also be relevant.
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Table 47 - Microgrid Standards
Standard/ Title Description

Recommended
Practical Guide
IEEE 1547 Standard for Interconnection and Interoperability Establishes criteria and requirements for interconnection of
of Distributed Energy Resources with Associated distributed energy resources (DER) with electric power systems
Electric Power Systems Interfaces (EPS), and associated interfaces.
IEEE 1547.1 IEEE Standard Conformance Test Procedures for The type, production, commissioning, periodic tests, and
Equipment Interconnecting Distributed Energy evaluations that shall be performed to confirm that the
Resources with Electric Power Systems and interconnection and interoperation functions of equipment and
Associated Interfaces systems interconnecting distributed energy resources with the
electric power system confirm to IEEE 1547 are specified here.
IEEE 1547.2 IEEE Application Guide for IEEE Std 1547, IEEE Provides tips, techniques, and common practices to address
Standard for Interconnecting Distributed issues related to DER project implementation.
Resources with Electric Power Systems
IEEE 1547.3 IEEE Guide for Cybersecurity of Distributed Provides guidelines for Cybersecurity of DER’s interconnected with
Energy Resources Interconnected with Electric Electric Power Systems.
Power Systems
IEEE 1547.4 Guide for Design, Operation, Integration, and Provides approaches and good practices for the design, planning,
Interoperability of Intentional Electric Power maintenance, and operation of Intentional Island Systems and their
Systems Islands integration and interoperability with other EPSs.
IEEE 1547.6 IEEE Recommended Practice for Interconnecting Provides an overview of distribution secondary network systems
Distributed Resources with Electric Power design, components, and operation. Describes considerations for
Systems Distribution Secondary Networks interconnecting DR with networks and provides potential solutions
for the interconnection of DR on network distribution systems.
IEEE 1547.7 IEEE Guide for Conducting Distribution Impact This guide provides alternative approaches and good practices for
Studies for Distributed Resource Interconnection engineering studies of the potential impacts of a DR or aggregate
DR interconnected to the electric power distribution system. This
guide describes criteria, scope, and extent for those engineering
studies.
IEEE 1547.9 IEEE Guide for Using 1547 for Interconnection of Addresses interconnection of energy storage distributed energy
Energy Storage Distributed Energy Resources resources to electric power systems. Provides examples of such
with Electric Power Systems interconnection, guidance on prudent and technically sound
approaches to these interconnections.
UL1741, UL1741-SB Standard for Inverters, Converters, Controllers, Describes manufacturing (including software) and product testing
and Interconnection System Equipment for Use requirements to specify inverters more capable of riding through
with Distributed Energy Resources grid excursions and actively managing grid reliability functions.
UL891, UL1558 Standards for Switchboards and Switchgear Supplements ANSI switchgear standards C37.20.1 and C37.51.
Used in conjunction with NFPA70/ NEC.
NFPA99 Healthcare Facilities Code Covers aspects of emergency power systems and associated
testing in healthcare facilities.
UL3001* (evolving) Standard for safety and performance of distributed Covers DER system design, integration, and operation.
energy systems
IEEE 2030.5 IEEE Standard for Smart Energy Profile Defines the application layer with TCP/IP providing functions in the
Application Protocol transport and Internet layers to enable utility management of the
end user energy environment, including demand response, load
control, time of day pricing, management of distributed generation,
and electric vehicles.
IEEE 2030.7 IEEE Standard for the Specification of Microgrid Address functions at the microgrid system level (above the
Controllers component control level) to enable control functions to manage
themselves, operate autonomously or grid-connected and
seamlessly connect/disconnect from the grid.
IEEE 2030.8 IEEE Standard for the Testing of Microgrid Testing procedures to enable verification, performance
Controllers quantification and comparison of different functions of microgrid
controllers.
IEEE 2030.9 IEEE Recommended Practice for the Planning and Best practices for the planning and design, including system
Design of the Microgrid configuration, electrical system design, safety, power quality
monitoring and control, electric energy measurement and scheme
evaluation.
California Rule 21 Tariff document describing the interconnection, Rules for the performance, function, metering, and
operating, and metering requirements for communications of generation and energy storage systems.
generation facilities to be connected to a utility’s
distribution system.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 209

Table 47 - Microgrid Standards (Continued)
IEEE P2030.11 DER Management Systems Functional Guides the development of functional specifications for DER
(Project started) Specification management systems. It includes guiding principles for the
application and deployment of DER management systems.
IEEE P2030.12 Draft Guide for the Design of Microgrid Protection Design and selection of protective devices and the coordination for
(Project started) Systems various modes of microgrid operation, including grid-connected
and islanded modes and related transitions between modes.
Microgrid Functions
Typical microgrid functions can be classified into two main categories – microgrid
operation, and microgrid optimization - as described below.
Microgrid Operation
• Monitoring: Many microgrids require monitoring from remote network operation
centers (NOCs). Dependable monitoring of microgrids require the measurement
and display of energy, power, and other metrics for individual DERs and loads. If
microgrid sites have on-site operators, factor into the design a local HMI to
display microgrid loads, generation and status information.
• Alarming and notification: Many microgrids require monitoring from remote
network operation centers (NOCs). Dependable monitoring of microgrids require
the measurement and display of energy, power, and other metrics for individual
DERs and loads. If microgrid sites have on-site operators, factor into the design a
local HMI to display microgrid loads, generation and status information.
Alerting on abnormal operating conditions or malfunctions of microgrid
components is an essential component of microgrid design.
• Export management: In some microgrid deployments, utilities may prohibit or
limit export of active power to the grid. In these cases, use excess PV production
to charge BESS or curtailed to minimize exceeding export thresholds. In addition
to the basic control-limiting functions, export management can be extended to
include optimization functions. For example, BESS may be preemptively
discharged in preparation to absorb the expected excess PV based on weather
forecasts.
• Grid connection management: When the microgrid is islanded (off-grid mode),
many islanding sequences of operation must be safely managed. Balancing
various generation sources optimally while islanded is another control function.
For example, PV production and BESS charging or discharging may need to be
orchestrated precisely to avoid imbalanced conditions. Conversely, when the
utility grid is restored, the restoration sequences may need to be tuned to safely
manage state transitions. These grid connection and disconnection sequences
must be designed into the microgrid control algorithms.
• Load management: Both when islanded or when connected to utility grids, loads
must be monitored and either shed or reconnected automatically based on the
generation-consumption balance. For example, lower priority non-critical loads
may be disconnected when islanded and only restored last after utility restoration.
Even when connected to the utility grid, some local loads may need to be
disconnected for certain operating conditions. Prioritization and control
capabilities for loads is usually an important design criterion for microgrid
operation.
Microgrid Organization
• Forecasting: Forecasting of both generation and loading is a fast-evolving R&D
area with many applications. For example, weather forecasts can be used
effectively to optimize microgrids. When stormy conditions or natural disasters
like wildfires are forecasted, microgrids can be directed towards charging BESS
in preparation, to improve system resilience during outages.
210 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

• Energy optimization: By controlling DERs optimally, significant savings can be

achieved, especially at locations where rate tariffs vary substantially. For
example, using local DER production (such as previously charged BESS or solar
PV) during expensive on-peak tariff periods and by charging BESS during less
expensive off-peak periods. More advanced applications can also optimize local
generation to respond to real-time rate changes.
• Demand charge reduction: By controlling DERs appropriately, sites can avoid
expensive peak demand charges. Using trends and analytics, software may also
predict approaching peak demand values and make operational decisions in
advance. For example, BESS may be charged in anticipation of predicted peaks
and discharged to avoid them.
• Net zero management: By intelligently controlling energy storage and solar PV,
utility consumption may be partially offset to facilitate “net zero” initiatives. For
example, during sunny periods when local PV production is higher than site
consumption, energy storage systems may be charged. Later in the day or at
night, when solar PV production is low to zero, then the energy storage system
can be discharged to meet local site loads.
• Demand response programs: Many utilities offer financial incentives to reduce
or shift electricity usage during peak periods. Demand response programs are
used as dynamic options for balancing supply and demand through mechanisms
like real time pricing, and critical peak rebates. When utilities issue demand
response signals to customers with microgrids, controls can increase local PV or
BESS production to shift loads away from utility. Such participation in demand
response programs can be financially attractive to customers.
Typical Microgrid System Components

Typical components of a microgrid can be categorized into three layers:
• Connected devices layer: These comprise “smart” devices and associated
communications such as generator controls, battery energy storage systems,
inverters, EV chargers, communicating circuit breakers.
• Edge layer: This layer comprises of controllers and software associated with
orchestrating the coherent operation of the microgrid as a system.
• Analytics layer: This layer typically comprises of optimizing and analytics
software that sends decision data to the edge layer. For example, predictive
software may send down control signals to control individual DERs.
Cybersecure communications are an integral transverse function of data flow between
the components of these three layers.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 211

Figure 128 - Typical Microgrid Components
Design and Specification Considerations

Geographies – differing tariffs, incentives, government initiatives
Clearly, microgrids provide energy users with a variety of benefits, ranging from
providing energy resilience, to offering cost savings and carbon emission reductions.
However, different entities may value these benefits very differently, depending on the
mission and objective of the specific project. To determine an optimal system design,
the local market and resource conditions must be carefully considered.
Geographical and regional considerations influence microgrid project development
and design in the following ways:
• Availability or local suitability of energy resources: Some areas have a
variety of energy resources readily accessible, including strong solar (such as,
southern U.S.), consistent wind (such as, regions of the Midwestern U.S.), or
built-out natural gas infrastructure. Other regions may be limited in infrastructure
or natural resources that can be harnessed. Another dimension of geographic
evaluation is urban versus. rural. For instance, urban locations may have space
limitations for outdoor equipment because of high real-estate costs or zoning
requirements. Urban locations may also be subject to solar PV shading from
surrounding buildings. In contrast, rural customers may seemingly have ample
land to locate resources like ground-mounted solar PV but may be in flood plains
or be situated across public rights-of-way. Resource availability is highly site-
specific and therefore requires consideration on a local level for optimal microgrid
design.
• Energy rates: Energy customers are served by hundreds of electric utilities
across the US and are charged for that energy using very different tariff
structures. A simple tariff may use only the total energy used (quantity of kWh) a
site consumes. Other tariffs may include a peak demand per kW charge, reactive
power, power factor penalties and other billing determinants. Time-of-Use (TOU)
rates where the cost per kWh of energy varies between off-peak, mid-peak and
on-peak rates, depending on the time-period of use. Given that factors such as
the competitive environment at the local level, the degree of renewables
penetration, local politics. all impact the cost for utilities to produce and deliver
electricity, customers face a variety of prices and mechanisms for how they are
charged. These mechanisms greatly impact microgrid project development and
ROI calculations.
212 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

• Federal, state, and local incentive programs: Federal incentives like the
Investment Tax Credit (ITC) are key enablers of microgrids and apply to all U.S.
geographies, reducing solar PV and BESS capital costs. Additional local incentive
programs at the state, local or municipal level may further subsidize the upfront
expense of onsite generation. For example, state-wide incentives like the Self
Generating Incentive Program (SGIP) in California and the DEEP Microgrid Grant
Program in Connecticut have proven to be highly effective mechanisms for
deploying more distributed, clean, and resilient energy systems. Successful
program references and an uptick of large policy measures such as the 2021
Federal Infrastructure Bill have prompted more state and local emphasis and
funding for microgrids. The commercial and technical requirements that are
applicable to take advantage of these incentives must be evaluated and applied
for on a project-by-project basis.
• Market participation: Additional programs applicable to specific regions may
also be available, enabling microgrids to offer unique benefits to the local Utility or
Regional Transmission Organizations (RTOs) via participation in market
programs like Demand Response or Frequency Regulation. This type of market
participation is highly location-specific and is typically oriented around specific
outcomes that DER technology or microgrid operational mode can drive.
All the above geography-specific factors impact the design, cost, and ultimately the
functionality of a microgrid system. These factors are evaluated carefully during initial
project development. With increased emphasis on dependable, efficient, and
sustainable energy systems, the local market landscape for microgrids is a fast-
evolving one. Staying informed on geographic-specific conditions remains an
important factor in implementing successful microgrid solutions.
Space and footprint considerations
Many physical space and footprint considerations impact the feasibility and design of
microgrids. As previously mentioned, site location is a critical factor that helps to
identify the size of DERs that can be installed and the potential locations for these
resources. Once site location has been selected, by analyzing the electrical drawings
and infrastructure maps, the available physical space can be determined for the
required electrical distribution, microgrid controls infrastructure, and the desired DERs
(such as solar PV, BESS, and generator sets). It is important to discuss these physical
space considerations with the site decision makers early in the design phase.
The space footprint of the electrical distribution equipment and controls cabinets is a
key consideration in microgrid design. Some of the design parameters impact the
space footprint are the main bus amperage rating, the number of sections needed to
fit all the required breakers and devices, and whether the electrical distribution
equipment is going to be located indoors or outdoors. Physical space is also a key
factor when determining potential options for the size, type and mix of DERs (solar
PV, BESS, generator sets) to be installed on site.
For solar PV systems, the type of available space (rooftop, land, or parking lot space)
is an important criterion. This dictates whether rooftop PV, ground mount PV, carport
PV, or some combination of the three can be designed into the system. Once PV type
is determined, the amount of space dictates the size of the solar system that can be
installed. Typically, physical space is a restricting factor with PV - meaning the system
capacity that can fit within the available space is often insufficient to meet site
demand. The design challenge is that of maximizing the size of the PV system based
on the available space. A rough estimate of space for one MW of ground-mount PV is
about four acres. Non-ground mount systems have additional considerations. Rooftop
PV systems must factor in existing rooftop equipment such as HVAC and sprinklers
and incorporate row spacing and rooftop setbacks for maintenance and safety.
Carport systems must factor in the parking lot set up and incorporate fire lane widths.
Additionally, local zoning and safety codes also impact the placement of PV systems.
For a BESS, the physical space requirements and performance varies widely
depending on the type of system and battery chemistry selected. A common battery
chemistry integrated into microgrid systems is Lithium-Ion Iron Phosphate (LFP).
Depending on the specific BESS, the power blocks can vary in size which impacts the
overall power and energy density of a system. Therefore, the physical space for a
BESS is dependent upon the power and energy capacity needed. For example, a
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 213

typical 300 kW/745 kWh BESS has an energy density of 12.4 kWh/sq. ft. and a
system power density of 5 kW/sq. ft. A typical footprint for this BESS is 90 inches H x
52 inches D x 155 inches L. In addition to required system size of a BESS, the depth
increases if the system needs to be outdoor rated. For other battery chemistries,
footprint and space design constraints vary widely.
Physical space requirements for generator sets vary depending on the fuel and
particular system selected. Two common generator fuel types are natural gas and
diesel. For example, a two MW Natural Gas Generator set has dimensions of 291
inches L x 84 inches W x 95 inches H, or a power density of 11.8 kW/sq ft.
Comparatively, an example two MW Diesel Generator Set maximum dimensions are
404 inches L x 99.62 inches W x 156.6 inches” H, or a power density of 10.6 kW/sq ft.
On-site fuel storage must be factored into the design. A typical fuel oil storage tank
with a capacity of 1000 gallons has a diameter of 48 inches and a length of 130
inches. There may be also local safety requirements for on-site fuel storage.
Additionally, certain mission-critical sites (like hospitals) may have minimum on-site
fuel storage capacities specified in corporate guidelines and safety codes.
In addition to PV, Lithium-Ion BESS and generators, there are many other
technologies that can be implemented for energy generation and storage in a
microgrid system. A few of these other technologies include fuel cell, flow battery,
Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS), and wind turbines. Each of these technologies
vary widely in footprint and density, and physical space availability need to be
considered when designing the microgrid system.
Building Information Modeling (BIM) and other automated layout software tools are
typically used during the early design phase of microgrids to optimize the asset
locations and positions appropriately.
Economic analysis and project return-on-investment (ROI) tools
One of the main influences driving the adoption of Behind-The-Meter (BTM) microgrid
systems in Commercial and Industrial (C&I) facilities is lowering the net cost of energy
they purchase from utilities. Through the appropriate use of on-site Distributed Energy
Resources (DERs) to at least partially offset consumption and optimizing the
remaining utility usage, microgrid can significantly lower facility bills. Several key
components of data are needed during the early project assessment phase to
complete a complete economic analysis to estimate the potential return-on-
investment (ROI) of microgrid projects.
First, the site geographical location is very critical, and helps identify the size of DERs
that can be installed, their types, and potential locations. Estimates of the solar
irradiance (power per unit area of energy from the Sun) at a given location helps
determine the potential for solar PV deployment. As labor rates vary regionally,
location also helps determine the expected installation and operations and
maintenance (O&M) costs, which impacts ROI calculations.
Next, a comprehensive analysis of past (or projected, in the case of greenfield
projects) utility bills are needed to understand site energy usage and current tariffs. A
minimum of twelve months of utility bills is typically needed to establish a site load
baseline. Additional years of data helps minimize projection errors due to any year-to-
year variability. Using utility bill kWh rates, the impact of kWh’s delivered from on-site
DERs can be financially quantified. Time-of-use tariffs with on-peak, mid-peak and off-
peak rates can also be factored into the analysis. Other energy management
strategies such as demand-shifting, demand compensation, power factor penalty
compensation, can also be analyzed within the economic analysis.
Fifteen-minute interval data helps to size dispatchable DERs by modeling the daily
load profile of the site, rather than monthly averages. For example, a Battery Energy
Storage System (BESS) can be sized to avoid costly demand peaks and reduce
energy usage during expensive on-peak periods. If a Combined Heat and Power
(CHP) system is also within scope, usage data from the gas utility can help with
proper sizing and operation relative to thermal load. Generally, CHP tends to be
attractive when there are high and coincident peaks in electrical and thermal demand,
and when the price of electricity ($/kWh) is roughly three times or more than the unit
214 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

price of natural gas ($/therm). This unit price disparity is commonly referred to as
“Spark Spread.”
Fortunately, there are many open-source and commercial software tools available to
optimize microgrid deployment and provide recommendations for DER types and
sizing. These tools typically require the input data discussed above (such as site
location, utility tariff structures, load profile, installation costs). In addition to DER
sizing, these software tools may also produce a Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) model
to simulate incentive programs like the Investment Tax Credit (ITC), Modified
Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS) for accelerated depreciation, and any
local or regional incentives. This DCF model outputs important metrics like the Net
Present Value (NPV) and payback period, which are critical values in determining if
the project is a worthy investment. Running these ROI calculations is typically an
iterative process – making best-guess estimates, examining the outputs, adjusting the
inputs, and repeating the exercise. By leveraging these analysis tools, iterative
changes to design and cost inputs can be run quickly and reliably, accelerating the
critical timeline between project development, and securing financing.
Protection considerations
Requirements for the system topology are designed to increase both the reliability of
the overall utility system and with the reliability of service to the installation in question.
These requirements typically take the following forms:
• Restrictions on the size of services.
• Restrictions on, or requirements for, normal and alternate services and transfer
equipment between the two.
• Restrictions or requirements for the configuration of emergency and standby
power systems.
• Restrictions on the types of service disconnecting devices allowed.
• Restrictions on the types of service overcurrent protection allowed.
• Requirements for service cable compartments in service equipment.
• Requirements or restrictions on the number and types of protective relaying.
• Overall requirements for the service switchgear.
The requirement that is applied to virtually every utility installation, is that the service
overcurrent device must coordinate with the upstream utility overcurrent device,
typically a recloser or utility substation circuit breaker. If there is standby power on the
premises, the utility typically requires that paralleling the alternate power source with
the utility source not be possible unless stipulated in the rate agreement for the
service in question.
Requirements for restricted access to service cable termination and service
disconnect compartments in the service switchgear are another common. In some
cases, these must be in a dedicated switchgear or switchboard section, increasing the
service equipment footprint. In many cases grounding means must be provided with
the equipment to allow the utility’s preferred safety grounding equipment to be
installed. In some cases, requirements may be imposed on the entire service
switchgear, such as electrical racking for circuit breakers or barriers that are not
standard for the equipment type used.
In some cases, the control power for the service switchgear, such as a battery, must
be designed to the utility’s specifications. Additional protective relaying may be
required to minimize abnormal conditions which, although not harmful to the system
being served, affect the reliability of the utility system. In some cases, the makes and
models of protective relays for the service overcurrent protection are restricted to
those the utility has approved.
Metering considerations
Measurement of load and system performance are critical to the functionality of the
microgrid, both while grid connected and while islanded from the grid. This section
does not address specific meter hardware but does address the information that
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 215

meters may need to collect, and their interaction with other devices, including edge
control systems and local or remote energy management systems.
Metering considerations must cover both functional and financial operation of
microgrids. Grid-connected metering and grid-independent metering requirements
must reflect the nature of the overall system, including possibly divided responsibilities
between owner and operator. Some microgrid systems are components within larger
power distribution systems, while others are self-contained, so the architecture of the
system influences the metering choices and options.
The following measurements are typical for most microgrid systems:
• Metering variables like energy, voltage, frequency, active power, reactive power.
at the Point of Common Coupling (POCC) that is, interconnection point with utility.
• State/status for each DER.
• Instantaneous and historical load profiles for the full system as well as secondary
and tertiary loads.
Functional considerations for grid-connected operations typically includes metering
and monitoring the grid reference, and individual DERs. The financial opportunities
and constraints of the system dictate the location and type of metering. For example,
revenue grade metering may be required for PV and BESS systems to comply with
Investment Tax Credit verification, utility billing/credit for renewable energy delivered
to the customer and the grid, and for ancillary services performance, such as
participation in demand response or frequency response programs. Measurement of
loads typically does not require revenue grade metering unless there is a specific
need for sub-billing or tenant metering functions.
Metering sample rates and the volume of historical data collected from metering
(through various devices such as dedicated meters, LV trip units, relays, or revenue
grade meters) influence the performance of the edge layer and analytics layer
software. There is an implicit tradeoff between volume of data captured and the
performance of these software packages. Optimization software processes multiple
streams of data such as BESS state of charge, metered PV production, CHP
utilization, metered grid data, to output control signals that meets the system and
customer goals. Production versus consumption decisions utilize meter data that is
optimal for the algorithm being processed. Typically, cloud optimization software
samples averaged metering values to send DER optimization signals to the site
microgrid.
To meet resilience goals, accurately monitoring the state of the grid reference is
crucial. Edge layer software monitors the POCC, establish and stabilize local grid
forming resources, and execute load management (shed/add) decisions based on the
collected metering data. The methodology and decision making related to sequence
of operations related to grid transitions relies on appropriate metering of loads and
sources.
Many sites and customers are likely not be mindful of the importance of power quality
in microgrids; however, this is an important design criterion. Initial microgrid
assessments and power system studies dictate the necessity to include power quality
metering or even power quality correction equipment. Appropriate power quality
metering help maintain system uptime (resilience) through awareness of changes of
DER or other system component performance prior to system malfunction.
Load management
A traditional model of backup power involves transferring full or partial site load to a
fixed diesel or natural gas generator, using an automatic transfer switch (ATS). The
ATS both senses the loss in utility voltage and signals the generator to engage.
216 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 129 - Load Management
Standard Loads
ATS
UPS
Essential Loads
Critical Loads
In the configuration above, there is typically no way to control individual loads. The
source simply supports loads on its own circuit and loading that exceeds source
capacity simply trips the source offline.
In contrast, in a behind-the-meter microgrid, multiple sources (Solar PV, Battery
Storage, Combined Heat and Power, Fuel Cells, Generators to name common assets)
may be combined in parallel, where the microgrid controller manages loading and
power stability between sources. In addition to active source management, microgrids
may also manage site loads directly and indirectly. The ability to manage both sources
and loads introduces a range of economic and functional project design options.
Figure 130 - Behind-the-meter Microgrid
UPS
Essential Loads Standard Loads
Critical Loads
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 217

• Direct load management:

Example 1: the microgrid controller communicates with a site building
management system (BMS), which has several predefined energy profiles. The
BMS may adjust HVAC, chiller, and boiler setpoints to reduce load.
Example 2: the microgrid controller communicates with one or more Motor
Control Centers (MCCs), to run high horsepower pumps at reduced output.
• Indirect load management: Example: the microgrid controller operates breakers
that serve the loads, in order of increasing load criticality. In general, this tier of
load management occurs after direct management has been attempted, as it is
more abrupt in suddenly cutting power.
Managing loads actively has both economic and functional benefits. When sizing
certain resources, such as battery energy storage, the ability to manage loads may
reduce the need to oversize resources. Consider a site with a 500 kW peak that
occurs once in a 12-month data set, and where the next highest peak is 300 kW. In
that case, the ability to shed non-critical loads during an edge case may allow for a
reduced size of expensive backup power that would see low annual utilization. By
actively managing load usage and schedules, consumption can be optimized for
specific tariffs by avoiding peak price loading for example.
Functionally, managing loads actively has several benefits. The ability to manage
loads at multiple levels of load criticality allow maximum utilization of energy sources
at a site. In a fixed system, a degraded condition of source capacity (below the site
load) would simply trip the site offline. However, with the capability to shed loads
selectively, a microgrid controller maintain loads to the maximum extent possible.
During a utility outage, managing loads provides extra resilience (sometimes referred
to as “load preservation systems”). Non-critical loads may be shed up to level of
source capacity (this is a typically a configurable sequence, that may be modified as
site needs change over time). With controllable breakers, and with some foresight at
the design stage, the microgrid load management sequence may be modified as site
needs change over time (a “Future Proof” design). For example, if a new source is
added at a future date under similar loading conditions, the load shedding scheme
may be modified to optimize the new total source capacity. If site load increases with
no new sources, the load shedding scheme may be modified to reduce additional load
during an outage, to continue to maximally leverage available source capacity.
Resilience and response time
A key benefit of microgrids is providing resilience - powering a site even when the
main electrical grid has suffered an outage. The cost of full or even partial outages has
risen astronomically. In addition to directly measurable business costs, intangible
“brand damage” is a major factor driving decisions by business and government
entities to implement resilience through microgrids. The capability of a microgrid to
isolate from the grid and provide power to a site through local DERs — “islanding” —
is especially crucial for critical infrastructure like hospitals, military bases, datacenters,
and college campuses.
The architectural details of the islanding process, balancing of power flow amongst
DERs and loads when islanded, and sequence of reconnection back with the grid
greatly impact system complexity in relation to the microgrid’s overall configuration,
architecture, and operational intent. A full assessment of loads with particular
attention to arranging them into tranches or tiers of critical, essential, and normal, is
an important design step. For example, critical loads or life support systems likely
needs UPS coverage so this decision has implications on UPS sizing, ATS
configuration, generator capacity. In contrast, normal (or non-essential) loads may be
able to withstand extend outages, reducing DER sizing.
Response time, that is, how quickly power is restored to loads when power is lost, is
typically a significant determining factor in the complexity and cost of a microgrid
project. During an unplanned outage, the microgrid controller can transition from grid-
connected to islanding mode in many ways. The simplest option, a basic open
transition, results in a momentary loss of power and blackout of the site. A more
complex option is to engineer a seamless closed transition or fast transition microgrid,
with the advantage of very minimal disruption upon outages or restoration. Particularly
sensitive loads (mission-critical IT loads, semiconductor processes) require routing
218 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

into the critical loads tier to help with adequate UPS coverage. Microgrid control code
must be designed to provide all the sequences of operations associated with
islanding, restoration, load and source management.
Microgrids must be carefully designed with load characteristics, as well as generation
capacity in mind to provide a solution that best accomplishes the site’s specific
response time needs and requirements.
Microgrid Interconnection Requirements

As more utilities either embrace or are forced to contend with distributed generation,
many standards and regulations are evolving to specify interoperability requirements.
These interconnection agreements and standards typically involve requirements for
both electrical connectivity and data connectivity. Electrical interconnectivity
requirements may include more traditional topics such as revenue metering, relay
settings, no-export conditions, demand response clauses. Data connectivity
requirements are a fast-evolving area and prescribe both the data interchange and
communications between utilities and microgrid systems.
IEEE1547.1-2018 covers guidance for microgrids and individual DERs connected to
typical primary or secondary distribution voltage levels for voltage/power control,
islanding, power quality. IEEE2030.5 covers specific guidance for interconnectivity
communications including data model, messaging model, communication protocol
and security. There are a wide variety of architectural choices covered in the standard
and allied documents such as the Sunspec CSIP Implementation Guide. For example,
direct DER communications through either an embedded Smart Inverter Control Unit
(SMCU) or DER with Generating Facility Energy Management System (GFEMS).
Potentially, DER aggregator software at the edge or cloud-based may be an
intermediary node for communications between the utility and the local microgrid. For
design and architectural details on these topics, see IEEE Std. 1547-2018104.
Common Smart Inverter Profile (CSIP) IEEE 2030.5 Implementation Guide for Smart
Inverters 105 and IEEE Std. 2030.5106.
Functionally, the data connectivity requirements may be codified by local regulatory
bodies. California Rule 21 for example specifies IEEE2030.5 based protocols and
requires:
• Specific expected responses to control actions transmitted from the utility for grid
support. For example, anti-islanding, dynamic Volt-var, fixed power factor control.
• Periodic data reporting. For example, polling of active/reactive power,
instantaneous measurements, status information, alarms.
• Security mechanisms. For example, “heartbeat” handshaking, authentication,
authorization.
A detailed discussion of these interconnection requirements is beyond the scope of
this section. Please refer to the additional references provided below:
• IEEE Std. 1547-2018, IEEE Standard for Interconnection and Interoperability of
Distributed Energy Resources with Associated Electric Power Systems
Interfaces. Revision of IEEE Std 1547-2003.
• Common Smart Inverter Profile (CSIP) IEEE 2030.5 Implementation Guide for
Smart Inverters, March 2018 (Version 2.1).
• IEEE Std. 2030.5, IEEE Standard for Smart Energy Profile Application Protocol.
104. IEEE Standard for Interconnection and Interoperability of Distributed Energy Resources with Associated Electric Power Systems Interfaces.
Revision of IEEE Std 1547-2003.
105. March 2018 (Version 2.1).
106. IEEE Standard for Smart Energy Profile Application Protocol.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 219

Electrical Energy Management

Introduction
Electricity is a powerful form of energy that is essential to the operation of virtually
every facility in the world. It is also an expensive form of energy that can represent a
significant portion of a manufacturing facility’s cost of production.
This energy management primer is intended to introduce applications that that can be
performed by and values that can be derived from a well-designed EPMS (Electrical
Power Monitoring System). Additionally, it covers some electricity billing
fundamentals, especially focusing on the two major aspects of the electric bill,
demand, and energy. This section also highlights key aspects of identifying energy-
saving opportunities among major industrial processes and equipment.
Figure 131 - Power Meter
Electrical Distribution and Alarming

Just like any other process in a facility, electrical distribution systems are complex with
many devices, and potential detected failures can occur at different locations.
Considering the critical nature of the continuity of an electrical power supply, having
the capacity to quickly view, analyze, and understand where the loss has occurred,
like our car dashboards, is key for facility managers.
The facility manager needs to:
• Gain visibility of the status and relevant information of the entire electrical system.
• Receive alarms on abnormal conditions or events.
• Monitor and report on peak demand, loading of equipment like transformers,
generators, breakers, UPSs.
• Know, analyze, and understand and quickly pinpoint where issues of the
electrical distribution network come from.
The Electrical Distribution Monitoring and Alarming application collects data from
connected products to provide on-site access to consolidated views of electrical
measurements, status information, and individual device details. It also provides
remote control actions.
The digital architecture of the Electrical Distribution Monitoring and Alarming
application involves collecting the input data from the different products, either directly
over Ethernet or via gateways. This data is then used by the local monitoring software
package for on-premises visualization analysis and reporting.
A properly designed Electrical Distribution Monitoring and Alarming application
includes the following suggested outputs:
220 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Live Data Display

• Native support for a wide range of devices and communication protocols.
• Electrical network Single-Line Diagrams (SLD).
• SLD color animation for visual discernment.
• Energized/de-energized sections and energy source (Utility A, Utility B,
Generator).
• Elevation drawings.
• Real time data values of each connected device, such as electrical parameters,
device settings, and status information.
• Animated floor plans and riser diagrams of power equipment status and alarms.
• Available capacity of various equipment such as breakers, transformers.
Alarms and Events
• Chronological display of alarms/events with sorting and filtering capabilities.
• Intelligent alarm grouping into summary incidents.
• Simplified operator alarm dashboard.
• Remote even notification via email or SMS.
• Disturbance direction detection to help quickly identify the root cause of power
quality incidents.
• High-speed waveform capture and analysis.
Trends
• Real-time and historical data can be viewed on a trend viewer.
• Thresholds to indicate when trend is getting close or exceeding a setpoint.
Dashboards
• Configurable dashboards for visualizing historical power system data.
Reports
• Historical data reporting.
Notifications
• SMS notification and/or email can be sent for fast analysis and action.
• Email notifications are also available to send reports and noncritical information.
Analysis Tools
Electrical Distribution Monitoring and Alarming provides an incident timeline with
advanced functions:
• Alarm/event data according to their date and time.
• Detailed breakdown and sequence of alarms, waveforms and trends involved in
the incident.
• Disturbance direction detection to indicate upstream / downstream root cause of
an incident.
Cloud-Based Analytics and Services
As an option, a connected advisory service can perform cloud-based analytics for
electrical network health, with recommendations from expert service engineers.
BMS Integration
EcoStruxure Power enables integration of electrical data and alarms at the Edge
Control layer with BMS software for better decision making.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 221

Continuous Thermal Monitoring

One of the leading causes of electrical fires in low and medium voltage installations
are non-operational cable power connections, busbars, and withdrawable circuit
breakers, in particular when the connections are made on site. A non-operational
power connection can lead to an increase of its electrical contact resistance which
induces a thermal runaway that can lead, in the worst case, to destruction of
switchgear and severe injury to the operator.
Increase of contact resistance can result from:
• Loose connections due to improper installation or maintenance (improper
tightening torque, connection loosening due to vibrations).
• Damaged surface (due to corrosion, excessive pressure, excessive friction).
A common remedy is provided by infrared inspections which must be performed
manually, are tedious, and only identify issues on a periodic basis.
A properly designed Continuous Thermal Monitoring system provides the following:
live data display, alarms and events, notifications, trends, and reports 24/7 without the
need for external infrared inspections.
Asset Performance and Maintenance

In the past, equipment maintenance for circuit breakers, UPSs, and motors, was
performed using a preventative approach. This means, circuit breakers were serviced
periodically, typically every one to two years.
By leveraging asset diagnostics data, preventative and condition-based maintenance
models can help facilitate maintenance planning to reduce risk of early degradation,
optimize maintenance activities and optimize maintenance related spending.
The Facility Manager needs to:
• Move from reactive or preventative to condition based (predictive) maintenance
strategies for critical assets like circuit breakers, gensets, transformers.
• Gain visibility into critical assets health and maintain them when necessary.
• Enhance their maintenance strategy with expert services to determine the optimal
time to maintain critical assets.
• Streamline and optimize maintenance spending.
This application helps the Facility Manager by providing the following:
Live Data Display
• Circuit breaker asset monitoring diagram (% of electrical and mechanical wear, %
of environmental and control unit aging, number of operations, load and
temperature profiles).
• UPS monitoring diagrams (measurements, UPS status, battery information, pre-
alarms and alarms).
• Power Quality mitigation equipment, generator status diagrams.
Reports and Dashboards
• Circuit Breaker Aging report
• UPS Health report
• Generator Battery Health report
These reports provide the right information to help decide when to maintain circuit
breakers, UPSs and generator start batteries.
222 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Cloud-based Analytics Services

• Remote notifications in case of electrical asset condition anomalies.
• Predictive analytics to determine equipment remaining lifetime and other health
indicators.
• Asset matrix to visualize asset health risks.
• Pro-active asset maintenance optimization support by the vendor’s Service
Bureau.
Capacity Management
Many facilities are in a constant state of flux. Areas are being renovated, equipment is
being moved, new production lines are brought online, old equipment is being
upgraded.
Capacity of the electrical distribution infrastructure must evolve per these changing
environments while not exceeding the rating of electrical distribution equipment.
This is a problem for circuit breakers, UPSs, generators, ATSs, transformers,
capacitor banks, bus bars, conductors, fuses. Often, exceeding the rated capacity
means nuisance trips, but it can also result in overheating or fires.
• Understand the capacity needs of the electrical distribution infrastructure to plan
for expansions or modifications of the facility environment.
• Upgrade the facility while not exceeding the rated capacity of equipment and
mitigating potential risks to the electrical infrastructure (For example, Nuisance
trips, overheating, fires).
This application provides the following for the Facility Manager:
Live Data Display
• Electrical Health diagram
Trends
• Real-time and historical data can be viewed on a trend viewer.
Reports
• Branch Circuit Capacity report
• Generator Power report
• UPS Power report
• Equipment Capacity report
• Generator Capacity report
• Power Losses report
Backup Power Testing

Critical buildings such as hospitals and data centers rely on emergency power
systems to supply the facility with power during an interruption of the utility incomer(s).
During an interruption, power is transferred from the utility supply to the alternate
power source using automatic transfer switches (ATS).
In fact, according to the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), backup power
systems fail to start 20% to 30% of the time. Common causes include starter battery
issues, low fuel levels, wet-stacking, controls in wrong state.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 223

Also, the Joint Commission (also known as JCAHO) requires healthcare facility to test
their emergency power supply system monthly with specific guidelines on the test
procedure as well as data collection and reporting the results.
• Ensure the reliability and availability of backup power supply systems in the event
of unexpected power outages.
• Save time, improve productivity, and ensure accuracy of testing process and
documentation per standards or manufacturer recommendations.
Purpose of Backup Power Testing application is to provide the following:
• Centralized remote operator control and testing:
• Remotely test Automatic Transfer Switch transfer, re-transfer and bypass
• Start, run, stop, and cool down emergency generators
• Remotely control Load Banks for engine-generator and UPS loading
• Conduct system test of emergency generator paralleling
• Remotely test Fire Pump Controls emergency power
• Monitor, automatically record and report backup power tests
• Automatic transfer switches
• Back-up generators
• UPS
• Emergency generator paralleling system
• Load Banks
• Fire Pump Control Systems
• Record key legislated parameters for compliance reports including:
• Transfer time for Automatic Transfer Systems and generators.
• Generator run time, engine loading, exhaust and engine temperature, fuel levels
and battery health.
• UPS’s ability to sustain critical loads during power outage, and UPS battery
health.
• Load bank loading on emergency generator paralleling, engine-generators and
UPS systems.
This application provides the following outputs:
Live Data Display
• Animated device diagrams with status and analog values of ATS, generators,
power control systems, load banks, fire pump controls system and UPS.
Reports
• Generator Test (EPSS) report
• Generator Battery Health report
• Generator Load Summary report
• UPS Auto-test report
• UPS Battery Health report
• Automatic Transfer Switch performance report
• Utility power outage report
224 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Power Quality Monitoring

There are many different power quality disturbances which can adversely affect
critical or sensitive equipment, processes and buildings. To promote seamless and
uninterrupted functioning of these assets, it is very important to continuously measure,
understand and act on any power quality issues that could affect uninterrupted
operation.
• Understand which power quality events could adversely affect their processes or
operations.
• Be able to monitor persistent power quality disturbances.
• Analyze and determine actions needed to correct issues.
Power Quality Monitoring application helps with the following:
• Monitor steady-state and event-based disturbances.
• Harmonics, current unbalance, flicker and over/under voltage conditions,
transients, interruptions.
• Better understand power quality disturbances.
• Trends and reports to understand potential issues that could affect operations.
• Capture and study event details such as waveforms.
• Disturbance Direction Detection to locate the directionality of events.
• Deep-dive analysis of power quality issues.
• Advanced dashboards and reports.
• Analytics-based advisory services to improve performance across the system.
The following are the outputs of the Power Quality Monitoring application:
Live Data Display
• Steady state disturbances such as harmonics, unbalance, and frequency, can be
visualized in real time.
Events and Alarms
• Onboard events and alarms with timestamps.
Trends
Steady state disturbances such as harmonics, unbalance, frequency can be
visualized as trends to monitor their evolution over time.
Analysis Tools
• Power Events Incident Timeline
• Waveform viewer
Dashboards
• Power Quality Status Panel diagrams
• Power Quality dashboards
Reports
• Power Quality report, Power Quality Analysis, and Impact reports.
• Harmonics Compliance report, IEC 61000-4-30 report, EN 50160-2000 and EN
50160-2010 reports.
Cloud-based Analytics and Services
• Cloud-based advisory service can perform cloud-based analytics on power
quality data.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 225

Electricity Billing Basics

Most electric utilities serve a designated geographic territory, largely without other
competitors having access to their customers. As such, utility prices have often been
set by local, state, or federal regulators, entities that review electric utility costs,
revenues, investment decisions, fuel prices, and other factors to arrive at a target rate
of return. This approved rate of return, coupled with the utility’s cost structure,
determine prices customers pay.
These prices are established in electric utility tariffs, or rate schedules. Rate tariffs are
usually established for different classes or sizes of customers. Common class types
may include industrial, commercial, residential, municipal, and agricultural. Each
customer class may have one or more rate schedules available, and it is common for
the electric utility to allow a facility to choose the rate schedule within its class that
offers the lowest price.
Electricity Metering
Electric utilities meter both the real and reactive power consumption of a facility. The
real power consumption, and its integral -- energy, usually comprise the largest
portion of the electric bill. Reactive power requirements, usually expressed in power
factor, can also be a significant cost and is discussed later.
Demand
Real power consumption, typically expressed in kilowatts or megawatts, varies
instantaneously over the course of a day as facility loads change. While instantaneous
power fluctuations can be significant, electric utilities have found that average power
consumption over a time interval of 15, 30, or 60 minutes is a better indicator of the
“demand” on electrical distribution equipment.
Transformers, for example, can be selected based on average power requirements of
the load. Short-duration fluctuations in load current may cause corresponding drops in
load voltage, but these drops are within the normal operating tolerances of typical
machines and within the design parameters of the transformer.
The demand rate, in $/kW, may also be referred to as a capacity charge, since it has
historically been related to the necessary construction of new generating stations,
transmission lines, and other utility capital projects. Demand charges often represent
40% or more of an industrial customer’s monthly bill.
226 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 132 - Demand Curve
“Demand” is the average instantaneous power consumption over a set time interval,
usually 15, 30, or 60 minutes.
Energy
The other major component of an electric bill is energy. The same metering equipment
that measures power demand also records customer energy consumption. Energy
consumption is reported in kilowatt-hours or megawatt-hours. Unlike power demand
with its capacity relationship, customer energy consumption is sometimes related to
fuel requirements in electric utility generating stations. The cost per kilowatt-hour in
each electric utility rate structure, therefore, is often influenced by the mix of
generating plant types in the utility system. Coal, fuel oil, natural gas, hydroelectric,
and nuclear are typical fuel sources on which power generation is based.
Load Factor – Demand/Energy Relationship
One useful parameter to calculate each month is the ratio of the average demand to
the peak demand. This unit-less number is a useful parameter that tracks the
effectiveness of demand management techniques. A load factor of 100% means that
the facility operated at the same demand the entire month, a so-called “flat” profile.
This type of usage results in the lowest unit cost of electricity.
Few facilities operate at a load factor of 100%, and that is not likely to represent an
economical goal for most facilities. But a facility can calculate its historical load factor
and seek to improve it by reducing usage at peak times, moving batch processes to
times of lower demand, and so forth. Load factor can be calculated from values
reported on practically every electric bill:
LF = kWh / (kW * days * 24);
Where LF is Load Factor, kWh is the total energy consumption for the billing period,
kW is the peak demand set during the billing period, and days is the number of billing
days in the month (typically 28-32). “24”, of course is the number of hours in a day.
Time-of-Use customers may prefer to track load factor only during on-peak time
periods. In that case, the kWh, kW, days, and hours/day in the formula are changed to
reflect the parameters established only during the on-peak periods.
Typical load factor for an industrial facility depends to a great degree on the number of
shifts the plant operates. One shift, five-day operations typical record a load factor of
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 227

20-30%, while two-shifts yield 40-50%, and three shift, 24/7 facilities may reach load
factors of 70-90%.
Figure 133 - Demand Curve: Multiple Shifts
Three Shifts One Shift
Equal Energy
Unequal Demand
Demand, kW
Demand, kW
Load Factors, page 228 gives a graphical comparison of facilities with dramatically
different load factors. The three-shift facility produces an average demand that is
nearly equal to its peak demand, while the average and peak demand for the one shift
facility is much less than one.
Table 48 - Load Factors
Load Factor 30% 50% 70%
Peak Demand kW 1142 685 489

Energy Usage kW% 250,000 250,000 250,000
Demand Cost $11,420 $6,850 $4,890
Energy Cost $10,000 $10,000 $10,000
Total Monthly Bill $21,420 $16,850 $14,890
Average Cost/kWh $8.57 $6.74 $5.96
Demand Cost as 53% 41% 33%

Percent of Total
Power Factor
The relationship of real, reactive, and total power has been introduced previously, and
described as the “power triangle”. For effective electricity cost reduction, it is important
to understand how the customer’s electric utility recoups its costs associated with
reactive power requirements of its system. Many utilities include power factor billing
provisions in rate schedules, either directly in the form of penalties, or indirectly in the
form of real-power billing demand that is higher than the actual measured peak.
Even if a utility does not charge directly for poor power factor, there are at least three
other reasons that a customer may find it economical to install equipment to improve
power factor within its facility, thereby reducing the reactive power requirements of the
utility:
• Reduce power factor penalties.
• Release capacity of an existing circuit.
• Reduce heating losses associated with power distribution (often called I2R
losses).
• Improve voltage regulation.
228 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Fixed capacitor banks are best suited for use on electrical systems with no voltage or
current harmonics. In the presence of harmonics, Active Harmonic Filters (AHF) are a
better solution.
Figure 134 - Capacitor Banks
Typical Energy Auditing Process

1. Evaluate the current rate schedule.
2. Determine if other rate schedules are available.
3. Complete the Facility Energy Profile.
4. Assess no-cost/low-cost energy saving options.
5. Complete feasibility analysis of energy management project options.
6. Recommend Energy Action Plan.
Facility Energy Profile — Where’s the Energy Going?

An important initial step in evaluating energy saving opportunities is to estimate both:
• The contribution to peak billing demand, and
• The amount of energy consumption.
Of each major load or process within the facility being evaluated.
This Facility Energy Profile helps to focus the energy optimization efforts on those
processes or loads that have the most savings potential. This profile also may identify
batch processes or discretionary loads that may be scheduled at times of low demand
for the rest of the facility, or during times of off-peak utility prices.
The Facility Energy Profile identifies the major energy consuming processes and
equipment in the facility.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 229

Figure 135 - Facility Energy Profile
Production
Lighting Systems Equipment
8% 8%
Compressed Air
8% Packaging Lines
8%
Utility Systems
3%
HVAC
Miscellaneous 10%
6%
Cooling Tower
Fans
3%
Chilled Water
Pumps
9%
Condenser Water
Chillers Pumps
33% 3%
The FEP is best developed using actual power measurements from existing facility-
wide monitoring systems. Some types of loads, lighting, for instance, may comprise
part of the usage of every major circuit in the facility. This fact would suggest that the
meter measuring the power consumption of a feeder serving the building’s centrifugal
water chillers.
Actual power monitoring data from existing Circuit Monitors measuring the power
consumption of individual feeders is the best basis for establishing the Facility Energy
Profile.
Figure 136 - Circuit Monitors
Demand Analysis Techniques

Demand analysis is the methodology used to determine if there are opportunities for a
given facility to reduce peak demand charges. Demand analysis involves
manipulation of historical demand interval data to determine which major processes or
loads are operating at times of highest demand; how “steep” or “flat” the facility’s load
230 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

profile appears; and what times of day these peaks are occurring. Armed with this
information, the energy auditor can better evaluate the potential for a variety of
demand reduction techniques.
The Demand Sort Table, page 231 is produced by rearranging individual integrated
demand readings for a given billing period. Meters record demand readings
chronologically, 3000 or so readings for a 30-day billing period at 15-minute demand
intervals; the demand sort utilizes a software tool to distribute the readings from
highest to lowest, so that times and values of peak usage are easily analyzed.
Figure 137 - Integrated Demand Readings
The Demand Sort Table, page 231 facilitates demand analysis by depicting the
number of intervals (or hours) during which the plant’s peak electrical demand
exceeded certain levels.
Table 49 - Demand Sort Table
15–Minute Intervals Above Given Demand Level
kWD May June July Aug Sept kWD
2400 2400
2350 2350
2300 1 1 2300
2250 2 5 2 6 2250
2200 7 31 15 25 6 2200
2150 15 73 53 92 21 2150
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 231

Table 49 - Demand Sort Table (Continued)
15–Minute Intervals Above Given Demand Level
kWD May June July Aug Sept kWD
2100 26 129 126 164 52 2100

2050 52 206 235 282 110 2050
2000 114 287 380 400 189 2000
1950 177 383 477 495 292 1950
1900 257 473 551 599 409 1900
1850 352 580 634 698 510 1850
Using the Demand Reduction Table, page 232, the engineer can determine that a
reduction in peak demand to 2200 kW at this example facility would have required a
demand reduction of 122 kW for 25 fifteen-minute intervals, or 6.25 hours, in August
of the sample year.
Table 50 - Demand Reduction Table
Load Time Demand Demand

Former Proposed
Month Required Required Reduction Savings
Peak kW Peak kW
kW Hours kW $
Non-Summer 2322 2200 0 0 122 8540.00

May 2265 2200 65 1.75 65 650.00
June 2305 2200 105 7.75 105 1050.00

July 2253 2200 53 3.75 53 530.00
August 2322 2200 122 6.25 122 1220.00
September 2241 2200 41 1.5 41 410.00
12,400.00
Peak-day Load Profiles, page 232 from actual power monitoring data can show
consistency, or, as in this case, a single-day aberration in peak demand that set the
demand minimum billing level (ratchet) for the remainder of the year.
Figure 138 - Peak-day Load Profiles
232 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Demand Control
Demand controls systems are available that perform these basic functions:
• Measure power consumption (demand) in real time.
• Predict demand level based on rate of instantaneous usage.
• Compare predicted value to target setpoint.
• Transmit signals to pre-determined equipment to turn off or curtail power usage if
demand is predicted to exceed target kW.
These demand controls systems are intended to reduce peak demand for a facility to
some predetermined level.
The design engineer’s foremost demand control system challenge is to identify loads
in the facility that can be controlled effectively. Ideal load candidates include those
machines or processes that are (1) currently contributing to the facility’s load at peak
times, and (2) whose function can be delayed or curtailed at times of peak.
Most facilities lack equipment or processes that fit this ideal description, despite the
numerous machines and processes that may be operating at peak times. In fact,
successful demand control is usually the exception rather than the rule.
One common candidate for the demand control system is the air conditioning system.
Buildings equipped with multiple packaged direct-expansion air conditioning systems
are typical targets of demand control sales efforts. Unfortunately, demand control of
air conditioning compressors usually leads to loss of temperature or humidity control
within the conditioned space, or lack of demand savings.
The reason for this paradox is twofold. One, natural diversity among multiple air
conditioning compressors maximizes the chance that all compressors are not
operating at full load at the same time. Strangely, this fact is often highlighted in the
demand control system sales pitch: “Not all compressors are running at the same
time, so you should turn some off for short periods of time”.
Secondly, basic thermodynamic principles of moist air and vapor-compression
refrigeration systems require compressor power consumption to reduce air
temperature and condense moisture. This process is controlled by thermostats and
humidistats within the facility. When cooling or dehumidification is removed or reduced
at times when these devices are “calling for” them, temperature and humidity rises in
the conditioned space.
So, if not air conditioning equipment, what loads have been successful demand
control candidates? An electrolysis process providing chemicals for a paper mill was
able to reduce peak demand and flatten the demand profile for the overall facility. A
battery-charging system for forklift vehicles in an automotive facility could produce
real demand savings during peak times. Finally, a large induction furnace melting
scrap metal proved to be an effective candidate for the rolling mill at a steel plant.
Chilled Water Supply and Return Temperatures, page 234 increase over the course of
a day due to demand control of inlet guide vanes on a centrifugal water chiller. Space
conditions could not be maintained because of the demand control.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 233

Figure 139 - Chilled Water Supply and Return Temperatures
Peak Shaving with Onsite Generation

How, the engineer might ask, can a facility save money by producing their own energy
(PV, battery, diesel generator.) that costs more per kWh than the energy they
purchase from the utility? Very carefully, is the expected – and accurate - response.
The key to economic peak shaving is to understand and optimize the demand savings
associated with onsite generation operation. That is, the onsite generation must be
operated the absolute minimum time necessary to reduce peak demand the maximum
amount. Because the overall average unit price of electricity is not necessarily
equivalent to the effective price of electricity at the plant’s peak.
For example, the facility that pays an overall average unit price of 8 ¢/kWh probably
pays only about 3-4 ¢/kWh for actual energy consumption, yet an additional $10-$20/
kW for demand. At the end of the month, the total billing amount divided by the total
kWh usage might yield 8 ¢/kWh average, but the actual cost of power at its peak –
when demand charges are included – may equate to an effective unit price of 20
¢/kWh or higher. For the facility with a sharp demand peak, when the peak for the
month is set in a few hours or less and the remainder of the time demand is low, peak-
shaving at 12 ¢/kWh can be preferable to paying 20 ¢/kWh.
Costs of Generated Power
Onsite generators typically utilize natural gas, wood, fuel oil, or steam derived from a
fossil fuel or as a part of a production process. Unit fuel costs for fossil fuels are
usually calculated based on the fuel’s heating value, an estimated efficiency of the
generator system, and the fuel cost.
Cost/kWh = fuel price/gal * 3413 / HV / efficiency
In the equation above, HV is the heating value of fuel oil in BTU/gal, and 3413 is the
conversion from BTU to kWh. Internal combustion diesel generators typically range in
efficiency from 25-30%.
For a typical example, #2 fuel oil may be burned in an IC engine. For a fuel-oil price of
$3.00/gal, and a generator efficiency of 25%, the fuel cost/kWh is:
234 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Cost/kWh = $3.00 * 3413 / 108,000 BTU/gal / 0.25

Cost/kWh = 38 ¢/kWh.
Obviously, peak-shaving is much less attractive at a fuel cost of $3.00/gal, unless
required generator operation can be predicted accurately and electricity charges are
comparably high as well.
Utility Rates Affecting Peak-shaving Generation
Electric utility rates must be analyzed carefully prior to implementing peak shaving or
cogeneration opportunities. Some utilities have special interconnection and protective
relaying requirements so that onsite generation does not pose a safety hazard for
utility workers. In addition, many utility rate schedules impose standby charges for
onsite generation.
These charges are intended to recoup the utility’s investment in transformers and
other equipment necessary to serve the facility’s entire load when the onsite
generation equipment is not operating. Without this standby equipment, utilities often
reserve the right to replace service equipment with smaller facilities, at risk to the
facility of overloading the smaller equipment when onsite generation is not operating.
Facilities with onsite generation may be able to operate this equipment to reduce
purchased power requirements during periods of high demand, or high utility prices.
Figure 140 - On-peak Period
Savings, or losses, associated with operation of peak-shaving generators is

dependent on fuel prices, on-peak electricity prices, the amount of time the generator
must operate for a given peak-reduction target, and, most importantly, the accuracy
with which plant personnel can predict these variables.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 235

Figure 141 - Peak-shaving Generators Savings or Losses
Electricity generation and peak shaving can also be accomplished with steam
cogeneration systems typical of paper mills, refineries, and other large industrial
processes.
Figure 142 - Steam Cogeneration Peak-shaving
Water, Air, Gas, Electric Steam (WAGES)

WAGES is the acronym for the complete power and energy monitoring system in a
typical industrial facility. Industrials are concerned about the costs of Water, Air
(compressed), Gas (natural gas), Electricity, and Steam. These systems are often
interrelated to the degree that reductions in one utility can increase usage in another.
The power monitoring system used by industrials must have the capability of
236 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

monitoring each of these parameters accurately, and of posting this information in a

common, preferably web-based, format for use by the local site and by remote
engineers and managers.
Web-based power monitoring systems allow energy managers to monitor all their
utilities (Water, Air, Gas, Electricity, Steam) and verify the results of their energy
reduction techniques to facilitate identification of new opportunities. Such systems can
also convert the energy consumption to dollars by applying a tariff.
Figure 143 - Web-based Power Monitoring Systems
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 237

Energy Survey Checklist

Lighting
TBD: Fix non standard bullets
• Lighting operating more hours than needed.
◦ Reduce operating hours with lighting control system.
• Areas over lit for task performed.
◦ Reduce light levels by disconnecting or replacing lamps or fixtures.
• Incandescent or quartz lamps operating more than 2,000 hours per year.
◦ Convert to fluorescent or other energy efficient source.
• Mercury vapor lamps.
◦ Convert to energy saving fluorescent, metal halide, or high-pressure sodium.
• Standard fluorescent lamps operating one shift.
◦ Convert to energy saving fluorescent lamps and ballasts.
• Standard fluorescent lamps operating two or three shifts.
◦ Convert to energy saving fluorescent lamps and ballasts.
• Fluorescent at 18 feet or higher mounting heights.
◦ Convert to high pressure sodium.
• VHO fluorescent fixtures.
◦ Convert to energy saving fluorescent, metal halide, or high-pressure sodium.
• Standard fluorescent ballasts.
◦ Replace with energy savings electronic ballasts at loss.
Induction Motors
• Motors operating 75%+ full load, more than 6,000 hours per year.
◦ Replace with energy efficient motors at loss.
• Standard V-belts on pumps or fans.
◦ Convert to cog V-belts.
• Fans or pumps that are throttled with dampers or control valves.
◦ Consider variable speed drives.
Demand Management
• Sharp demand peaks of short duration (low load factor).
◦ Identify loads to shed or reschedule to off-peak.
• Batch processes.
◦ Shift to off-peak.
• Consider Time-of-Use savings opportunities.
Exhaust, Ventilation, and Pneumatic Conveying
• Transport velocities or exhaust flows higher than minimum required.
◦ Consider changing belts and sheaves to reduce air velocity.
• Consider variable speed or inlet vane control.
• Consider exhaust air heat recovery.
• Make-up air properly provided for all exhaust.
• Fume hoods designed to minimize exhaust.
• Properly designed stack heads (no Chinese hats or caps on outlets).
238 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Fan-coil Unit Air Handling Units

• Consider air side economizers.
• Considered chilled water reset.
• Consider water side economizer.
Centrifugal Water Chillers
• Multiple chillers operating on a common header.
◦ Fully load one chiller before starting another.
◦ Consider chilled water reset.
• Consider water side economizer.
• Consider variable speed chiller control (long hours at light loads).
• Excessive approach temperatures - Check trends or design data.
◦ Clean condenser and evaporator tubes.
• Adding cooling load or chillers.
◦ Consider thermal energy storage.
Cooling Towers
• Consider variable speed drives for fan motors.
• Consider PVC fill to replace wood fill material.
• Consider velocity recovery stacks.
Boilers
• Stack gas temperature > 400° (Ideal temperature: 100 degrees plus saturation
temperature of the steam).
◦ Consider economizer to preheat feedwater or combustion air.
• Manual or intermittent blowdown.
◦ Consider automatic blowdown system.
• Continuous blowdown.
◦ Consider blowdown heat recovery system.
• Excess air high or unburned combustibles.
◦ Consider boiling tuning.
• Large amounts of high-pressure condensate.
◦ Consider high pressure condensate receiver.
• Increase amount of condensate returned.
• Improve boiler chemical treatment.
• Maintain steam traps.
Heat Recovery
• Waste-water streams > 100°F.
◦ Consider heat exchanger and/or heat pump.
• Waste air or gas stream > 300°F.
◦ Consider heat exchanger.
Cogeneration
• Boiler rated pressure 100 psi greater than pressure required by process.
• Concurrent steam and electrical demands.
◦ Consider back-pressure turbine.
Refrigeration
• Consider hot gas heat recovery.
• Consider thermal storage.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 239

Compressed Air
• Provide additional small air compressor for loads.
• Provide outside air intake.
• Eliminate air leaks.
240 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

EcoStruxure™ Power Digital Applications
EcoStruxure™ Power Digital Applications

For more information, see EcoStruxure Power Digital Applications (IEC) for IEC
applications, and EcoStruxure Power Digital Applications (NEMA) for NEMA
applications.
0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 241

Schneider Electric
800 Federal Streen
Andover, MA 01810
USA
888–778–2733
www.se.com
As standards, specifications, and design change from time to time,

please ask for confirmation of the information given in this publication.
© 1989 – 2024 Schneider Electric. All rights reserved.

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Electrical Distribution Fundamentals Design Guide Data Bulletin-Schneider Electric

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Electrical Distribution Fundamentals Design

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 3

4 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 5

Purpose of this Guide

Applications of Electrical Power in Industrial and Commercial

1. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001, pp. 21-1 – 21-99.

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 7

Industrial processes: Industrial processes account for a large percentage of the

Basic Design Philosophy

8 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 1 - Power System Design Consideration Heuristics

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 9

Electric Power Fundamentals

v(t) = Vmaxcos(360f·t+Фv) (2–1)

10 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

va(t) = Vmaxcos(360x60xt) = Vmaxcos (2–3)

Figure 2 - Graphical Representation of 3Ф Voltages

ABC Phase-Sequence CBA Phase-Sequence

cos(ө) = Re{ejө} (2–6)

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 11

va(t) = Re{Vmaxej21600t } (2–7)

Vrms = Vmax/√2 (2–11)

V̄a = Vmaxej21600t (2–12)

Assuming a frequency of 60 Hz, the commonly-used shorthand notation for (2-12) –

V̄a = Vmax∠0° (2–15)

12 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

Figure 3 - Plot for Phasors per (2-15) – (2-17)

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 13

Figure 4 - General 3Ф System Representation

Figure 5 - DC Circuit Element for Power Calculation

14 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

p(t) = v(t) i(t) = VmaxImax/2[cos(Фv - Фi) + (2–19)

Thus, the instantaneous power consists of two parts: A DC component and an AC

P = VmaxImax/2 cos(Фv - Фi) (2–20)

P = VrmsIrmscos(Фv - Фi) (2–21)

S = |S̄| = √P2+Q2 (2–26)

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 15

P is expressed in Watts. Q has the same units but to differentiate it from P it is

Figure 6 - Graphical Depiction of AC Power

The depiction in Graphical Depiction of AC Power, page 16 is referred to as the power

S̄3Ф = S̄A + S̄B+ S̄C (2–27)

16 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

S̄3Ф = 3S̄1Ф (2–31)

Figure 7 - Basic Transformer Model

0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504 17

From (2-35) and (2-36):

Ψ=(N1 I1)/ℜ = (N2 I2)/ℜ (2–37)

Dividing (2-40) by (2-41),

V1/V2 = N1/N2 (2–42)

V1I1 = V2/I2 (2–43)

Z̄2 = I1 = V̄2/I2 (2–44)

Z̄2 = (N2/N1)V̄1/(N1/N2)/Ī1 = (N2/N1)2(V̄1/Ī1 (2–45)

Z̄1 = V̄1/(N1 (2–46)

Therefore, (2-45) can be re-written as:

Z̄2 = (N2/(N1)2Z̄1 (2–47)

18 0100DB2301 Replaces 0100SM1504

A Practical Transformer Model

Figure 8 - Practical Transformer Model

Figure 9 - Standard Transformer Symbolic Representation