EX NO:1 MIX DESIGN OF CONCRETE AS PER IS, ACI &

DATE: BS METHODS FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE

CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION:

Concrete posses a high compressive strength and is usually more

economical than steel and is non corrosive which can be made with the locally
available materials. The design of concrete materials involves determination of
the properties of the given constituents, namely cement, water, coarse aggregate
and fine aggregate with admixtures of if any. Workability is specified as the
important property of concrete in the fresh state. For hardened state the
compressive strength and durability will be considered.

The methods suggested by the ACI committee 211(1969) are widely

used in the USA. One method is based on the estimated weight of the concrete
per unit volume. The other method is based on calculation of the absolute
volume occupied by concrete ingredients. The ACI methods take in to
consideration the requirements for workability, consistency, strength and
durability.

AIM:

To prepare the concrete mix design using ACI, IS and BS method.

1
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN CALCULATION FOR IS METHOD
CONCRETE WITH PROCEDURE

Concrete mix design is required to achieve target strength in structures.

Concrete mix design of M25 grade of concrete can be calculated.

DATA REQUIRED FOR CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

(i) Concrete mix design stipulation

a) Characteristic compressive strength required in the field at 28 days
grade designation – M25
b) Nominal maximum size of aggregate – 20mm
c) Shape of coarse aggregate – Angular
d) Degree of quality control available at site – As per IS:456
e) Type of exposure the structures will be subjected to (as defined in
IS:456) – Mild
f) Type of cement : PSC conforming is:455
(ii) Test data of material ( to be determined in laboratory)
a) Specific gravity of cement = 3.15
b) Specific gravity of fine aggregate = 2.64
c) Specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.84
d) Aggregate are assumed to be in saturated surface dry condition.
e) Fine aggregate confirm to zone ii of is – 383

PROCEDURE FOR CONCRETE MIX DESIGN OF M25 GRADE OF

CONCRETE

Step-1 Determination of Target Strength

Henceforth constant for 5% risk factor is 1.65. In this case standard deviation
is taken from IS:456 against M20 is 4.

2
ftarget = fck + 1.65 x S

= 25 + (1.64 x 4)

= 31.6 N/mm2

Where,

S = standard deviation in n/mm2 = 4 (As per table-1 of IS 10262-2009)

Step-2 Selection of Water-Cement Ratio

From table 5 of IS 456, (page no 20)

Maximum water cement ratio for mild exposure condition = 0.63

Based on experience, adopt water cement ratio as 0.5

< 0.63, hence ok.

Step-3 Selection of Water Content

From table 2 of IS 10262-2009

Maximum water content = 186 Kg (for Nominal maximum size of aggregate –

20mm)

TABLE OF CORRECTION IN WATER CONTENT

NOMINAL MAXIMUM WATER CONTENT SAND AS PERCENT

SIZE OF AGGREGATE PER CUBIC METRE OF TOTAL
(mm) OF CONCRETE (kg) AGGREGATE BY
ABSOLUTE VOLUME
10 208 40
20 186 35
40 165 30

Water content as per cubic metre of concrete above M25.

3
NOMINAL MAXIMUM WATER CONTENT SAND AS PERCENT
SIZE OF AGGREGATE PER CUBIC METRE OF TOTAL
(mm) OF CONCRETE (kg) AGGREGATE BY
ABSOLUTE VOLUME
10 200 28
20 180 25

Maximum water content = 186 kg (for nominal maximum size aggregate

20mm)

Estimated water content = 186 + (3/100) x 186

= 191.6 kg/m3

Step-4 Selection of Cement Content

Water cement ratio = 0.63

Corrected water content = 191.6 kg/m3

Cement content =

From Table 5 of IS 456,

Minimum cement content for mild exposure condition = 280 kg/m3

kg/m3 > 280 kg/m3 , hence OK.

This value is to be checked for durability requirement from IS: 456

In the present example against mild exposure and for the case of reinforced
concrete the minimum cement content is 280 kg/m3 which is less than 383.2
kg/m3 . Hence cement content adopted = 383.2 kg/m3

As per clause 8.2.4.2 of IS:456

Maximum cement content = 450 kg/m3

4
 Step-5 Estimation of Coarse Aggregate Proportion
From table 3 IS 10262-2009

For nominal maximum size of aggregate = 20mm

Zone of Fine aggregate = Zone II

For water/cement ratio = 0.5

Volume of coarse aggregate per unit Volume of total aggregate = 0.62

From table 3 IS 10262-2009

NOMINAL STRENGTH SIZE VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE PER

OF AGGREGATE (mm) UNIT VOLUME OF TOTAL AGGREGATE
DIFFERENT ZONES OF FINE AGGREGATE

ZONE IV ZONE III ZONE II ZONE I

10 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44

20 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60

40 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69

Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate = 0.62 x 95%

= 0.589

Volume of fine aggregate = 1 – 0.589

= 0.442

Step-6 Estimation of Mix Ingredients

(a) Volume of concrete = 1 m3

5
 (b) Volume of cement = ( mass of cement / specific gravity of cement
)
x (1/1000)
= (383.2 / 3.15) x (1/1000)
= 0.122 m3
(c) Volume of water = ( mass of water / specific gravity of water )
x
(1/1000)
= (191.6/1) x (1/1000)
= 0.1916 m3

(d) Volume of total aggregate = a – (b+c)

= 1 – (0.122 + 0.1916)
= 0.6864 m3

(e) Mass of coarse aggregate = 0.6864 x 0.589 x 2.84 x 1000

= 1148.18 kg/m3

(f) Mass of fine aggregate = 0.6864 x 0.442 x 2.64 x 1000

= 800.95 kg/m3

Step-7 Correction Due to Absorbing / Moist Aggregate

Since the aggregate is saturated surface dry condition hence no correction is
required.

Step-8 Recommended Mix Proportion Of Ingredients For Grade Of

Concrete M25:
From Compressive Strength vs. water cement graph for target strength 31.6
MPa we get,

Water cement ratio = 0.63

Water content = 197.4 kg/m3

6
Cement content = (197.4/0.63)
= 313.34 kg/m3
Volume of all in aggregate = 1 – [{313.34 / (3.15 x 1000)} + (197.4/1000)]

= 0.296 m3

where, specific gravity of cement = 3.15

A reduction of 0.05 in w/c will entail and increase of coarse aggregate fraction
by 0.01.

Coarse aggregate fraction = 0.558 +.01 =.568

Volume of fine aggregate = 1 – 0.568 = 0.432

Mass of coarse aggregate = 0.296 x 0.589 x 2.84 x 1000 = 477.48 kg/m3

Mass of fine aggregate = 0.296 x 0.442 x 2.64 x 1000 = 345.39 kg/m3

Mix proportion:

Cement = 313.34 kg/m3

Water = 197.4 kg/m3

Fine aggregate = 345.39 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate =477.48 kg/m3
Water cement ratio = 0.63

MIXED DESIGN FOR ACI METHOD WORKING AND PROCEDURE:

1. NOMINAL MIX OF M35

Step-1 : Target mean strength

7
Fm = fck +1.65 * s
= 35 + 1.65 * 5= 43.25 n/mm2
Step-2 :
Water cement Ratio
Water cement ratio = 0.35

Step- 3: Water content

Max water content = 186
For 20mm aggregate = (25-50mm)
Workability = 100mm
Water content = [186+6/100*186]
Therefore water content = 197ltrs

Step-4 :Calcutaion of cement content

W/c ratio = 0.35
Cement content = water content / w/c ratio
= 197 / 0.35
Therefore cement = 562.85

Step-5 : Volume of fine aggregate

V = [w+c / sC+1/p*fA/ s/a ]*1/1000
0.98 =[197+562.85/3.40+1/0.35*fA/2.75 ]*1/100
Fine aggregate =594.301 kgs

Step-6 : Volume of coarse aggregate

CA=1-P/p*fA*SCa/SFa
C.A = 1003.365 kgs
Therefore mix design
C: f.a.:c.a=562.85:594.301:1003.365

8
=562.85/562.85 = 1
Cement =1
Fine aggregate =594.301/562.85=1.055
Coarse aggregate=1003.365/562.85=1.782
Therfore mix design be
C:f.a:c.a = 1:1.055 : 1.782
By some similar changes the mix can be changed for the 20mm aggregate and
also for Flyash.

2. NOMINAL MIX OF M35

Using 10mm coarse aggregate
Step 1: Target mean strength
Fm = fck + 1.65s
= 43.25

Step 2 : Water cement ratio

Water cement ratio=0.40

Step 3 : Water content

Max water content taken =186 ltrs

Step 4 : Cement content

Cement content = water content / w/c ratio
=186/0.4
=0.4
Therefore cement content =465kg/m3

Step 5 : Volume of fine aggregate

V=[w+c/sC+1/p * fA/SFa]*1/1000

9
0.98 = [186 +465/3.40 +1/0.35 *fA/2.75]*1/1000
Therefore fine aggregate =632.580kg
Step 6 : Volume of Coarse Aggregate
Ca=1-P/p*fa*sca/sfa
Ca =1068.005kg
Cement= 465/465=1
Fine aggregate = 1.360
Coarse aggregate =2.296
Therefore c:f.a:c.a=1 :1.360 :2.296
Similarly mix design using 10% Flyash is given below
C:f.a:c.a=1 :1.360 :2.296
Cement = 18 * 10/100 =1.8=18-1.8
Cement = 16.2 kgs =8.1kgs
Flyash=1.8kgs =0.9kg
F.a=24.48kg = 12.24 kg
C.a=41.328 = 20.664
Cement = 9.6-0.96
Cement = 8.64
Flyash = 0.96kg
F.a=13.056kg
C.a=22.0416kg
Mix proportion:

Cement =8.64kg

Fly ash =0.96kg

Fine aggregate =13.056kg

Coarse aggregate =22.041kg

Water =465kg/m3

10
RESULT:

The concrete mix design using ACI method is prepared and the strength
variations are compared.

11
EX NO:2 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF
DATE: COMPACTING CONCRETE(SCC)

INTRODUCTION:

Self compacting concrete (SCC), which flows under its own weight and
does not require any external vibration for compaction has revolutionized
concrete placement. SCC is highly workable concrete that can flow under its
own weight through restricted sections without segregation and bleeding. For
SCC, its necessary to use super plasticizers in order to obtain high mobility. self
compatibility is largely affected by the characteristics of materials and the mix
proportions, it becomes necessary to evolve a procedure for mix design of
SCC.

As per IS 2386 (part 3)-1963

AIM:

To determine the flow ability of self compacting concrete using slump

flow.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Slump cone
2. Weighing balance
3. Universal testing machine

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

1. Cement
2. Admixtures
3. Aggregates
4. Fly ash

12
Slump Test for Self Compacting Concrete

13
Slump Cone Test
The slump flow test is used to assess the horizontal free flow of SCC in the
absence of obstructions.

 Procedure:
1. On lifting the slump cone, filled with concrete, concrete flows.
2. The average diameter of the concrete circle is a measure for the
filling ability of the concrete.
3. The tile T50cm is a secondary indication of flows.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. The initial mix design was carried out at coarse aggregate content of 50%
by volume of concrete and fine aggregate content of 40% by volume of
mortar in concrete, the water/power ratio was kept at 0.90. these trial
mixes TR1, TR2, TR3 respectively.
2. To proceed towards achieving SCC, the coarse aggregate content was
reduced to 45% by volume of concrete and thereby kept constant.
3. Fine aggregates content was kept constant at 40% by volume of mortar in
concrete and super plasticizer content at 1.14% of powder content. I.e.,
cement and fly ash. The water powder ratio was varied from 1.06 to 1.19
for trial mixes TR4 to TR6
4. Coarse aggregate content was further reduced and fine aggregate content
was increased, until a slump flow of 500 – 700mm is achieved slump
flow test.
5. By reducing contents of coarse aggregate from 45% to 37% and
increasing fine aggregate contents from 40% to 47.50% required results
in slump flow test.

14
RESULT:

Flow ability of self compacting concrete is studied from slump flow test.

INFERENCE:

The table shown represents the results of workability test, conducted to

achieve self compacting concrete. The trials were started at 50% volume of total
concrete as content of coarse aggregates and 40% by volume of mortar in
concrete as contents of fine aggregates and variation in W/P ratio and super
plasticizers was carried out to achieve SCC mixes. In case of further trials, the
coarse aggregate content were varied with further variation in water/cement
ratio.

15
EX NO : 3 STUDY ON EFFECT OF MINERAL AND
CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES IN CONCRETE AT
DATE: FRESH AND HARDENED STATE WITH
RELEVANCE TO WORKABILITY, STRENGTH
AND DURABILITY

AIM:
To study the effect of mineral and chemical admixtures in concrete at fresh
and hardened state with relevance to workability, strength and durability.

INTRODUCTION:

Chemical admixtures

Chemical admixtures are minerals in the form of powder or fluids that are added
to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain
concrete mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of
cement and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. The
common types of admixtures are as follows.

 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical

materials used are CaCl2, Ca(NO3)2 and NaNO3. However, use of
chlorides may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in
some countries, so that nitrates may be favored.
 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult
pours where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.
Typical polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium gluconate, glucose,
citric acid and tartaric acid.
 Air entrainments add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which
reduces damage during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability.

16
 However, entrained air entails a trade off with strength, as each 1% of air
may decrease compressive strength 5%.
 Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or “fresh” concrete,
allowing it be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical
plasticizer is lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water
content of a concrete while maintaining workability and are sometimes
called water- reducers due to this use. Such treatment improves its
strength and durability characteristics. Superplasticizers (also called high-
range water-reducers) are a class of plasticizers that have fewer
deleterious effects and can be used to increase workability more than is
practical with traditional plasticizers. Compounds used as
superplasticizers include sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde
condensate, sulfonated melamine formaldehyde condensate, acetone
formaldehyde condensate and polycarboxylate ethers.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel
bars in concrete
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete
(typically a type of polymer)
 Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and reduce
separation and bleeding.

17
 Mix using Mineral And Chemical Admixtures

Small Size and

Reduction of
Limited Coarse
internal stresses
Aggregates
causing

Increase Paste
HR WRs Flow
Coupled
with low
water to
powder
ratio
Viscosity
Increase paste
Modifying
velocity to prevent
Agents
segregation

Mineral Lower Heat of

Admixtures Hydration
(Fillers) Enhance

18
19
Mineral admixtures
There are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic
properties. These very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to
improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for
Portland cement (blended cements).

 Fly Ash : A by-product of coal-fired electric generating plants, it is used

to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The
properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general,
siliceous fly ash is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent
hydraulic properties.
 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by-
product of steel production is used to partially replace Portland cement
(by up to 80% by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties.
 Silica Fume: A by-product of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon
alloys. Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times
smaller. This results in a higher surface to volume ratio and a much faster
pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to increase strength and
durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticizers
for workability.
 High Reactivity Metakaolin: Metakaolin produces concrete with strength
and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica
fume is usually dark gray or black in color, high-reactivity Metakaolin is
usually bright white in color, making it the preferred choice for
architectural concrete where appearance is important.

Strength

Compared to fly ash, which usually does not make any significant
contribution to the strength of Portland cement concrete until after about two

20
weeks of hydration, significant strength contribution by fly ash or granulated
iron blast-furnace slag generally occurs as early as 7 days after hydration.

Workability

With fresh concrete mixtures that show a tendency to bleed or segregate, the
incorporation of finely divided particles generally improves the workability by
reducing the size and volume of voids. The finer a mineral admixtures, the less
will be the amount needed for enhancement of the cohesiveness and workability
of freshly-mixed concrete. The small size and the glassy texture of fly ash and
slag makes it possible to reduce the amount of water required for a given
consistency.

Mineral Admixtures: All mineral admixtures tend to improve the cohesiveness

and workability of fresh concrete, but many do not possess the water-reducing
capability of fly ash and slag. For a given consistency of concrete, the use of
very high surface area materials, such as pumicite, rice husk ash, and silica
fume increases the water requirement.

Durability

Mineral admixtures reduce the temperature rise almost in direct proportion

to the amount of Portland cement replaced by the admixture. These admixtures
do not react to a significant degree for several days. As a rule of thumb, the total
heat of hydration produced by the pozzolanic reactions involving mineral
admixtures is considered to be half as much as the average heat produced by the
hydration of Portland cement.

Mineral admixtures: The permeability of concrete plays a fundamental role in

determining the rate of deterioration due to destructive chemical actions such as
the alkali aggregate expansion and attack by acidic or sulfate solution.

21
 The pozzolanic reaction involving mineral admixtures causes pore
refinement which reduces the permeability of concrete, studies have shown
considerable improvement in the chemical durability of concrete containing
mineral admixtures. Mineral admixtures improve the resistance of concrete to
acidic water, sulfate water and seawater. This is due to the pozzolanic reaction,
which is accompanied by the reduction in permeability as well as a reduction in
the calcium hydroxide content of the hydrated product.

RESULT:

Thus the effect of mineral and chemical admixtures in concrete at fresh and
hardened state with relevance to workability strength and durability are studied.

22
EX NO : 4.a STUDY OF NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

DATE: (REBOUND HAMMER TEST)

INTRODUCTION:
Non destructive testing is a wide group of analysis techniques used in
science and industry to evaluate the properties of the material, component of
system without causing damage. Because NDT does not permanently alter
being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique that can save both money and
time in product evaluation, trouble shooting and research. Common NDT
methods for concrete include rebound hammer ultrasonic pulse velocity and
core tests.

The rebound hammer test is one of the non destructive tests used to check
the compressive strength of concrete. An empirical relationship has been
determined between absorbing by the concrete when given a high impact and its
compressive strength. The rebound hammer is designed to carry out instant non
destructive test on concrete structure without damage and gives an immediate
indication of the compressive strength of concrete using the calibration curve
applied each instrument.

AIM:

To calculate the compressive strength of any concreting using rebound

hammer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Rebound hammer
2. Abrasive stone

23
Trial Hammer Testing Rebo Avg. Most FC Min. Max.
No. Type Angle und Rebo probable Dispersi FC FC
No. und Compress on =FC - = FC
No. ive λ +λ
Strength
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

24
Rebound Hammer Apparatus

25
PROCEDURE:
1. Before performing this test, remove any plaster or coating covering,
serious roughness and small voids by brushing with abrasive stones.
Avoid testing at areas exhibiting honey combing, scaling or high porosity.
2. After brushing, mark the test points according to a grid of 20-50 mm
apart. Twelve points for an area of 300 mm X 300 mm are recommended.
3. Hold the hammer firmly so that the plunger is perpendicular to the
surface.
4. Gradually push the hammer strongly and steadily towards the test surface
until the hammer impact, i.e, the spring loaded mass is triggered from its
locked position.
5. After the impact, maintain the hammer on its location and if necessary,
lock the plunger in its retracted position by depressing the button on the
side of the hammer.
6. Read and record the scale index from the hammer which is known as
rebound hammer.
7. Convert rebound hammer to compressive strength value using calibration
chart established for a particular device.

RESULT:

Thus the compressive strength of concrete is identified using rebound

hammer test.

INFERENCE:

The average rebound number of a particular place is recorded. This

number indicates the surface hardness of the concrete.

26
EX NO : 4.b STUDY OF NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

DATE : (ULTRA PULSE VELOCITY)

AIM:
To study the details of concrete structure by ultra pulse velocity.

GENERAL:

Mechanical sonic pulse velocity method which involve in measurement

of the time of travel of longitudinal or compression wave generated by single
impact hammer blow or repeated blow ultrasonic pulse velocity method
which also involves measurement of time travel of electrically generated
mechanical pulse through the concrete.

Out of these two, the ultrasonic pulse method has gained considerable
popularity all over the world when mechanical impulse are applied to a solid
mass three different types of waves are generally known as longitudinal
waves, shear waves and surface waves these three are travel at different
speeds. Longitudinal waves travel about twice as fast as the other two types
of waves and surface waves are the slowest.

The pulse can be generated either by hammer blow or by the use of an

electro acoustic transducers are preferred as they provide better control on
the type and frequency of pulse generated the instrument used is called
soniscope.

27
Ultra sonic pulse velocity test apparatus

28
Smoothness of Contact Surface Under Test:
It is important to maintain good contact between the surface of
concrete and the face of each transducer. Generally this does not pose any
problem because in normal sufficient cast surface available for good contact.
However, when it’s necessary hold the transducer against an unmolded
surfaces. For example: The top surface of a test cylinder it’s desirable to
smoothen the surface by the use of a Carboroundum stone and the transducer
should held highly against the concrete surface. In addition the use of a coupling
medium such as thin film oil, soap, jelly or kaolin, glycerol paste should be used
in addition to that of it influence the path length or pulse velocity.

Influence of path length or pulse velocity:

As concrete is inherently heterogeneous, it is essential that path length

be sufficient long as to avoid any errors introduced due to its heterogeneity.

Temperature of Concrete:

It has been reported that variation of the ambient temperature between

5ºC and 30ºC do not significantly affect the pulse velocity method in concrete.

Moisture Condition of Concrete:

In general pulse velocity through concrete increase with increased

moisture, content of concrete. This influence is more marked for low strength
concrete 2% higher than that of dry concrete.

RESULT :

The ultrasonic pulse velocity was studied.

29
EX NO: 4.c STUDY OF NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
DATE: (CORE TEST)

AIM:

To study the details of concrete by conducting core test.

GENERAL:

The test specimen cube or cylinder is made from the representative

sample of concrete used for a particular member the strength of which we are
interested. As the member cannot in fact tested the parallel concrete by making
cubes or cylinder it is to be understood that the strength of the cube member
cannot be same as the member.

It is to be understood that the strength of the cube specimen cannot be

same as that of the member because of the difference with respect to the degree
of compaction, curing standard manner, evaporation, loss due to mixing water
etc. At best the result of cube or cylinder can give only a rough estimate to the
real strength of the member.

To arrive at a better picture of the strength of the actual member attempts

are made to cut cores from the parent concrete and test the cores for strength
perhaps this will give a better picture about strength in the member.

Core can be drilled as suspended part of the structure or to detect

segregation or honey combing or to check the bond at construction joint, or to
verify the thickness of pavement.

The disadvantage are the, while cutting the core structural integrity of
concrete across the full cross section may be affected to some extent and
secondly

30
Core Test Apparatus

31
the diameter to height ratio may be other than that of standard cylinder. Capping
of both ends be again some difference in the strength existence of reinforcement
will also present difficult in cutting a clean core.

The cores cut to determine the strength of concrete of the actual structure
may also indicate segregation and honey combing of concrete. In some cones
the beam specimen are also done for the road and airfield slabs for finding
flexural strength. In practical it is seen that strength of the core is found to be
less than that of the strength of standard cylinder apart from other reasons.

Strength of Cores

The reduction in strength of cores appear to be greater in stronger

concrete the reduction in the strength can be high as 15% for 40MPa concrete
generally a reduction of 5% to 7% is considered reasonable. It has been reported
by many investigation that on site concrete gains very little strength in 28 days
test on high strength lower than strength 28 days, cylinder illustrate the above
statements.

RESULT:

Thus core test was studied.

32
EX NO : 5 PERMIABILITY TEST ON HARDENED
DATE : CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION:
Permeability of concrete is generally refers to the rate at which water or
other aggressive substance (Sulphates, chlorides, ions etc.) can penetrate
concrete. It plays an important role in the long term durability of concrete. Low
permeability is an important requirement for hydraulic structures and in some
cases water tightness of concrete may be considered to be significant than
strength although, other conditions being equal, concrete of low permeability
will normally also be strong and durable. A concrete which already absorbs
water, may be susceptible to deterioration. Resistance to deterioration is
determined largely by the ability of the cover zone concrete resist the ingress of
deleterious agents from the environment.
Concrete is inherently a porous material. This arises from the use of water
in excess of that required for the purpose of hydration in order to make the mix
sufficiently workable and the difficulty of removing all the entrapped air voids
from the concrete during compaction. If the voids are interconnected, concrete
becomes pervious, although with normal care concrete is sufficiently
impermeable for most purposes.
AIM:
To determine the permeability on hardened concrete.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Permeability apparatus
2. Universal testing machine.

33
PROCEDURE:

1. Two concrete mixes were used to prepare the test specimens.

2. Prisms measuring 50 x 50 x 300 mm were cast and 150 mm cubes were
cast for measuring the impermeability index, pore volume and
compressive strength of concrete.
3. The specimens were kept in their moulds 24 hours and then they were
demoulded and cured for 28 days.
4. Seal the outer face of the gasket before installing it to permeability unit to
prevent leakage during the test.
5. Place and install the apparatus in test position and place the pressure plates
of the pliers in the machined slots of the chamber housing.
6. Fill the water into the filling cup until the water seeps out of the outlet
valve.
7. Close the outlet valves and wait for five minutes for the water to be
absorbed in the concrete.
8. Turn the lid clockwise by hand or with aluminum wrench to a desired
pressure indicated on the pressure meter.
9. Keep constant the selected pressure; record the gauge reading over time.
10.Test can be conducted until the micrometer setting is at zero position,
usually at 5-10 minutes, depending on the concrete quality.
11.Determine the surface permeability by determining the flux q and by
means of Darcy’s Law.

34
Mix Proportion:

Mix Ordinary Water Aggregate (kg/m3 Sand Water 28 Days

s ) cement Compre
Portland kg/m3 (kg/m3)
ratio ssive
cement Strengt
20mm 10mm h
kg/m3
N/mm2

Typical water Permeability Results:

Concrete Protective Quality Time (S) Typical Material

Category

0 Poor <40 Mortar

1 Not Very Good 40-100 20Mpa Concrete

2 Fair 100-200 40Mpa Concrete

3 Good 200-1000 60Mpa Concrete

4 Excellent >1000 Polymer Modified

Concrete

Low, Average and High water Permeability of Concrete

Water permeability Low Average High

coefficient (mm/s)
<10-9 10-9-10-6 >10-6

35
Permeability Test Apparatus

36
 q
CCP = b(𝛥𝑝 ) mm/s
L

Where,
CCP – Concrete Permeability Coefficient
b - Percentage of Concrete cement matrix
Δp – Selected Pressure
L – Length of Pressure is applied (The Thickness of pressure gasket)
Q – 0.026 (g1-g2) / t
g1 – Micrometer Gauge reading Before Test
g2 - Micrometer Gauge reading after Test.
t- The time of test is performed (sec)

RESULT:

Thus the permeability of hardened concrete is obtained by determining the

coefficient of permeability.

INFERENCE:

Because of difference in sample conditioning and test techniques used,

absolute values of permeability found by different test method may vary.

37
 EX NO : 1 HYPERBOLIC FRINGES
DATE :

AIM:
To Determine the elastic constant of hyperbolic fringes .
Introduction

A cantilever is a common experiment performed in laboratory

using traveling microscope. The traveling microscope measures the
depression caused by the acting force on the cantilever. The depression
also can be measured using a strain gauge. This is the electronic
method of determining young’s modulus
Apparatus Used
An aluminum cantilever of 9 inch long and 1.5 inch wide is fitted with
full bridge strain gauge as shown in Figure-8, a digital strain voltage
indicator and 100x5 gm slotted weight.

Fig- Cantilever fitted with full bridge strain gauge

Experimental Procedure

 The dimensions of the cantilever are noted by measuring its breadth and
thickness up to 0.01cm accuracy using vernier calipers and screw gauge.
b = 3.85cm t = 0.20cm
 The cantilever is fixed to its stand and screwed tightly. The gauge factor
GF and exitationvoltage is noted from the label printed on the stain voltage
indicator.
GF = 2.1  2% Vex = 1.25 Volts
 The strain voltage indicator is adjusted to zero using zero-set control knobs
(fine-offset and coarse-bridge balance) of the indicator. By watching the
stability of zero- setting for 1 or 2 minutes a 100 gm weight hanger is fixed
to the cantilever a distance x from the center line marked on the cantilever.
The distance x is noted. x = 10.3cm
 The steady reading in the strain voltage indicator is noted in Table-2. Strain
is calculated from eqauation-8.

38
 VO 0.08mV
6
 = = 30.47x10
VexGF 2.1X1.25
 Trial is repeated by increasing the weight in steps of 100gms up to a
maximum of 500 or 600 Gms. The corresponding readings are tabulated in
Table-2. The average value of m/ is calculated and Y is calculated.
 To increase the accuracy of measurement, the weight hanger is removed
and the strain indicator is monitored few minutes to see its zero setting.
Wait until the zero setting is OK. Restart loading weight at the same
position with and another set of readings are taken. Likewise, three trials
are taken for each position.
 Experiment is repeated by hanging the weight at 9 cms from the strain
gauge center. The corresponding values are tabulated in table-2 and
average value of Y is calculated for aluminum cantilever.

Results

The results obtained are tabulated in Table-3.

Distance “x” 10.3cm 9.0cm
Strain/ unit mass = 1/(m/) 0.326  0.262
Young’s modulus of Aluminum 6.45 x1011 6.54 x1011
Y average 6.495x1011 dynes/cm2
Standard value 7.07x1011 dynes/cm2

Distance X=10.3Cms
Strain gauge output voltage (mV)  x 10-6 m/ x 106
Weight (gms) Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3 Average

Average m/ 3.06 x 106

Distance X=9.0 Cms
Strain gauge output voltage (mV)  x 10-6 m/ x 106
Weight (gms) Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3 Average

Average m/ 3.81 x 106

39
EX NO :2
DATE : Ultrasonic interferometer

AIM
To find the compressibility of the given liquid using ultrasonic interferometer
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
To study the compressibility of the liquid by measuring the wavelength
and velocity of ultrasonic waves in the liquid using ultrasonic interferometer.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. To generate high frequency ultrasonic waves in the liquid using piezoelectric
oscillator
2. To form standing waves between quartz crystal and reflector plate
3. To measure the distance ‘d’ between two successive maxima or minima
4. To find the wavelength and velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid
5. To evaluate the compressibility of the liquid from the formula
APPARATUS REQUIRED

 Ultrasonic interferometer
 Sample liquid (Water/Kerosene)
 High frequency generator
FORMULA
1. Wavelength of the ultrasonic
waveλ = 2d (m)
2. Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given
liquidν = f λ (m/s)
3. Compressibility of the liquid
2 (m2/N)
TABLE –I
To calculate ‘d’
Least Count (LC) = 0.01 mm

Frequency of the ultrasonic waves = 2 106 Hz

40
TR = PSR + (HSC × LC)
Mean d = ............. x 10-3 m
Symbol Explanation Unit
λ Wavelength of the stationary ultrasonic wave m
d Distance between two successive maxima or minima m
v Velocity of ultrasonic wave m/s
f Frequency of the ultrasonic wave Hz
ρ Density of the given liquid kg/m3
β Adiabatic compressibility of the given liquid m2/N

Order of Micrometer reading for n

maxima maximum deflections (n+15)th reading – d
S. No. or nth reading) = 15 d -3
(10 m)
PSR HSC TR (10-3 m)
minima (10-3 m) (div) -3
(10 m)
1. n
2. n+5
3. n+10
4. n+15
5. n+20
6. n+25
7. n+30
8. n+35
9. n+40
10. n+45
11. n+50

41
 PROCEDURE
1. Ultrasonic interferometer is used to determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves
in liquids. It consists of a high frequency generator and a measuring cell.
2. The high frequency generator is used to excite the quartz crystal fixed at the
bottom of the measuring cell. The measuring cell is a double walled cell to
maintain the temperature of the cell at a constant value.
3. The measuring cell is connected to a high frequency generator. The cell is
filled with the given liquid and the frequency of the generator is set at a desired
value.
4. Then ultrasonic waves are reflected back from the movable plate, and standing
wavesare formed between the quartz crystal and the reflector plate.
5. The micrometer screw is moved till the anode current reaches maximum.
Microammeter readings are noted for ‘n’ number of maxima / minima.
6. The distance ‘d’ between two successive maxima and minima is obtained from
the readings taken.
7. The wavelength of the ultrasound is calculated using the ‘d’ value and hence
the velocity of the ultrasonic wave can be calculated using the known
frequency.
8. The compressibility of the given liquid is determined by knowing the density
of the given liquid.
CALCULATION
1. Wavelength of the ultrasonic wave

λ = 2d (m)

2. Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given

liquidν = f λ (m/s)

3. Compressibility of the liquid

2 (m2/N)

42
Results

1. The wavelength of ultrasonic wave is λ = .......................... m

2. The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid = ......................... m/s
medium is ν
3. The adiabatic compressibility of the given liquid β = ......................... m2/N

43
EX NO :3 Determination of Young’s modulus of glass by
DATE :

Aim

To determine Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of a glass plate using Cornu’s
method.

Apparatus

1. Optically plane glass plate

2. Travelling Microscope
3. Sodium lamp
4. Glass beam
5. A square shaped glass slide
6. Slide caliper and screw gauge
7. Pair of knife edges, hangers, loads etc.

Experimental Procedure:

1. Measure the width and the depth of the glass beam using vernier caliper andscrew
gauge. Take at least three readings for avoiding any error.
2. Place the glass beam on two knife-edges and hang the load (250 gm) on bothsides.
Measure the distance between knife-edge and point of suspension.
3. Place the plane glass plate on the glass beam near the middle. Adjust the glass beam
and glass plate so that the fringes appear.
4. Focus the microscope and adjust the beam and plate so that the fringes are
symmetrical on both sides of horizontal cross-wire and tangential to the vertical
cross-wire.
5. Turning screw of the microscope measure longitudinal position (along X) of every
transverse fringe on both sides. Take readings for about 10 fringes on both sides of
the center. To avoid backlash error start from one extreme.
6. Similarly measure transverse position (along Y) of longitudinal fringes by moving
microscope in transverse direction.
7. Increase the load to 300 grams and repeat the procedure from step 3.

44
 Observations: m1 = 250 grams

Along X-

Fringes on the left (x) Fringes on the right (x)

Order Main Main ρx
Vernier Total Vernier Total D D2 2 (cm2)
of the Scale Scale Rx
scale (cm) scale (cm) (cm) (cm
fringe (cm) (cm) )

Along Y-
Fringes on the left (y) Fringes on the right (y)
Order Main Main
of the D2 ρy
Scale Vernier Total Scale Vernier Total D Ry
fringe (cm2) (cm2)
(cm) scale (cm) (cm) scale (cm) (cm)

Calculations:

1. The correct error analysis and also compare the result with the literature value.

Precautions:

1) Handle the components carefully and make sure that load > 400 grams is notexerted
on the glass beam.
2) Make sure that you get regular shaped fringes. Adjust the glass plate slowly to
changethe shape of fringes from any irregular pattern.
3) Be careful about backlash error while taking the readings.

45
EX NO :4 RESISTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS BY
DATE : FOUR PROBE METHOD

AIM

To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by Four probe Method

APPARATUS

 The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample , oven 0-

200°C, constant current generator , oven power supply and digital panel
meter(measuring voltage and current).
 Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus
for the measurement of resistivity of semiconductors.
 This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin wafer,
such as a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The sample is
millimeter in size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged
linearly in a straight line at equal distance S from each other. A constant
current is passed through the two probes and the potential drop V across the
middle two probes is measured. An oven is provided with a heater to heat the
sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.

THEORY

 At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its

length L and inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.
 Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.
 A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that
of a conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their
characteristic property of decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing
temperature.
 According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into
two bands, valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external
electric field it is electrons in the valence band that can move freely, thereby
responsible for the electrical conductivity of semiconductors.

46
 In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the conduction
band minimum and valence band maximum. Since conduction band lies above the
Fermi level at 0K, when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction band
remains unoccupied.
 So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As temperature
increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting in decrease
of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.
 Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current-
carrying electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their
effectonconductivityisnegligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie
inastraightline.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor
should be small compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is
hemisphericalandsmallindiameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-
conducting. A conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower
resistivity than semiconductor has been plated. A non-conducting boundary is
produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in contact with insulator.
Procedure for Simulation

Combo Box and Sliders

Select Material - This is used to select semiconductor material for doing the
simulator.
Range of Current - One can choose the range of current for the current source.
Current’ Slider - It ranges from 1mA to 200mA. (Note:The divisions in the slider
is fixed as 100). If 20mA current is selected in the combo box, the slider value
will range from 0mA to 20mA, with an interval of 0.2mA and if the value is
200mA in the combo box, slider value changes from 0mA to 200mA with an
interval of 2mA.
Range of oven - This combo box is used to fix the temeprature to a particular

47
range.
Oven- Oven is used to vary the temeprature upto 2000 C.
Set Button – It is used to fix the temperature in the oven.
Run Button – After setting the temperature, using run button we can start
heating the oven.
Wait Button – It is used to stop heating the oven at a particular temperature.
Measure Button- It is used to display the present temperature of the oven.
Select Range Combo Box – Options are X1 and X10.
Temperature slider - it ranges from 270 C to 2000 C. active only by clicking
the Set button and become inactive after clicking Run button. If X1 is in combo
box, the slider value ranges from 27 0 C to 990 C and If the value is X10 in
combo box, slider value changes from 2.7 0 C to 200 C.
Voltmeter Combo Box - Options are 1 mV, 10 mV, 100 mV, 1 V, 10 V. One
can select it for getting output in a particular range.
PROCEDURE
1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.
2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the range
of current.
3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.
4. Set the temperature from the slider.
5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from
the default 250C to the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait button
to stop heating.
6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.
7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.
8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.
9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.
10. Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature
using equation (2) and (3).
11. A Graph is plotted with Temperature along x-axis and resistivity of
semiconductor along y-axis.

Observations and Calculations:

48
 Temperature, T(K) Voltage, V(mV) Current, I(mA) Resistivity,(ohm cm)

Resistivity can be calculated by using the equation given below.

Here we take,
Distance between the probes, S as0.2cm and
Thickness of the sample,w as 0.05cm.
From standard table f(w/S) = 5.89

ρ= ρo/[f(w/s)] = ............................... Ohm cm

ρo=[V/I(2πs)] =....................................... Ohm cm

Result
The resistivity of the given semiconductor by Four probe Method =
...................................Ohm cm.

49