The Control System

Control system elements

Control system elements are:-
1) Process
2) Measuring element
3) Controller
4) Final Control Element

GL(s)
Ti(s)
Load
Comparator
TR or YR Final control T or Y
Controller Process
element
Set point
GC GV GP
Gm
Tm or Ym
Measuring
device
Gm

Closed Loop Feedback control

There are two types of the control system:-

1) Negative feedback control system
Negative feedback ensures that the difference between TR and Tm is used to
adjust the control element so that tendency is to reduce the error.
E=TR-Tm

2) Positve feedback control system

If the signal to the compartos were obtained by adding TR and Tm we would
have a positive feedback systems which is inherently unstable. To see that this
is true, again assume that be system is at steady state and that T=TR=Ti.
If Ti were to increase, T and Tm would increas which would cause the signal
from the compartor to increase, with the result that the heat to the system
would increse.
At s.s. T=TR=Tin
E=TR+Tm

Process Control 1 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Servo Problem versus Requlator Problem
 Servo Problem
There is no change in load Ti, and that we are interested in changing the bath
temperature (change in the desired value (set point) with no disturbance load).
 Requlating problem
The desired value TR is to remain fixed and the purpose of the control system is to
maintain the controlled variable TR in spite of change in load if there is a change in
the input variable (disturbance load).

The control system for a stirred-tank heater

A liquid stream at a temperature Ti, enters an insulated, well-stirred tank at a constant
flow rate w (mass/time). It is desired to maintain (or control) the temperature in the
tank at TR by means of the controller. If the indicated (measured) tank temperature Tm
differs from the desired temperature TR, the controller senses the difference or error,
E = TR- Tm

Figure (1) Control system for a stirred-tank heater.

Process Control 2 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Development of block Diagram
1) Process
The procedure for developing the transfer function remain the same.
An unsteady-state energy balance around the heating tank gives.
dT
W CpTi  q  W CpT   Cp V
dt
Where To is the reference temperature
dTs
0
At steady state, dt
dTs
W CpTis  q s  W CpTs   Cp V 0
dt
By substracting both equations
d ( T  Ts )
W Cp(( Ti  Tis )  ( T  Ts ))  q  qs   Cp V
dt
Note that the refernece temperature To cancels in the subtraction. If we introduce
thedeviation variables.
Ti  Ti  Tis
T  T  Ts
Q  q  qs
dT
W Cp(Ti  T )  Q   Cp V  W Cp
dt
Q  V dT
Ti  T 
W Cp W dt
Taking the laplace transform gives
V Q( s )
sT  T ( s)   Ti ( s)
W WCp
The last expression can be written as
1 Q( s) Ti ( s)
T ( s)  
(s  1) WCp s  1
Where
V

W
T (s) or Y(s)  controlled var iable
Q(s) or m(s)  manipulated var iable
Ti (s) or d(s)  disturbance var iable
If there is a change in Q(t) only then Ti ( t )  0 and the transfer function relating
Ti to Q is

Process Control 3 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 T (s) 1 1

Q( s) (s  1) WCp
If there is a change in Ti (s ) only thenQ(t)=0 and the transfer function relating T to Ti
is
T(s) 1

Ti ( s ) ( s  1 )

Gd
d( s ) 1
Ti ( s ) s  1
+
Gp
m( s ) 1 / WCp + Y( s )
Qi ( s ) s  1 T(s)

Block Diagram for process

Y ( s )  G p  m( s )  Gd  d ( s )

2) Measuring Element
The T.F. of the temperature-measuring element is a first order system
Tm ( s) km
  Tm ( s )  Gm T ( s )
T ( s) m s  1
km
Gm 
m s  1
Where T and Tm are deviation variables defined as
T  T  Ts
Tm  Tm  Tm s
 Output
K m  steady state gain 
 input
τm=time lag (time constant)=(1-9) sec

T(s) Km
Gm  Tm (s )
m s  1

Figure: Block diagram of measuring element

Process Control 4 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 3) Final control Elements:
Control valve, Heater, Variec, Motor, pump, damper, louver, …. etc.

Control valve
Control valve that can control the rate of flow of a fluid in proportion to the
amplitude of a pressure (electrical) signal from the controller. From experiments
conducted on pneumatic valves, the relationship between flow and valve-top pressure
for a linear valve can often be represented by a first-order transfer function:
Air supply Air supply

Control valve (Air to close) Control valve (Air to open)

Figure: Pneumatic control valve (air-to-close).

(air to close) (air to open)
open close close open
   
P  (3  15) psig P  (3  15) psig
   
max flow flow max
flow rate rate flow
rate  0 0 rate

Transfer Function of Control Valve

m( s ) Q ( s ) KV
Gv( s)   
p ( s ) P ( s ) v s  1
 Output  Q2  Q1 
Kv=steady state gain   
 Input  P2  P1 S.S
v  Time lag
v  10 sec (Good)
Where:
Kv: steady-state gain i.e., the constant of proportionality between steady-state flow
rate and valve-top pressure.

Process Control 5 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
τv: time constant of the valve and is very small compared with the time
constants of other components of the control system. A typical pneumatic valve has a
time constant of the order of 1 sec. Many industrial processes behave as first-order
systems or as a series of first-order systems having time constants that may range
from a minute to an hour. So the lag of the valve is negligible and the T. F. of the
valve sometimes is approximated by:
Q(s)
 KV
P(s)
The time constant of lag valve depends on the size of valve, air supply characteristics,
whether a valve positioner is used, etc.

Example: Consider the 1st order T. F. of the process with control valve

Valve process
P(s) 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑃 Y(s)
𝜏𝑉 𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑃 𝑠 + 1
If we assume no interaction;
The T. F. from P(s) to Y(s) is

Y ( s) KV K p
 For a unit step input in P
P( s) ( v s  1)( s  1)
1 KV K p
Y(s) =
s ( v s  1)( s  1)
   1 t / v 1 t / 
y(t) = KvKp 1  v  e  e 
 v    v 

Y ( s) KK
If τ>>τv then the T. F. is  v p
P( s ) ( s  1)
For a unit step input in p
y(t) = KvKp (1 – e-t/τ)

Process Control 6 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 4) Controller
The relationship for proportional controller is
P( s )
 Gc ( s) E (s) Kc Q(s)
G( s)

Q( s)  KC E ( s)
P  P  Ps
E  TR  Tm

G(s) for propertional controller Gc ( s )  K C

TR  Tm  T at steady state

Controller
Tsp(or TR)+ E P(s)
Gc
-
Tm

Control Action
It is the manner, in which the automatic controller compares the actual value of the
process output with the actual desired value, determines the deviations and produce a
control signal which will reduce the deviation to zero or to small value.

Classification of industrial automatic controller:

They are classified according to their control action as:
1) On-off controller
2) Proportional controller (P)
3) Integral controller (I)
4) Proportional plus Integral controller (PI)
5) Proportional plus Derivative controller (PD)
6) Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative controller (PID)
The automatic controller may be classified according to the kind of power
employed in the operation, such as pneumatic controller, hydraulic controller or
electronic controller.

Process Control 7 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Self operated controller: In this controller the measuring element (sensor) and the
actuator in one unit. It is widely used for the water and gas pressure control.
d=Ti(s) 1
𝐺𝑑 =
𝜏𝑠 + 1
Comparator
TR E P m
𝐾𝑣 𝑅 y(s)
GC=Kc 𝐺𝑣 =
𝜏𝑣 𝑠 + 1 𝐺𝑃 =
Set point Q 𝜏𝑠 + 1 T(s)
Or ysp
Controller Final control Process
element

Tm(s) 𝐾𝑚 T(s)
𝐺𝑚 =
𝜏𝑚 𝑠 + 1

Figure: Closed loop block diagram of first order system

Types of Feedback Controllers
1) Proportional controller (P):
For a controller with a proportional control action, the relationship between the
output of the controller, p(t), and the actuating error signal (input to controller) is
P(t )  K C  E (t )
p(t )  ps  K C  E (t ) set point P(s)
KC
p(t )  K C  E (t )  ps
P( s)
GC  K C  (T .F )
E (s) Output signal
p
KC  ( ) s.s
E
P( s)  KC  E ( s)

Proportional Band (Band Width)

Is defined as the error (expressed as a percentage of the range of measured variable)
required to make the valve from fully close to fully open.
1
P.B   100 %
KC

On-Off Control
On-Off control is a special case of proportional control.
If the gain KC is made very high, the valve will move from one extreme position to
the other if the set point is slightly changed. So the valve is either fully open or fully
closed (The valve acts like a switch).
The P.B. of the on-off controller reaches a zero because the gain is very high
P.B  0
Process Control 8 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
2) Propertional-Integral controller (PI):
This mode of control is described by the relationship
t
1
p(t )  ps  K C [ E (t ) 
I  E (t )dt]
0
KC : Steady state gain
 I : Integral time constant
t
KC P(s)
( p(t )  ps )  P(t )  K C E (t ) 
I  E (t )dt
0

Taking L.T
P( s ) 1
 K C (1  )  Gc ( s)
E ( s) Is

A
Example: PI controller with step change in error E(s) 
s
1 A
P( s)  K C (1  )
Is s E(t) p(t)
𝐾𝐶 𝐴
K A A
 P(t )  K C A  C t 𝜏𝐼
I
Y=c+mX
t E(t) P(t)
0 ps
0 t 0 t
Response of a PI controller (lineaer)

3) Proportional-derivative control (PD):

dE(t )
p(t) = K C [ E(t) +  D ]  ps
dt
dE(t )
(p(t) - ps ) = P(t)  K C E(t) + K C D
dt
P(s) set point P(s)
= K C + K C D s KC(1+τDs)
E(s)
P(s)
= K C (1 +  D s)  Gc
E(s)
KC: gain
τD : Derivative time (rate time)

Process Control 9 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example:
A
For Ramp Error E(t) = At (Ramp) E(s) =
s2
A AK K A
P(s) = K C (1 +  D s)  E(s)  K C (1 +  D s)  2  2 C  C D
s s s
P(t) = K C At  K C AD

4) Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller

set point 1 P(s)

KC (1    D s)
Is

t
KC dE(t )
p(t )  K C [ E (t ) 
I  E (t )dt  d dt
]  ps
0

𝐾𝐶 𝐾𝐶

𝑡 𝐾𝐶
𝐾𝐶
𝐸 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜏𝐼 0 𝜏𝐼 𝑠
𝐸 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝐸 𝑠 𝑃 𝑠

𝑑𝐸 𝑡
𝐾𝐶 𝜏𝐷 𝐾𝐶 𝜏𝐷 𝑠
𝑑𝑡

P( s) 1
 K C (1    s)
E ( s) Is D

Motivation for Addition of Integral and Derivative Control Modes

The value of the controlled variable is seen to rise at time zero owing to the
disturbance. With no control, this variable continues to rise to a new steady-state
value.
 With control, after some time the control system begins to take action to try to
maintain the controlled variable close to the value that existed before the
disturbance occurred.
 With proportional action only, the control system is able to arrest the rise of the
controlled variable and ultimately bring it to rest at a new steady-state value.

Process Control 10 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 The difference between this new steady-state value and the original value (the
set point, in this case) is called offset.
 The addition of integral action eliminates the offset; the controlled variable
ultimately returns to the original value. This advantage of integral action is
balanced by the disadvantage of a more oscillatory behavior.
 The addition of derivative action to the PI action gives a definite improvement
in the response. The rise of the controlled variable is arrested more quickly,
and it is returned rapidly to the original value with little or no oscillation.

Figure: Response of a typical control system showing the effects

of various modes of control

Example: A proportional controller is used to control temperature within the range of

60 to 100 ºC. The controller is adjusted so that the output pressure goes from 3 psi
(valve fully open) to 15 psi (valve fully closed) as the measured temperature goes
from 71 to 75 ºC with the set point held constant. Find the gain of the controller.
Solution:
𝛥𝑃 15 − 3
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾𝑐 = = = 3 𝑝𝑠𝑖/ºC
𝛥𝑒 75 − 71

Process Control 11 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: a pneumatic PI controller has an output pressure of 10 psi when the set
point and pen point are togather. The set point is suddenly displaced by 1.0 in (i.e a
step change in error is introduced) and the follwing data are obtained.
Time (s) 0- 0+ 20 60 80
Psi 10 8 7 5 3.5
Determine the actual gain (psi/inch displacement) and the integral time

E
1.0 in
10 psi
Kc A
8psi
Kc A
I

For PI control
1 A
P( s)  K C (1  )
Is s
K A
 P(t )  K C A  C t
I
Kc A
p(t )  K c A  t  ps
I
For E(s)=-1 then A=-1

From the above figure

K c A  8  10  2
Kc  2
Kc A 3.5  8  4.5
 
I 80  0 80
80 80
I   Kc A    (2)  35.56 sec
4.5 4.5

Example: An electronic PI temperature controller has an output pressure of 12 mA

when the set point equals the process temperature. A step change in set point of 2°F
yields the following data:
Time (sec) mA
0 12
0 10
20 9
60 7
80 6
Determine the proportional gain (mA/°F) and the integral time.
Process Control 12 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Solution:
1 A
P( s)  K C (1  )
Is s
K A
 P(t )  K C A  C t
I
From graphical techniques the gain is found as the instantaneous change in controller
output over the change in error reported to the controller.
A=-2
𝐾𝑐 𝐴 = 10 − 12 = −2 𝑚𝐴
10 − 12
𝐾𝑐 = = −1 𝑚𝐴/ºF
2
The slope of the line of the controller output is KcA/τI, so
𝐾𝑐 𝐴 6 − 10
= = −0.05 𝑚𝐴/sec
𝜏𝐼 80 − 0
𝐾𝑐 𝐴 −1 × 2
𝜏𝐼 = = = 40 sec
−0.05 −0.05

Example: Error change with a ratio of 0.5 in/min is introduced into a pid controller
having Kc=10 , τI=1 and τD=0.5. plot the response of the controller P(t).
Solution:
dE
E=0.5 t  0.5 and  dEdt   0.5dt
dt
 p(t )  10  0.5 t  10 0.5 tdt  10  0.5  0.5  ps
p (t )  p s  5 t  2.5 t 2  2.5
P( t )  p( t )  p s  2.5  5 t  2.5 t 2

t P(t)
0 2.5
1 10 E 0.5 P(t)
2 22.5
3 40 0 2.5
4 62.5
5 90
0 t 0 t

Process Control 13 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor