MODULE-2

2.1 Operators and Expressions

 Operator: Operator is a symbol (or token) that specifies the operation to be performed on
various types of data.
 Operand: A constant or variable or function which returns a value is an operand.
 Expression: A sequence of operands and operators that reduces to a single value is an
expression.
Operands

a + b Expression

a _ b

Operators

2.1.1 Classification of operators

The operators in C can be classified based on:
 The number of operands an operator has.
 The type of operation being performed.

1. Classification of operators based on the number of operands

Unary operators Ex: ++,-- etc.

Operators Binary operators Ex: +,-,*,/ etc.

Ternary operators Ex: ? and :

i) Unary operator: An operator which acts on only one operand to produce the result is
called Unary operator.
Ex: -10, -a, *b, ++a, a++, b-- etc.

ii) Binary operator: An operator which acts on two operands to produce the result is called
Binary operator.
Ex: a+b, a*b, 10/5 etc

iii) Ternary operator: An operator which acts on three operands to produce the result is
called Ternary operator.
Ex: a ? b : c;

DBIT 1
 2. Classification of operators based on type of operation
Arithmetic Operators Ex: +, - , * etc.

Assignment Operators Ex: =, +=

Increment/Decrement Operators Ex: ++, --

Relational Operators Ex: <, >, <=, >=

Types of Operators Logical Operators Ex: &&, ||

Conditional Operators Ex: ?:

Bitwise Operators Ex: &, ^

Special Operators Ex: ,, . ,[ ] , ( )

i) Arithmetic Operators
 The operators that are used to perform arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and modulus are called arithmetic operators.
 These operators perform operations on two operands and hence they are called binary
operators.

 % (modulus operator) divides the first operand by second and returns the remainder.
 % (modulus operator) cannot be applied to floating or double.
 % operator returns remaining value(remainder) of an integer division.

 *, / and % operators are having higher precedence than +, - operators.

DBIT 2
 Arithmetic Operator’s Precedence (Precedence of operators)
 The Arithmetic Expressions are evaluated based on “BODMAS” Rule. (Brackets of Operator
(x(2),[ ]), Order or Power (xy,23 etc.), Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction).

ii) Assignment Operators

 An operator which is used to assign the data or result of an expression into a variable (also
called memory location) is called an assignment operator.
 Assignment operator is denoted by ‘=’ sign.
Ex: a=b; //value of b is copied into variable a

Types of Assignment statements:

a). Simple Assignment Statement

variable= expression;

Ex: a=10;
a=b;
a=a+b;
Area= l*b; //Result of Expression l*b is copied into variable area.

b). Shorthand Assignment Statement

 The operators such as +=, -=, *=, /= and %= are called shorthand assignment operators.
Ex 1: a=a+10; // simple assignment
a+=10; // shorthand assignment
Ex 2: i=i+2;
i+=2;
 If expr1 and expr2 are expressions then
expr1op = expr2 ;
is equivalent to
expr1 = (expr1) op (expr2) ;
i.e., x*=y+1 means x=x*(y+1) ;

DBIT 3
c). Multiple Assignment Statement
 Assigning a value or a set of values to different variables in one statement is called multiple
assignment statement.
 The multiple assignments are used whenever same value has to be copied into various memory
locations.
Ex: int i=10; //simple assignment
int j=10;
int k=10;
int i=j=k=10; //multiple assignment

iii) Increment and Decrement Operators

Increment Operator
 ‘++’ is an increment operator. This is unary operator. It increments the value of a variable
by one.
Post Increment Ex: a++
Increment
Operator Pre Increment Ex: ++a

1. Post Increment
 It increments the value after (post) the operand value is used. i.e., operand value is used
first and then the operand value is incremented by 1.
Ex: void main()
{
int a=20,b; // a=20, b?
b=a++; // b=a=20, a=a+1= 20+1
printf(“%d”,a); // a=21
printf(“%d”,b); // b=20
}

2. Pre Increment
 It increments before (pre) the operand value is used. The operand value is incremented by
1 and this incremented value is used.

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Ex: void main()
{
int a=20,b; // a=20, b?
b=++a; // a=++a=a+1= 20+1, b=a=21
printf(“%d”,a); // a=21
printf(“%d”,b); // b=21
}

Decrement Operator
 '--' is a decrement operator. This is a unary operator. It decrements the value of a variable
by one.
Post Decrement Ex: a--
Decrement
Operator Pre Decrement Ex: --a

1. Post Decrement
 It decrements the value after (post) the operand value is used. i.e., operand value is used
first and then the operand value is decremented by 1.
Ex: void main()
{
int a=20,b; // a=20, b?
b=a--; // b=a=20, a=a-1= 20-1
printf(“%d”,a); // a=19
printf(“%d”,b); // b=20
}

2. Pre Decrement
 It decrements before (pre) the operand value is used. The operand value is decremented by
1 and this decremented value is used.
Ex: void main()
{
int a=20,b; // a=20, b?
b=--a; // a=--a=a-1= 20-1, b=a=19
printf(“%d”,a);// a=19
printf(“%d”,b); // b=19
}

iv) Relational operators

 The operators that are used to find the relationship between two operands are called
relational operators.
 The relationship between the two operand values results in true (always 1) or false (always
0).

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Relational operators available in C are:

 All the relational operators are having a same priority and left to right associativity.
 The relational operators have lower precedence than arithmetic operators.

Equality operators
 C supports two kinds of equality operators to compare their operands for strict equality or
inequality.
equal ==
not equal ! =
 Equality operators have lower precedence than the relational operators.

v) Logical operators
 The operators that are used to combine two or more relational expressions are called
logical operators.
 The output of relational expression is true or false, the output of logical expression is also
true or false.

Logical operators available in C:

Description Operators Priority Associativity

not ! 1 Left to Right
and && 2 Left to Right
or !! 3 Left to Right

Operand1 Operand2 AND(&&) OR(||) NOT(!) (Operand1)

True(1) True(1) True(1) True(1) False(0)
True(1) False(0) False(0) True(1) False(0)
False(0) True(1) False(0) True(1) True(1)
False(0) False(0) False(0) False(0) True(1)

Logical NOT: The logical NOT operator is denoted by ‘!’. The output of not operator can be true or
false. The result is true if the operand value is false and the result is false if the operand is true.

Logical AND: The logical AND operator is denoted by ‘&&’. The output of and operator is true if
both the operands are evaluated to true. If one of the operand is evaluated false, the result is false.

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Logical OR: The logical OR operator is denoted by ‘||’. The output of or operator is true if and only
if at least one of the operands is evaluated to true. If both the operands are evaluated to false, the
result is false.

Ex: 1. If a, b, c are 3 sides of a triangle, then if a==b && b==c && c==a then triangle is equilateral
otherwise not an equilateral triangle.
2. If a, b, c are 3 sides of a triangle then if a==b || b==c || c==a then triangle is isosceles triangle
otherwise not a isosceles triangle.
3. int a=10, b:
b =!a ;
Output: value of b=0, because a = 10 then !a=0 and !a value assigned to b.

vi) Conditional Operator

 The conditional operator is also called as 'ternary operator'.
 An operator that operates on the three operands is called ternary operator.
Syntax:
(expr1)? expr2: expr3;

Where,
- expr1 is evaluated first.
- If expr1 is evaluated to true, then expr2is evaluated.
- If expr1 is evaluated to false, then expr3is evaluated.
Example:
1. Write a C program to find the biggest of two numbers using conditional operator.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,big;
printf(“Enter the values of a and b:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
big=(a>b)?a:b;
printf(“Big=%d”,big);
}

2. Write a C program to find the smallest of two numbers using conditional operator.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,small;
printf(“Enter the values of a and b:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
small=(a<b)?a:b;
printf(“Small=%d”,big);
}

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vii) Bitwise Operators
 The operators that are used to manipulate the bits of given data are called bitwise
operators.

Bitwise operators available in C are:

 These may only be applied to integral operand. i.e., char, short, int and long whether signed or
unsigned.

a. One’s Complement(~)
 The operator that is used to change every bit from 0 to 1 and 1 to 0 in the specified operand
is called One’s complement operator.
Truth table of One’s Complement(~):
Op1 ~Op1
0 1
1 0

 One’s complement operator is denoted by ‘~(tilde)’ symbol.

Ex: Write a C program to show the usage of Bitwise Negate operator.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10,b;
b=~a;
printf(“~%d=%d”,a,b);
getch();
}

Output: ~10=245
Binary Representation:
10 = 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
245= 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

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b. Left shift operator (<<)
 The operator that is used to shift the data by a specified number of bit positions towards
left is called ‘left shift operator’.
Syntax:
b=a<<num;
Ex: Write a C program to show the usage of Left Shift operator.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a=5,b;
b=a<<1;
printf(“%d<<1=%d”,a,b);
}
Output: 5<<1=10
MSB is discarded

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 a=5

b=10
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 is appended at LSB

c. Right shift operator (>>)

 The operator that is used to shift the data by a specified number of bit positions towards
right is called ‘right shift operator’.
Syntax:
b=a>>num;
Ex: Write a C program to show the usage of Right Shift operator.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10,b;
b=a>>1;
printf(“%d>>1=%d”,a,b);
}
Output: 10>>1=5
LSB is discarded

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 a=10

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
b=5
0 is appended at MSB

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d. Bit-wise AND (&)
 If the corresponding bit positions in both the operands are 1, then AND operation results in
1, otherwise AND operation results in 0.
Truth table of Bit-wise AND (&):
Op1 Op2 Op1&Op2
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Ex: Write a C program to show the usage of ‘&’ operator.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10,b=6;
c=a&b;
printf(“%d&%d=%d”,a,b,c);
}
Output: 10&6=2

Binary Representation:
10 = 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
06 = 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
02 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

e. Bit-wise OR (|)
 If the corresponding bit positions in both the operands are 0, then OR operation results in
0, otherwise OR operation results in 1.

Truth table of Bit-wise OR (|):

Op1 Op2 Op1|Op2
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Ex: Write a C program to show the usage of ‘|’ operator.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10,b=6;
c=a|b;
printf(“%d|%d=%d”,a,b,c);
}
Output: 10|6=14
Binary Representation: 10 = 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
06 = 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
14 = 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0

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f. Bit-wise XOR (^)
 If the corresponding bit positions in both the operands are different, then XOR operation
results in 1, otherwise XOR operation results in 0.
0^0=0
0^1=1
1^0=1
1^1=0
Ex: Write a C program to show the usage of ‘^’ operator.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a=10,b=6;
c=a^b;
printf(“%d^%d=%d”,a,b,c);
}

Output: 10^6=12
Binary Representation:
10 = 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
06 = 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
12 = 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

viii) Special Operators

 Comma operator, size of operator and [ ], ->, Indirection operator, *, dot operator etc.

1. Comma operator
 Comma Operator has the least precedence among all the operators and it is left associative
operator.
 Comma Operator is used in the declaration to separate the variables.
Ex: int a,b,c;
 It can be used to separate the items in the list.
Ex: a=12,345,678;
 It can be used to combine two or more statements into a single statement.
Ex: sum=a+b,sub=a-b,mul=a*b,div=a/b,mod=a%b;

2. sizeof()
 ‘sizeof()’ operator is used to determine the number of bytes occupied by a variable or a constant
in the memory.
 Ex: sizeof(char) 1 byte
sizeof(int) 2 bytes
sizeof(float) 4 bytes
Example program: Write a C program that computes the size of int, float, char and double
variables.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{

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 char ch;
int x;
float y;
double z;
clrscr();
printf(“Number of bytes occupied by character variable=%d”,sizeof(ch));
printf(“Number of bytes occupied by integer variable=%d”,sizeof(x));
printf(“Number of bytes occupied by floating-point variable=%d”,sizeof(y));
printf(“Number of bytes occupied by double variable=%d”,sizeof(z));
}

2.1.2 Arithmetic Expressions

 The expression consisting of only arithmetic operators such as +, -, *, / and % are called
arithmetic expressions.

Example: Write the equivalent C expression for the Mathematical expressions.

Mathematical Expression C Equivalent Expression
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 S=(a + b +c) /2
𝑆=
2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) area=sqrt(s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c))

𝑥 = √2𝜋𝑛 x=sqrt(2*3.142*n)
a a/b
b
𝑏 x=-b/(2*a)
𝑥=−
2𝑎
𝑎𝑥2 + bx + c a*x*x+b*x+c

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2.1.3 Associativity of operators
 When two or more operators have the same precedence, then precedence rules are not
applicable.
 Associativity determines how the operators with the same precedence are evaluated in an
expression.
The two types of operators Associativity are:
1. Left Associativity
2. Right Associativity

1. Left Associativity
 In an expression, if two or more operators having the same priority are evaluated from
left-to-right, then the operators are called Left to Right associative operators.
 We normally denote it using L R.

2. Right Associativity
 In an expression, if two or more operators having the same priority are evaluated from
right-to-left, then the operators are called Left to Right associative operators.
 We normally denote it using R L.
Ex: i=j=k=10.

2.1.4 Precedence and order of Evaluation

 In C language, each operator is associated with priority value.
 Based on the priority the expressions are evaluated. The priority of each operator is pre-defined
in C language.
 The order in which the different operators are used to evaluate an expression is called
Precedence or hierarchy of operators
 The pre-defined priority or precedence order given to each of the operator is called precedence of
operator.

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 Unary +, - and * have higher precedence than the binary forms.

2.2 Problems on Expression Evaluation

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15
16
2.3 Type Conversion and Typecasting
 The process of converting the data or variable from one data type to another data type is
called Type Conversion or Typecasting.
 Type conversion is done implicitly by the compiler, whereas typecasting has to be done
explicitly by the programmer.

2.3.1 Type Conversion

 Type conversion is done when the expression has variables of different data types.
 To evaluate the expression, the data type is promoted from lower to higher level where the
hierarchy of data types (from higher to lower level) can be given as: double, float, long, int,
short and char.
char short int int unsigned int long int float double
Lower Rank Higher Rank
Data types Data types

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 C compiler converts the data type with lower rank to the data type with higher rank. This process
of conversion of data from lower rank to higher rank automatically by the C compiler is called
“Implicit type Conversion”.

 If one operand type is same as that of other operand type, no conversion takes place. Ex: int
+ int = int, float + float = float
 If one operand type is ‘int’ and other operand type is ‘float’, then the operand with type int is promoted
to ‘float’ (because float is up in ladder compared with int).
 Type conversion is automatically done when we assign an integer value to floating point variable.
Consider the code given below in which an integer data type is promoted to float. This is known as
promotion (where the lower level data type is promoted to higher type).
float x; int y=3;
x=y;
Now, x=3.0, as automatically integer value is converted into its equivalent floating point representation.

2.3.2 Typecasting
 Typecasting is also known as forced conversion.
 It is done when the value of a higher data type has to be converted into a value of a lower data type.
 But this casting is done under the programmer’s control and not under the compiler’s control.
 The programmer can instruct the compiler to change the type of the operand or variable from one
data type to another data type. This forcible conversion from one data type to another data type is
called “Explicit type Conversion” (Type Casting).
Syntax:
(type) Expression

Ex: (int) 9.43

i= (int) 5.99 / (int) 2.4, now it becomes 5/2 = 2, i=2 (float) (3/10)
= 3.0 / 10.0 = 0.3

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 MODULE 2
Decision Control and Looping Statements
2.4 Introduction to Decision Control or Branching Statements
 The statements that transfer the control from one place to other place in the program
with or without any condition are called branch statements or selection statements.
 The branching statements are classified into two types:
i. Conditional branch statements
ii. Unconditional branch statements

(i) Conditional branch statements

 The statements that transfer the control from one place to another place in the program
based on some conditions are called Conditional branch statements.

Simple- if (One-way selection)

if-else (Two-way selection)

Conditional Nested-if (Multi-way selection)

Branch statements
Cascaded if-else or else-if ladder (Multi-way selection)

switch (Multi-way selection)

(ii) Unconditional branch statements

 The statements that transfer the control from one place to another place in the program
without any condition are called Unconditional branch statements.

goto

break
Unconditional
Branch statements continue

return

2.5 Conditional Branching Statements

2.5.1 if Statement
 The ‘if’ statement is the simplest form of decision control statement.
 When a set of statements have to be executed when an expression (condition) is evaluated to
true or skipped when an expression (condition) is evaluated to false, then if statement is used.
 It is used whenever there is only one choice (alternative). Hence it is also called as “One-
way decision or selection statement”.

2
 Syntax of if statement

if(test Expression)
{ test
Expression
Statement 1; False

Statement 2; True
... Statement 1
Statement 2
… …
… …
…
Statement n; Statement n

}
Statement x; Statement x

 The ‘if’ structure may include one statement or ‘n’ statements enclosed within curly brackets.

Working Principle
 First the test expression is evaluated. If the test expression is true, then the statements of ‘if’
block (statement 1 to n) are executed. Otherwise these statements will be skipped and the
execution will jump to statement x.

Rules for if-statement

a) ‘if’ must be followed by an expression and the expression must be enclosed within
parenthesis.
b) If multiple statements have to be executed when the expression is true, then all those
statements must be enclosed within braces.
c) No semicolon is required for an if-statement.
if(a<b); // statement indicates a NULL statement. It will ‘do nothing’.

Example Programs for ‘if’ statement

1. Write a C program to determine whether a person is eligible to vote or not.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int age;
printf(“Enter the age:”);
scanf(“%d”,&age);
if(age>=18)
printf(“\nThe person is eligible to vote”);
if(age<18)
printf(“\nThe person is not eligible to vote”);
}

3
 2. Write a C program to check whether the number is even or odd and print the
appropriate message.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
printf(“Enter a number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n%2==0)
printf(“Number is even”);
if(n%2=0)
printf(“Number is odd”);
}

3. Write a C program to print the largest of two numbers.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
printf(“Enter the two numbers:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
if(a>b)
printf(“\n a is greater than b”);
if(b>a)
printf(“\n b is greater than a”);
}

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 2.5.2 if-else statement
 If one set of activities have to be performed when an expression is evaluated to true and
another set of activities have to be performed when an expression is evaluated to false, then
if-else statement is used.

Syntax of if-else statement:

if(test Expression)
{
Statement block 1; True False
Test
Expression
}

else
Statement block 1 Statement block 2
{
Statement block 2;
}
Statement x
Statement x;

 The is-else statement is used when we must choose between two choices (alternatives).
Hence is also called as “Two-way Decision or Selection Statement”.

Working Principle
 According to the if-else construct, first the ‘test expression’ is evaluated.
 If the expression is true then Statement block 1 is executed and Statement block 2 is skipped.
 If the expression is false the Statement block 2 is executed and Statement block 1 is ignored.
 Now in any case after the Statement block 1 or 2 gets executed the control will pass to
Statement x. It is executed in every case.

Example Programs for ‘if-else’ statement

1. Write a C program to determine whether a person is eligible to vote or not.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int age;
printf(“Enter the age:”);
scanf(“%d”,&age);
if(age>=18)
printf(“\nThe person is eligible to vote”);
else
printf(“\nThe person is not eligible to vote”);
}

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2. Write a C program to check whether the number is even or odd and print the
appropriate message.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
printf(“Enter a number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n%2==0)
printf(“Number is even”);
else
printf(“Number is odd”);
}

3. Write a C program to enter a character and then determine whether it is a vowel or not.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
printf(“Enter any character:”);
scanf(“%c”,&ch);
if(ch==’a’||ch==’e’||ch==’i’||ch==’o’||ch==’u’||ch==’A’||ch==’E’||ch==’I’||ch==’O’||ch==’U’)
printf(“\n Character is a vowel”);
else
printf(“\n Character is a consonant”);
}

4. Write a C program to find whether a given year is leap year or not.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int year;
printf(“Enter any year:”);
scanf(“%d”,&year);
if(((year%4==0)&&(year%100!=0))||(year%400==0))
printf(“%d is a leap year”,year);
else
printf(“%d is not a leap year”,year);
}

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 2.5.3 Nested if-else statement
 An if-else statement within if statement or an if-else statement
within else statement is called “nested if or if-else statement”.
 When an action has to be performed based on many decisions involving various types of
expressions and variables, then this statement is used. So it is called as “Multi-way decision
statement”.
Syntax for nested if-else statement:
if(test Expression1)
{
if(test Expression2) True Test False
{ Expression1

Statement block 1;
}
else True False Statement
Test
{ Expression2 block 3
Statement block 2;
} Statement Statement
} block 1 block 2
else

{
Statement block 3; Statement x
}
Statement x;

Working Principle
 If the test expression 1 is evaluated to true, then the test expression 2 is checked for true or
false. If the test Expression2 is evaluated to true, then the statements in block 1 are executed,
otherwise the statements in block 2 are executed. After executing the inner if-else the control
comes out and the statement x is executed.
 If the test expression1 itself is false, then the statements in block 3 are executed. After
executing these statements, the statement x is executed.

Example Programs for ‘nested if-else’ statement

1. Write a C program to find the largest of three numbers.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
printf(“Enter the three numbers:”);
scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b)
{
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 if(a>c)
printf(“Max=%d”,a);
else
printf(“Max=%d”,c);
}
else
{
if(b>c)
printf(“Max=%d”,b);
else
printf(“Max=%d”,c);
}
}

2.5.4 Cascaded if-else or if-else-if or else-if-ladder Statement

 It is a special case of nested-if statement where nesting takes place only in the else part.
 The orderly nesting of if-else statement only in the else part is called ‘else-if-ladder’.
 When an action has to be selected based on the range of values, then this statement is used.
So it is called “Multi-way Decision or Selection Statement”.
Syntax :
if(test expression1)
{
Statement block 1; T Test F
Expression1
}
else if(test expression2)
{ T Test F
Statement block 2; Statement Expression 2

} block 1
….
…. Statement
….
…. block 2
else
Statement
{ block n

Statement block n;
}
Statement x
Statement x;

Working Principle
 The ‘Expressions’ are evaluated in order. If any expression is true then the statement
associated with it is executed and this terminates the whole chain and statement x is
executed.
 The last ‘else’ part is executed when all the test expression are false.

8
Example Programs for ‘cascaded if-else’ statement
1. Write a C program to demonstrate the use of cascaded if structure.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int x,y;
printf(“Enter the values of x and y:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&x,&y);
if(x==y)
printf(“\n The two numbers are equal”);
else if(x>y)
printf(“\n %d is greater than %d”,x,y);
else
printf(“\n %d is less than %d”,x,y);
}

2. Write a C program to print whether the number is positive, negative or zero.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n;
printf(“Enter a number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n==0)
printf(“Number is zero”);
else if(n>0)
printf(“Number is positive”);
else
printf(“Number is negative”);
}

9
3. Write a C program to input 3 numbers and then find the largest of them using ‘&&’
operator.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
printf(“Enter the three numbers:”);
scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b && a>c)
printf(“\n %d is the largest number”,a);
else if(b>a && b>c)
printf(“\n %d is the largest number”,b);
else
printf(“\n %d is the largest number”,c);
}

4. Write a C program to display the examination results.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int marks;
printf(“Enter the marks:”);
scanf(“%d”,&marks);
if(marks>=75)
printf(“\n First Class with Distinction”);
else if(marks>=60&&marks<75)
printf(“\n First Class”);
else if(marks>=50&&marks<60)
printf(“\n Second Class”);
else if(marks>=40&&marks<50)
printf(“\n Third Class”);
else
printf(“\n Fail”);
}

2.5.5 switch statement

 The ‘switch’ statement is a control statement used to select one alternative among several
alternatives.
 It is a “multi-way decision statement” that tests whether an expression matches one of the
case values and branches accordingly.

10
 switch statement syntax True Statement
switch(expression) Value1
block 1
{
False
case value-1: Statement block 1;
break; True
Value2 Statement
case value-2: Statement block 2; block 2
break;
….. False
… ….
…..
… ….
case value-n: Statement block n;
break; True
Valuen Statement
default: Statements;
block n
} False
Statement x;
default Statements

Statement x

Working Principle
 First the expression within switch is evaluated.
 The value of an expression is compared with all the case values.
 The value of an expression within switch is compared with the case value-1. If it matches
then the statements associated with that case are executed. If not then the case value-2 is
compared, if it matches then the associated statements are executed and so on.
 The “default” statements are executed when no match is found.
 A default is optional.
 The ‘break’ statement causes an exit from the switch. ‘break’ indicates end of a particular
case and causes the control to come out of the switch. [Significance of break within switch
statement]

Example Programs for ‘switch’ statement

1. Write a C program to display the grade.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{ char grade;
printf(“Enter the grade:”);
scanf(“%c”,&grade);
switch(grade)
{

11
 case ‘O’: printf(“Outstanding”);
break;
case ‘A’: printf(“Excellent”);
break;
case ‘B’: printf(“Good”);
break;
case ‘C’: printf(“Fair”);
break;
case ‘F’: printf(“Fail”);
break;
default : printf(“Invalid grade”);
}
}

2. Write a C program to enter a number from 1 to 7 and display the corresponding day of
the week using switch.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{ int day;
printf(“Enter any number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&day);
switch(day)
{
case 1: printf(“Sunday”);
break;
case 2: printf(“Monday”);
break;
case 3: printf(“Tuesday”);
break;
case 4: printf(“Wednseday”);
break;
case 5: printf(“Thursday”);
break;
case 6: printf(“Friday”);
break;
case 7: printf(“Saturday”);
break;
default : printf(“invalid input”);
}
}

12
 2.6 Iterative Statements or Loops
 A set of statements may have to be repeatedly executed for a specified number of times or till
a condition is satisfied.
 The statements that help us to execute a set of statements repeatedly for a specified
number of times or till a condition is satisfied are called as Iterative statements or looping
constructs or loop control statements.
 These statements are also called as Repetitive or Iterative Statements.
while loop

Loop Statements for loop

do-while loop

2.6.1 while Loop

 It is a control statement using which the programmer can give
instructions to the computer to execute a set of statements
repeatedly as long as specified condition is satisfied.
 The expression is evaluated to TRUE or FALSE in the beginning of the while loop. Hence it
is called as “Entry-Controlled Loop”.

Syntax of while loop

while(test expression) False
{ while(test expression)
Statements; L
O True
} O
P Statements
Statement x;

Statement x

Working principle
 The test expression is evaluated first, if it is TRUE then the set of statements within the body
of the loop are executed repeatedly as long as specified test expression is TRUE.
 If the test expression is false, then the control comes out of the loop by skipping the
execution of the statements within the body of the loop, by transferring the control to the
Statement x.

13
Example programs of ‘while’ loop
1. Write a C program to print the natural numbers from 1 to 10.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1;
while(i<=10)
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i++;
}
}

2. Write a C program to print the natural numbers from 1 to n.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=0,n;
printf(“Enter the value of n:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i++;
}
}

3. Write a C program to print the natural numbers from n to 1.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i;
printf(“Enter the value of n:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
i=n;
while(i>=1)
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i--;
}
}

4. Write a C program to calculate the sum of the first 10 natural numbers.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()

14
 {
int i=1,sum=0;
while(i<=10)
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
}
printf(“\nSum=%d”,sum);
}

5. Write a C program to print the characters from A to Z.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char ch= ‘A’;
while(ch<= ‘Z’)
{
printf(“%c\t”,ch);
ch++;
}
}

6. Write a C program to find the factorial of a given number using while statement.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int fact=1,i=1,n;
printf(“Enter the value of n:\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
while(i<=n)
{
fact=fact*i;
i++;
}
printf(“Factorial of a given number is=%d”,fact);
}

7. Write a C program to read a number and determine whether it is palindrome or not.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{ int digit,rev=0,num,n;
printf("Enter the number:\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
n=num;
while(num!=0)

15
 {
digit=num%10;
rev=rev*10+digit;
num=num/10;
}
printf("The reversed number is=%d\n",rev);
if(n==rev)
printf(“ The number is a palindrome”);
else
printf(“The number is not a palindrome”);
}

8. Program to find GCD and LCM of 2 numbers.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{ int a,b,m,n,gcd,lcm,rem;
printf("Enter the value for m and n :\n");
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);
m=a;
n=b;
while(n!=0) OUT PUT:
{ Enter the value for m and n:
rem=m%n; 6
m = n; 12
The GCD of 6 12 numbers is= 6
n = rem;
The LCM of 6 12 numbers is= 12
}
gcd = m;
lcm = ( a * b ) / gcd;
printf("The GCD of the numbers is=%d\n", gcd );
printf("The LCM of the numbers is=%d\n", lcm );
}

2.6.2 for Loop (Counter- Controlled Loop)

 It is a control statement using which the programmer can give
instructions to the computer to execute a set of statements
repeatedly for a specific number of times.
 It is also called as entry controlled loop or pretest loop.

Syntax of for loop

for(initialization ;test expression; increment/decrement)
{
Statements;
}
Statement x;

16
Flowchart
False
for(initialization ;test expression; increment/decrement)
L
O
O True
P
Statements

Statement x

Working Principle
 initialization: In this section loop variable is initialized, like i=0, n=0, i=1,n=1. (i and n are
loop variables).
 test expression: The test expression may be a relational expression or logical expression or
both, which is evaluated to TRUE or FALSE. Depending on the value of the test expression,
the body of the loop is executed. If the test expression is TRUE, then the body of the loop is
executed. This process of execution of body of the loop is continued as long as the
expression is TRUE. When the test expression becomes FALSE, execution of the statements
contained in the body of the loop are skipped, thereby transferring the control to the
Statement x, which immediately follows the for loop.
 increment/decrement: This section increments or decrements the loop variables after
executing the body of the loop.

Infinite Loop
 A for loop without a test expression is an Infinite loop.
Ex: for(i=0; ;i++)
{
………
} is an “infinite” loop.

Example programs of ‘for’ loop

1. Write a C program to print the natural numbers from 1 to 10.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
}
}

17
2. Write a C program to print the natural numbers from 1 to n.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n;
printf(“Enter the value of n:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
}
}

3. Write a C program to compute the sum of the series 1+2+3+……+n.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i,sum=0,n;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter the number of terms:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum=sum+i;
}
printf(“\nSum of the series=%d”,sum);
}

4. Write a C program to generate ‘n’ Fibonacci numbers.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n,f1,f2,f3,i;
f1=0;
f2=1;
printf(“Enter the value of n:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
if(n==1)
printf(“%d”,f1);
else
{
printf(“%d\t%d\t”,f1,f2);
for(i=3;i<=n;i++)
{

18
 f3=f1+f2;
printf(“%d\t”,f3);
f1=f2;
f2=f3;

}
}
}

5. Write a C program to print the characters from A to Z.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
for(ch= ‘A’;ch<= ‘Z’;ch++)
{

printf(“%c\t”,ch);
}

}
Output: A B C D E F Z

6. Write a C program to find the factorial of a given number using for statement.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int fact=1,i,n;
printf(“Enter the value of n:\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
fact=fact*i;
}
printf(“Factorial of a given number is=%d”,fact);

2.6.3 do-while Loop

 do- while loop is used when a set of statements have to be
repeatedly executed at least once.
 Since the test expression is evaluated to TRUE or FALSE at the end of do-while loop, the do-
while loop is called as exit-controlled loop.
 The while and for loop test the expression at the top.

19
  The do-while tests the expression at the bottom after making each passes through the loop
body.
Syntax of do-while loop Statements

do{
Statements;

} while(test expression); True

while(test expression);
Statement x;
False

Statement x

Working Principle
 It is a post-test or bottom-testing loop and hence the statements contained within the body
of the loop are executed first and then the expression is evaluated to TRUE or FALSE. If it is
TRUE, then the statements contained within the body of the loop are executed once again
and the expression is evaluated. This is repeated until the expression is evaluated to FALSE.
 If the expression is FALSE, then the control comes out of the loop by skipping the execution
of the statements within the body of the loop, by transferring the control to the Statement x.

2.6.4 Difference between while loop and do-while loop

while loop do-while loop
1 It is entry controlled loop. (top-testing) It is exit controlled loop. (bottom-testing)
2 It is pre-test loop. It is post-test loop.
3 Syntax: Syntax:
while(expression) do {
{ Statements;
Statements; } while(expression);
}
4 Working Principle: If the expression is Working Principle: On reaching do
evaluated to true, then the statements withinstatement, it proceeds to execute the
the body of loop are executed. If the statements within the body of the loop
expression is false, then the statements within
irrespective of the test expression. If the
the body of the loop are not executed. expression is evaluated to true, then the
statements within the body of loop are
executed once again. If the expression is
false, then the statements within the body of
the loop are not executed.
5 In while loop, while statement does not end In do-while loop, while statement ends with
with semicolon (;). semicolon (;).

20
6 Ex: Ex:
int i=0,sum=0; int i=0,sum=0;
while(i<=n) do{
{ sum=sum+i;
sum=sum+i; i=i+1;
i=i+1; }while(i<=n);
}

21
7 Flowchart: Flowchart:
Statements
False
while(test expression)

True
True
Statements while(test expression);

False

Statement x Statement x

Example programs of ‘do-while’ loop

1. Write a C program to print the natural numbers from 1 to n.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,n;
printf(“Enter the value of n:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
do
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i++;
}while(i<=n);
}

2. Write a C program to calculate the sum and average of first ‘n’ numbers.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i=0,sum=0;
float avg=0.0;
printf(“Enter the value of n:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
do
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;

}while(i<=n);
avg=sum/n;
printf(“The sum of numbers=%d”,sum);
printf(“The average of numbers=%f”,avg);
}
2.7 Nested Loops
 The loops that can be placed inside other loops.
 It will work with any loops such as while, do-while and for.
 Nested loop is commonly used with the for loop because this is easiest to control.
 The ‘inner for loop’ can be used to control the number of times that a particular set of
statements will be executed.
 The ‘outer for loop’ can be used to control the number of times that a whole loop is repeated.
Example Program: Write a C program to print the following output.
1
1 2
#include<stdio.h> 1 2 3
void main( ) 1 2 3 4
{ 1 2 3 4
int i,j;
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
printf(“\n”);
Outer for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
for loop { Inner
printf(“%d”,j); for loop
}
}
}

2.8 Unconditional Branch statements

2.8.1 break statement
 In C, break statement is used to terminate the execution of the
nearest enclosing loop in which it appears.
 It is ‘jump’ statement which can be used in switch statement and loops.
 The break statement in switch statement causes the control to
come out of the switch statement and transfers the control to the
statement which follows the switch statement.
Ex:
switch(ch)
{
case 1: printf(“1st statement”);
break;
case 2: printf(“2nd statement”);
break;
default: printf(“nth statement”);
}
23
 If ‘case 1’ is selected by the programmer then the output will be 1st statement only. It
will directly come out of the switch.

 If break is executed in a loop (for/while/do-while) then the control

comes out of the loop and the statement following the loop will be
executed.
Syntax
1. while(…)
{
……
if(condition)
break;
……
} Transfers the control out of the while loop
……

2. do
{
……
if(condition)
break;
…… Transfers the control out of the do-while loop
}while(condition);
……

3. for(…)
{
……
if(condition)
break;
……
} Transfers the control out of the for loop
……

Example programs of ‘break’ statement

1. Write a C program to print the numbers (0 to 4) using break.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=0;
while(i<=10)
{
if(i==5)
break;
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i=i+1;
}}
24
2.8.2 continue statement
 During execution of a loop, it may be necessary to skip a part of the loop based on some
condition. In such cases, we use continue statement.
 The continue statement is used only in the loops to terminate the
current iteration and continue with the remaining iterations.

Syntax:
1. while(… )
{
if(condition) Transfers the control to the expression of the while loop
continue;
……….
}
……….

2. do
{
……
if(condition)
continue;
…… Transfers the control to the expression of the do-while loop
}while(condition);
……
3. for(…)
{
……
if(condition) Transfers the control to the expression of the for loop
continue;
……
}
……

Example programs of ‘continue’ statement

1. Write a C program to display the output in the following form 1 3 4 5
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
if(i==2)
continue;
printf(“%d”,i);
}

25
 Output: 1 3 4 5 [if i==2 then the continue statement is executed and the statements following
continue are skipped]

2.8.3 goto statement

 The goto statement is a ‘jump’ statement that transfers the
control to the specified statement (Label) in a program
unconditionally.
 The specified statement is identified by ‘label’( symbolic name ). Label can be any valid
variable name that is followed by a colon (:).
Syntax

goto label; label:

………… Statements
…………. …………
label: …………
Statements goto label;
Forward Jump Backward Jump

Example programs of ‘goto’ statement

1. Write a C program to calculate the sum of all numbers entered by the user.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n,i,sum=0;
printf(“Enter the number:\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
sum=i=0;
top: sum=sum+n;
i=i+1;
if(i<=n) goto top;
printf(“Sum of Series=%d”,sum);

2.9 Finding Roots of Quadratic Equations

 Quadratic Equations ax2+bx+c=0.
−𝒃±√𝒃𝟐−𝟒𝒂𝒄
 Formula for calculating Roots of Quadratic equations. 𝒙 =
𝟐𝒂
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
26
{
float a,b,c,disc,root1,root2,realp,imgp;
printf("enter the co-efficients\n");
scanf("%f%f%f",&a,&b,&c);
if(a==0||b==0||c==0)
{
printf("invaled input");
exit(0);
}
disc=b*b-4*a*c;
printf("discriminate=%f\n",disc);
if(disc==0)
{
root1=root2=-b/(2*a);
printf("roots are equal\n");
printf("root1=%f\n root2=%f\n",root1,root2);
}
else if(disc>0)
{
root1=(-b+sqrt(d))/(2*a);
root2=(-b-sqrt(d))/(2*a);
printf("roots are distinct\n");
printf("root1=%f\n root2=%f\n",root1,root2);
}
else
{
printf("roots are imaginary\n");
realp=-b/(2*a);
imgp=sqrt(fabs(d))/(2*a);
printf("root1=%f+i%f\n",realp,imgp);
printf("root2=%f-i%f\n",realp,imgp);
}
}
}

2.10 Write a C Program to display the following by reading the number of rows as input,

27
 #include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,n;
printf("Input number of rows : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
{
/*print blank spaces */
for(j=1;j<=n-i;j++)
printf(" ");
/* Display number in ascending order upto middle*/
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
printf("%d",j);
/* Display number in reverse order after middle */
for(j=i-1;j>=1;j--)
printf("%d",j);
printf("\n");
}
}

2.11 Computation of Binomial Coefficients

 The binomial coefficient C(n,r) or nCr is the number of ways of picking ‘r’ unordered
outcomes from ‘n’ possibilities, also known as a combination or combinatorial number. The
number of ways that r objects can be chosen from among n objects;
nCr = n ! /(n - r)! * r !

Ex: C Program to Calculate Binomial coefficient.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i,n,r;
long int x,y,z,nCr;
printf(“enter the value of n and r\n”);
scanf(“%d %d”, &n, &r);

28
 x = y = z = 1;
for(i = n; i >=1; i--)
{
x = x * i; Output:
} Enter the value of n and r:
6
for(i = n-r; i >=1; i--)
2
{ 6C2 = 15
y = y * i;
}
for(i = r; i >=1; i--)
{
z = z * i;
}
nCr = x / (y * z);
printf(“%d C %d= %d”, n ,r, nCr);
}

29

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