The University of Zambia

School of Natural Sciences

Department of Physics

PHY 2712: Geometric and Wave Optics

Maluba Vernon Chisapi, PhD

2022-2023 Academic year-Part II

2

Introduction
Optics is the cornerstone of photonics systems and applications. This course is made up of
Geometrical (or ray) optics and Wave (or physical) optics. Geometrical optics will help you
understand the basics of light reflection and refraction and the use of simple optical elements such
as mirrors, prisms, lenses, and fibres. Wave optics will help you understand the phenomena of light
wave interference, diffraction, and polarization; the use of thin film coatings on mirrors to enhance
or suppress reflection; and the operation of such devices as gratings and quarter-wave plates.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this course, students must be able to:
• Distinguish between light rays and light waves.
• State the law of reflection and Snell’s law of refraction and show with appropriate drawings
how these laws apply to light rays at plane and spherical surfaces.
• State Fermat’s principle and apply it in the derivation of the laws of reflection and refraction
on plane surfaces.
• Derive mirror formula or Gaussian formula for parabolic mirrors, and use the mirror formula
to locate and determine the the nature of images formed by curved mirrors.
• Define index of refraction and give typical values for glass, water, air, etc.
• Calculate the critical angle of incidence for the interface between two optical media and
describe the process of total internal reflection.
• Describe how total internal reflection can be used to redirect light in prisms and trap light in
fibres.
• Describe dispersion of light and show how a prism disperses white light.
• Calculate the minimum angle of deviation for a prism and show how this angle can be used
to determine the refractive index of a prism material.
• Describe what is meant by Gaussian or paraxial optics.
• Derive the Gaussian formula for a single spherical refracting surface, define the focal points
and focal lengths (primary and secondary) associated with a refracting surface, and form
images on a curved surface using the Gaussian formula for a curved refracting surface.
• Derive the Gaussian formula and the Lens maker’s equation for a thin lenses and use these
equations to determine the location and nature of images formed by either a single thin lenses
or a combination of thin lenses in contact with each other or separated by a finite distance.
• Describe the relationship between collimated light and the focal points of convex and concave
mirrors.
• Use ray-tracing techniques to locate the images formed by plane and spherical mirrors and
those formed by thin lenses.
• Use the mirror equations to determine location, size, orientation, and nature of images formed
with spherical mirrors.
• Distinguish between a thin lens and a thick lens.
 3

• Describe the shapes of three typical converging (positive) thin lenses and three typical diverging
(negative) thin lenses.
• Describe the f-number and numerical aperture of a lens and explain how they control image
brightness.
• Describe the relationship between collimated light and the focal points of a thin lens.
• Use the lens maker’s equation to determine the focal length of a thin lens.
• Use the thin-lens equations to determine location, size, orientation, and nature of the images
formed by simple lenses.
• Describe the deviation of monochromatic light through a refracting prism and obtain an
expression connecting for the angle of minimum deviation, refractive index of the material of
the refracting prisms and the prism angle.
• Explain the essential physical aspects of the phenomena of wave polarization, interference,
diffraction and lasers and optical cavities both qualitatively and mathematically, including the
generation and manipulation of particular polarizations, interference by division of wavefront
and amplitude, diffraction from various simple aperture configurations and lasing conditions.
• Describe polarization of light, types of polarization of light and how to polarize light by
the following methods – polarization by transmission (Malus’ law), polarization by reflection
(Brewster’s angle) and polarization by scattering.
• Discuss, both qualitatively and mathematically, optical information storage, and image formation,
and their linkages to other basic concepts in optics.
• Describe, both qualitatively and mathematically, examples of applications of interference,
spatial filtering, lasers and optical cavities and practical holographic systems.
• Explain the working principles of basic optical instruments (Eyeglasses, magnifying glasses,
microscopes, telescopes, cameras).

Course outline
1. Geometric Optics
(a) Properties of light.
(b) Reflection of light on plane surfaces.
(c) Refraction of light on plane surfaces.
(d) Mirrors or curved surfaces.
(e) Refraction of light on a single curved surface.
(f) Thin lenses.
(g) Thick lenses and Aberrations.
(h) Prisms and Deviation of light.
(i) Dispersion of White light.
(j) Optical Devices
4

2. Wave Optics
(a) Wave Equation.
(b) Electromagnetic Theory of Light.
(c) Polarization.
(d) Interference.
(e) Diffraction.
(f) Double Refraction.

Time Allocation
• Lectures: 3 hrs/week.
• Tutorials: 1 hr/week.
• Labs: 3 hrs/week.

Assessment
• Continuous Assessment (CA): 40%; Tests 20% + Assignments 5% + Labs 15%.
• Final Examination: 60%

Prescribed reading material

1. Francis A. Jenkins and Harvey E. White, “Fundamentals of Optics”, McGraw-Hill Education;
4th edition (December 3, 2001). ISBN-13: 978-0072561913.

Recommended reading material

1. Longhurst R. S., “Geometrical and Physical Optics”, Longman, 1986. ISBN: 13: 9780582440999.
2. Smith F. G. and Thompson J. H., “Optics”, John Wiley, 1988. ISBN: 13: 9780471915348.
3. Nelkon and Parker, “Advance Level Physics”, Heinemann Ilt; 7th edition (January 1, 1996).
ISBN-13: 978-0435923037.
4. Shortley and Williams, “Principles of College Physics”. Englcool Cliff New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
1967: ISBN-13: 978-0137087686.
5. Hugh Young, Philip Adams and Mark W. Zemansky, , “College Physics”. London: Pearson;
11th Edition (January 11, 2019). ISBN-13: 978-0134987323.
6. Kenneth W. Ford, “Basic Physics”. Toronto London: Waltham Massachuesetts; World
Scientific Publishing Co. (January 9, 2017). ISBN-13: 978-9813208018.
Chapter 1

Properties of light

All known properties of light are described in terms of experiments by which they were discovered
and the demonstrations by which they are frequently illustrated. The demonstrations of the
properties of light can be grouped into:
1. Geometrical Optics: deals with light in terms of straight lines and plane geometry.
2. Wave Optics: deals with the wave nature of light.
3. Quantum Optics: deals with light as made up of bundles of energy called quanta.

1.0.1 Rectilinear propagation of light

• The rectilinear propagation of light is a technical term applied to the principle that “light
travels in a straight line”.
• The fact that objects can be made to cast fairly sharp shadows may be a good demonstration
of this principle.
• Similarly, in a pinhole camera the image of a stationary object is formed on a photographic
film or plate by light passing through a very small opening (See Fig. ??).

Figure 1.1: Illustration of the principle that light travels in a straight line.

• In this figure, light rays emanating from a point a of the object travels straight through the
0
pinhole to a point a on the image on the screen. Similarly, light rays from the point b going
0
through the pinhole will arrive on the screen and form part of the image at b . This also shows
why the image is inverted.
• Because light travels in a straight lines, we often diagrammatically represent narrow rays of
light by thin lines with an arrow head to show the direction. A bunch of light rays is called a
beam of light, of which it can be parallel, convergent, or divergent (see Fig. ??).

5
6 CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Figure 1.2: A ray and beams of light.

1.0.2 Speed of light

• Figure ?? shows the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths are
believed to travel with the same speed in vacuum.
• Visible light is one type of electromagnetic (EM) waves (see Fig. ??). Like other types of
EM waves, light has a finite speed. The speed of light is denoted by c and it taken to be
2.997925 × 108 m/s. It is a universal constant.

Figure 1.3: The Electromagnetic spectrum.

• For practical purposes, the speed of light in air or in a vacuum is rounded off to c = 3.00 × 108
m/s without much loss in accuracy.

1.0.3 The speed of light in stationary matter

• The speed of light in dense optical media (e.g. liquid, gas, or solid) is less than the speed in
air or vacuum. The extent to which the light is slowed down as it travels through an optical
medium depends on the refractive index of the optical medium.

Refractive Index
– The index of refraction, or refractive index, of any optical medium, n, is defined as the
ratio of the speed of light in vacuum, c, to the speed of light in the medium, v.
speed in vacuum
Refractive Index = (1.1)
speed in medium
or
c
n= (1.2)
v
– We can also write Eq. ?? as
c
v= , (1.3)
n
which shows that the refractive index of the optical medium is inversely proportional
to the speed of light in that medium. I.e. The larger the refractive index of the given
 7

material or optical medium, the smaller the value of the speed of light in that optical
medium and the more light is bent as it travels from one medium, say air, to another
e.g. water (See Figures ?? and ??).

– The table shows refractive indexes of various optical media.

Optical density

– The optical density of a transparent medium is a measure of its refractive index. I.e.
A medium with a relatively high refractive index is said to have a high optical density,
while one with a low index is said to have a low optical density.

1.0.4 Optical path

• In order to derive the most fundamental principles in geometric optics, it is appropriate to
define a quantity called the optical path.

• The path, d, of a ray of light in any optical medium is the product of velocity and the time
it takes the ray of light to traverse a geometrical distance of the medium, i.e.

d = vt
c
⇒ d = t, Since v = c/n from Eq. ??
n
∴ nd = ct (1.4)

• The product nd, which is also denoted by ∆, is called the optical path. i.e.

∆ = nd (1.5)

• The optical path represents the distance light travels in a vacuum in the same time it travels
a distance d in the optical medium.

• If a ray of light travels through a series of optical media of thickness d1 , d2 , d3 , ... and refractive
indices n1 , n2 , n3 , ..., then the total optical path is the sum of the separate values:

∆ = n1 d1 + n2 d2 + n3 d3 + .... (1.6)
8 CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Figure 1.5: The optical path through a series of media.

1.0.5 Reflection and refraction

• When a ray of light is incident on the boundary separating two different media, part of it is
reflected back in the first medium and the rest of it is refracted (its path is bent) as it enters
the second medium (see Figures ?? and ??).

• The directions followed in both cases are described by the two well-established laws of nature,
i.e. laws of reflection and refraction.

• Note that here we have ignored the absorption of light energy along the path of travel. Of
course absorption is important when considering percentage of light transmitted from source
to receiver in optical systems.

• Smooth surfaces give rise to specular (or regular, geometric) reflections while ragged or uneven
surfaces give rise to diffuse (irregular) reflections (see ??)

Figure 1.6: Specular and diffuse reflection.

Law of reflection on a plane surface

• The angle at which the incident ray of light strikes the interface (boundary) between two
media is exactly equal to the angle the reflected ray makes with the same interface. The two
angles are typically measured from the normal, or a line drawn perpendicular to the surface
of the interface. i.e. Angle of incidence φi = angle of reflection φr .
 9

(a) Reflection and refraction at

the boundary of two media with
refractive indices n1 and n2 , (b) Law of reflection. Angle A equals angle B.
respectively.

Figure 1.8: Light rays undergoing Reflection and refraction at plane surfaces.

• This same law also stipulates that the incident ray, the normal, and the reflected ray all lie
in the same plane, which is perpendicular to the interface separating the two media.

The law of refraction

(b) Refraction at an interface between

media of lower and higher refractive indices
(a) Reflection and refraction at an
ni and nr respectively.
interface.

• This law states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction (or vise-versa) is equal to a constant, i.e.

sin φi
= Constant (1.7)
sin φ0
10 CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Figure 1.10: Refraction at an interface between media of refractive indexes n1 and n2 .

• This law, which is also known as Snell’s law of refraction, relates the sines of the angles of
0
incidence φi and refraction φ at the interface between the two optical media to the refractive
indices of the two media, i.e.
sin φi n2
0 = , (1.8)
sin φ n1
or
0
n1 sin φi = n2 sin φ (1.9)

• Recall from Eq. ?? that for a given medium, the refractive index is given by n = c/v, so we
can write n1 = c/v1 and n2 = c/v2 , such that Eq. ?? can now be written in terms of velocities
of light in the two media as
sin φi v1
0 = (1.10)
sin φ v2

• If one or both indices are not unity, the ratio n2 /n1 is called the relative index, n2 , and Snell’s
law simplifies to
sin φi
= n2 (1.11)
sin φ0

• Similarly, if the index of the first medium is nearly 1, the relative index has just the value of
the second index and Eq. ?? is valid.

• Also, for very small angles of incidence and refraction, sine of the angle is approximately equal
0 0
to the angle itself, i.e. sin φi ≈ φi and sin φ ≈ φ , so Eq. ?? becomes

φi n2 v1
0 = = (1.12)
φ n1 v2

Critical angle and total internal reflection

• When light travels from a medium of higher index to one of lower index, some quite interesting
results can be obtained.
 11

Figure 1.11: The critical angle and total internal reflection.

• Refer to Figure ?? which shows four rays of light originating from the point O in the higher
optical density medium each incident at the interface at different angles of incidence.
1. Ray 1 is incident at the interface at 90◦ , which is normal incidence, so there is no bending
of the ray of light. Since the ray of light is moving into the less optical density medium,
its speed simply increases but continues in the same direction.
2. Ray 2 is incident at angle i and is refracted away from the normal at angle r.
3. Ray 3 is incident at the critical angle ic , i.e. large enough to cause the refracted ray
bending away from the normal (N) by 90◦ , thereby travelling along the interface between
the two media. This ray is trapped in the interface.
4. Ray 4 is incident on the interface at an angle greater than the critical angle, and is totally
reflected into the same medium from which it came. It obeys the law of reflection such
that its angle of reflection is exactly equal to its angle of incidence.
5. The critical angle of incidence for any two optical media whenever a ray of light is incident
from a high optical density medium can be calculated using Snell’s law (Ray 3), i.e.

ni sin ic = nr sin 90◦ , (1.13)

where the symbols are as shown in Figure ??.

6. Since sin 90◦ = 1, the critical angle ic can be calculated using Eq. ?? as
!
nr
ic = sin−1 (1.14)
ni

• Total internal reflection has many applications, for example in the design of light propagation
in fibres. Fibres are designed is such a way that successive internal reflections occur along the
fibre thereby trapping the light in the fibre through out its travel.
• Similarly, total internal reflection has application when designing “retroreflecting” prisms.
Compared with ordinary reflection from mirrors, the sharpness and brightness of totally
internally reflected light beams is enhanced considerably.

Application of total internal reflection

Research on some of the applications of total internal reflection, e.g.
12 CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

1. Fiber Optics: Endoscopes to Telephones

(a)
(b)

Figure 1.12: Total internal reflection in application.

2. Cladding
3. Corner Reflectors and Diamonds
4. The Sparkle of Diamonds

1.0.6 Fermat’s principle

• According to Fermat, the path that any ray of light takes between any 2 given points is the
path that can be travelled in the least time. Fermat’s principle is therefore also known as the
principle of least time.
• Recall that the term optical path, which was introduced earlier, was defined as the distance
a ray of light can travel in a vacuum in the same time it travels from one point to another (a
specific distance) through one or more optical media.
• Consider a ray of light traversing a prim with media of varying refractive indices on either
side

Figure 1.13: The refraction of light by a prism and the meaning of optical path ∆.

0
• The optical path from the point Q in the medium n, through medium n to the point n” is
given by
0 0
∆ = nd + n d + n” d” . (1.15)
 13

For N media,
N
X
∆= ni di . (1.16)
i

• For medium of continuously varying refractive index, we can use the integral to determine the
optical path as Z
∆= ni di , (1.17)

Because in such cases the paths of the rays of light are curved and Snell’s law of refraction no
longer holds.
• Fermat’s principle is applicable to any type of variation of n and it contains within it the laws
of reflection and refraction.
• Fermat’s principle holds for any ray whose optical path is minimum with respect to adjacent
paths.
• In some cases the optical path can be maximum, stationary or minimum.

1.0.7 Determining the shortest path of the ray of light

• Consider a ray of light that must pass through a point Q and incident on a plane surface at
an angle φ1 where it is reflected and then it passes the point Q” (see Figure ??).

Figure 1.14: Fermat’s principle applied to reflection at a plane surface.

• To find the real path we first drop a perpendicular GH and extend it an equal distance on the
0 0 00
other side to Q . Then we draw a straight line Q Q and from its intersection B we connect
the line QB.
00
• The real path is clearly QBQ , and as can be seen from the symmetry relations in the diagram,
it obeys the law of reflection.
• Consider also the adjacent paths e.g. A and C on the mirror surface close to B. Since the
0 00 0 00
straight line is the shortest path between any two points, paths Q AQ and Q CQ are both
0 00
greater that Q BQ .
0 0 00 00 00 00
• Similarly, QA = Q A and QC = Q C so that QAQ > QBQ and QCQ > QBQ , proving
00
that the real path QBQ is a minimum.
14 CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

• The analogy above can be displayed in terms of a hypothetical graph (see the small ∆ vs x
graph) in which the flatness of the curve between A and C illustrates that the adjacent paths
are approximately equal to the real optical path.

1.0.8 Ellipsoida reflectors

• Fermat’s principle can also be applied to an ellipsoidal reflector. Consider the optical properties
of an ellipsoidal reflector shown in Figure ??:

(b) Graphs illustrating

conditions for maximum (a),
(a) Fermat’s principle applied to stationary (b), and minimum
an ellipsoidal reflector. (c) light paths.

• All rays emanating from a point source Q at one focus are reflected according to the law of
0
reflection and come together at the other focus Q .
• In this figure, all paths are equal in length. Remember that an ellipse can be drawn with a
string of fixed length with its ends fastened at the foci.
• Because all optical paths are equal, this is a stationary case (see Figure ??). In this figure ??
paths are represented by a straight horizontal line.
• If reflecting surfaces (a) and (c) are tangent to the ellipsoid at the point B, the line NB is
0
normal to all three surfaces and QBQ is a real path for all three.
• Adjacent paths from Q to points along these mirrors, however, will give a minimum condition
for the real path to and from reflector c and a maximum condition for the real path to and
from reflector a.

1.0.9 Proof of the laws of reflection and refraction in Fermat’s principle

Figure 1.16: Geometry of refracted ray used to to illustrate Fermat’s principle.

 15

• It is easy to show that both laws of reflection and refraction can be follow from Fermat’s
principle.

Refraction
• Consider a ray of light from a point Q in medium n incident on the interface at A and is
0 0
refracted to a point Q in medium n .
0
• The length of the optical path from Q through A to Q is
0 0
∆ = nd + n d , (1.18)
0 0
where d = QA, and d = AQ .
0
• h and h represent perpendicular distances to the interface and p is the total length of the
0
x-axis from h to h .
• Using the Pythagorean theorem, we can write
p
d = h2 + (p − x)2 , (1.19)
0
p
d = h0 2 + x2 (1.20)

0
• Substituting for d and d in Eq. ??, .i.e
h i1/2 0
 0 1/2
∆ = n h2 + (p + x)2 + n h 2 + x2 (1.21)

• According to Fermat’s principle ∆ must be a minimum, or maximum or a stationary, for the

optical path.
• One method of finding the maximum or minimum for the optical path is to plot a graph of
∆ against x and find at what value of x a tangent to the curve is parallel to the x-axis.
• Another way is is done mathematically, by first differentiating Eq. ?? with respect to x,
thereby obtaining an equation for the slope of the graph, and then equating it to zero to find
the value of x for which the slope of the curve is zero, i.e.

d∆ 1 h i−1/2 1 0 0 −1/2
= − n h2 + (p − x)2 2(p − x) + n h 2 + x2 =0
dx 2 2
0
n(p − x) nx
= −h i1/2 +  1/2 = 0
2 2 02 2
h + (p − x) h +x
0
n(p − x) nx
=⇒ = 0
d d
0 0
n sin φ = n sin φ From the Figure ??.

Which is Snell’s law of refraction.

Reflection
• Similarly, the law of reflection can be realised from Fermat’s principle, show it!
16 CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

1.0.10 The principle of reversibility

• The symmetry in the laws of reflection and refraction with respect to the symbols used shows
at once that if a reflected or refracted ray is reversed in direction it will retrace its original
path.

0
• For any given pair of media with indices n and n , any one value of φ is correlated with a
0
corresponding value of n .

0
• This will be equally true when the ray is reversed and φ becomes the angle of incidence in
0
the medium n , then the angle of refraction will be φ.

• Since reversibility holds at each reflecting or refracting surface, it holds even for the most
complicated light paths.

• This is a very useful principle and has more than a purely geometrical foundation. It will
later be shown to follow from the application of wave motion to a principle in mechanics.

1.0.11 Colour dispersion and Refraction in prisms

• Refraction cause a separation of white light into its component colours. We have seen this
with rays of light from the sun passing through drops of rain or prism.

(b)
(a)

Figure 1.17: Dispersion of white light into its component colours.

• As shown in Figure ??, the incident ray of white light is refracted into a continuous spectrum
0
of different colours each of which has its own value of φ .

0
• This means that the value of n must vary with colour or wavelength. In other words, for a
given medium, n also depends on wavelength.

• The variation of n with wavelength is called dispersion. i.e. Dispersion is the spreading of
white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths.
 17

(b) Colours according to wavelengths.

(a) Refractive index vs

wavelength.

Figure 1.18

• In the exact specification of indices of refraction particular colours correspond to certain dark
lines in the spectrum of the sun. These are called the Fraunhofer lines and are designated by
the letters A, B, C, ..., starting at the extreme red end (see Table ??).

Figure 1.19: Fraunhofer’s designations, Element source, wavelength, and refractive index for 4
optical glasses.

• The angular divergence of rays F and C, in Figure ??, is a measure of the dispersion produced,
which is measured by the angle through which ray D is bent.
• For crown glass, the refractive indices are nF = 1.52933, nD = 1.52300, and nC = 1.52042.
Using Snell’s law,
0
φ n
0 =
φ n
0 0
nφ = n φ

0 0
• For a given small angle φ, the dispersion of F and C rays (φF − φC ) is proportional to

nF − nC = 1.52933 − 1.52042 = 0.00891

0
while the deviation of ray D (φ − φD ) depends on

nD − 1 = 1.52300 − 1 = 0.52300

• The ratio of these two quantities is called the dispersion power of the optical medium, i.e.
nF − nC
V = (1.22)
nD − 1
18 CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

• The dispersive power is an important characteristic of any optical medium.

• The reciprocal of the dispersive power is called the dispersive index ϑ,
nD − 1
ϑ= (1.23)
nF − nC

Figure 1.20: Refractive indices n in selected media at various wavelengths.

Angle of deviation

(a) Refraction in a prism.

(b) Angle of deviation against
angle of incidence.

Figure 1.21

• Consider a ray incident on the first surface of a prism at the angle φ1 (see Figure ??).
• The refraction at this surface as well as at the second surface obeys Snell’s law.
0 0
• The first surface causes the angle of deviation β = φ1 −φ1 , and the second surface γ = φ2 −φ2 .
• The total angle of deviation, δ, between the incidence and emergence ray is given by

δ = β + γ. (1.24)

0 0
• In Figure ??, the lines N N and M N are perpendicular to the two faces of the prism, hence
0
α is also the angle at N .
0
• Triangle ABN and the exterior angle α, gives
0 0
α = φ1 + φ2 , (1.25)

Therefore,
0 0 0 0
δ = β + γ = φ1 − φ1 + φ2 − φ2 = φ1 + φ2 − (φ1 + φ2 )
∴ δ = φ1 + φ2 − α (1.26)
 19

• The angle of deviation δ for any given prism vary with the angle of incidence φ (see Figure ??).
• We can from this curve determine the minimum angle of deviation δm . It turns out that δm
occurs at a particular angle of incidence where the refracted ray inside the prism makes equal
0 0
angles with the two prism faces, i.e φ1 = φ2 , φ1 = φ2 , and β = γ. Therefore, δm = β + γ = 2β,
0 0
α = 2φ1 and φ = φ1 + β.
0
• Solving for φ1 and φ1
α
φ0 1 = (1.27)
2
1
φ1 = (α + δm ) (1.28)
2
• Hence, by Snell’s law
 
n
0
sin φ1 sin 12 α + δm
= 0 =
n sin φ1 sin α
  2
0
sin 21 α + δm
=⇒ n = . (1.29)
sin α2

• By measuring the minimum angle of deviation δm , we can determine the refractive index of
the material of which the prism is made of.

1.0.12 Parallel beams

Figure 1.22: Reflection and refraction of parallel beams: (a) external reflection, (b) internal
reflection at an angle smaller than the critical angle, (c) total reflection at or greater than critical
angle.

• In a beam of parallel light, each ray meets the surface travelling in the same direction.
Therefore, any one ray may be used to represent all of the others.
• The parallel beam remains parallel after reflection or refraction at a plane surface (See
Figure ??).
• Refraction causes change in width of the beam which is seen to be in the ratio of cosine of
0
angle of refraction φ to the cosine of the angle of incidence φ, i.e.
0
cos φ
,
cos φ
20 CHAPTER 1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

whereas the reflected beam remains of the same width.

• There is also chromatic dispersion of the refracted beam but not of the reflected one.
• In Figure ??(a), reflection at a surface where n increases, is called external reflection or
rare-to-dense reflection because the relative magnitude of n roughly correspond to those of
the actual densities of materials.
• Figure ??(b) shows internal reflection or dense-to-rate reflection. In this particular case, the
0
refracted beam is narrow because φ is close to 90◦ .
Chapter 2

Reflection and Refraction on curved or

spherical surfaces

2.1 Reflection: Mirrors

• When rays of light are incident on a curved surface, their reflected rays either converge or
diverge depending on the direction of curvature of the surface.
• The law of reflection is used to determine the direction which any ray incident on a spherical
surface will be reflected (see Fig. ??), e.g. using the law of reflection we can trace rays from
any point on an object to the mirror, and from there to the corresponding point on the image.
This is called graphical ray tracing (see Fig. ??).
• Ray tracing Steps:
1. Make a tangent at the point a ray of light is incident on the curved mirror surface.
2. Draw a normal (perpendicular line) from C (centre of curvature) to that point where a
ray is incident.
3. The angle of incidence θi made by the incident ray and the normal is equal to the
reflected ray, i.e. angle between the normal and the reflected ray (according to the law
of reflection).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.1: Reflection on spherical surfaces.

• Curved mirrors are parabolic in shape with generally two types of curvature (see Fig. ??).
Note that we take the convention that light rays are incident from the left to the right.

21
22CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

Figure 2.2

1. Concave or converging: curved away from incident beam of light.

– Converging because this mirror curvature reflects parallel incident rays in such a way
that they converge at the focal point F (see Fig. ??a). If incidence rays emerge from
the focal point they will be reflected in parallel.
– Centre of curvature C and the focal point F are both on the left of the mirror surface,
hence the concave mirror is said to have a positive focal length f (i.e. distance from
the focal point to the vertex v).
2. Convex or diverging: curved towards incident beam of light.
– Diverging because this mirror curvature reflects parallel incident rays in such a way
that they diverge as if emerging from a focal point F which in this case is located
on the right side of the mirror surface (see Fig. ??b).
– Both C and F are on the right of the mirror surface, hence the convex mirror is said
to have a negative focal length f .

Figure 2.3

2.1.1 Image formation by curved mirrors

• Consider the object point P in Figure ??, to locate the corresponding image point using ray
tracing, any 2 rays can be used as follows:
1. For a concave mirror:
– Draw a ray from point P of object parallel to the optic axis to the mirror, which
0
should be reflected through the focal point F (i.e. 1 and 1 ).
– Draw another ray from point P through the focal point F, which should be reflected
0
parallel to the principal axis (i.e. 2 and 2 ).
– Draw another ray from the object point P that passes through the centre of curvature
0
C, which should be reflected back along itself (i.e. 3 and 3 ).
2.1. REFLECTION: MIRRORS 23

0 0 0
– At the point where the reflected rays 1 , 2 , and 3 meet is where the corresponding
image point will be located (see Fig. ??a).
* The characteristics of the image formed are that it is real since it can be formed on
a screen place there, inverted and diminished.

Figure 2.4

2. For a convex mirror:

– Draw a ray from object point P, parallel to the axis, which will be reflected from the
0
mirror as if it comes from the focal point F behind the mirror (i.e. 1 and 1 ).
– Draw another ray that is headed toward the focal point F behind the mirror, which
0
will be reflected from the mirror in parallel to the optical axis (i.e. 2 and 2 ).
– Draw another ray from P headed toward the center of curvature C behind the mirror,
0
which will be reflected back along itself (i.e. 3 and 3 ).
0 0 0
– Reflected rays 1 , 2 , and 3 diverge as if coming from a common intersection behind
the mirror.
* The characteristics of the image formed are that it is virtual (Not real) since it
cannot be formed on a screen, upright and diminished.
Example ??
Using ray tracing, determine the position and characteristics of an image formed by a concave
mirror for an object placed at various positions:
I Object placed beyond centre of curvature.
II Object placed between C and F.
III Object placed between F and the mirror surface.

2.1.2 Mirror Formula

Figure 2.5
24CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

• Consider the object placed at the point O, a distance p from from the vertex v (see Figure ??).
Rays from the object can be traced to the image I which is a distance q away from the vertex,
on the right of the mirror surface (this is a convex mirror).
• The intersection of the these 2 rays (extended backward) determines the image point I
corresponding to object point O. The image is virtual and located behind the mirror surface.
• Object and image distances p and q are measured from the vertex v. Now, draw a perpendicular
h from the point P on the curved mirror where one ray is incident to a point Q on the optical
axis.
• We want a relationship of the distances p and q that depend only on the radius of curvature
r of the mirror.
• Such relations are only possible to first-order approximation of the sines and cosines of angles
of the object and image rays, i.e. α and ϕ at various points on the spherical surface. i.e.

ϕ3 ϕ5
sin φ = ϕ − + + ..., (2.1)
3! 5!
∴ sin ϕ ≈ ϕ
ϕ2 ϕ4
cos ϕ = 1 − + + ..., (2.2)
2! 4!
∴ cos ϕ ≈ 1
sin ϕ ϕ
such that tan ϕ = = =ϕ (2.3)
cos ϕ 1

• The exterior angle of triangle OPC and OPI are

θ =α+ϕ (2.4)
0
2θ = α + α (2.5)
0
α+α
⇒α+ϕ=
2
0
2(α + ϕ) = α + α
0
2α − α − α = −2ϕ
0
α − α = −2ϕ (2.6)

0
• Using tangents, e.g. tan α = h/p, tan α = h/q, and tan ϕ = h/r, We can write Eq. ?? as

h h h
− = −2
p q r
1 1 1
− = −2 (2.7)
p q r

• Equation ?? is the mirror formula for a convex mirror.

• Remember that for a convex mirror, the focal length f and radius of curvature r are negative
while the same are positive for a concave mirror. Therefore, for a concave mirror, Eq. ?? is
1 1 1
+ = −2 (2.8)
p q r
2.1. REFLECTION: MIRRORS 25

• Now, the primary focal point F is define as that axial object point for which the image is
formed at infinity, i.e. p = f , q = ∞, hence Eq. ?? becomes

1 1 2
− =−
f ∞ r
1 2
=− (2.9)
f r
r
=⇒ f = − (2.10)
2

• This shows that, for a paraxial rays, the focal length f is one-half of the radius of curvature
r. Therefore, the mirror formula in terms of the focal length 1/f (using Eq ??) is

1 1 1
− = For a convex mirror (2.11)
p q f
1 1 1
+ = For a concave mirror (2.12)
p q f

2.1.3 The sign convention

• The mirror formula is applicable to any image formation but has to be used in conjunction
with following convention.

1. Object and image distances p and q are both positive when located to the left of the
vertex and are both negative when located to the right.

2. The radius of curvature r is positive when centre of curvature C is on the left of the
vertex (concave mirror) and negative when C is to the right (convex mirror).

3. Vertical dimensions of both object and image are positive above the optical axis and
negative below.

4. Of course these are in addition to the convention that light rays are directed from left
toward the right.

5. Therefore, positive object and image distances correspond to real objects and images,
whereas negative object and image distances correspond to virtual objects and images.
Virtual objects occur only with a sequence of two more reflecting or refracting elements.

2.1.4 Magnification
• This is the degree of enlargement or reduction in size of an object through the image formed
by the mirrors. It is the ratio of image height hi to be object height ho .

Height of image Image distance

M= or (2.13)
Height of object Object distance
26CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

Figure 2.6

0
• Consider Figure ??, angles θi , θr , and α are equal, and triangles VOP and VIP are similar,
such that sides of the two triangles are proportional, therefore,
ho hi
tan θi == tan α =
p q
hi q
=⇒ = =M (2.14)
ho p

• If we take into account sign convention, Eq. ?? is

q
M =− , (2.15)
p
which is the general case valid for both concave and convex mirrors. i.e. If after the calculation
the value of M is positive then the image is erect, whereas if M is negative the image is inverted.

2.1.5 Power of a mirror

• The power, denoted P, of a spherical mirror describes the image-forming properties of a mirror.
The greater the effect the mirror has on light rays from the object in forming an image, the
more powerful it is. The power of a mirror is the inverse of the mirror’s focal length f , i.e
1
P = , (2.16)
f

• The unit of power is D (diopters). To obtain this unit the focal length f has to be in metres
m.

2.2 Refraction on curved or spherical surfaces: Lenses

• Just as the law of reflection determines the imaging properties of mirrors, Snell’s law of
refraction determines the imaging properties of lenses.
• Using refraction of light rays, we can once again use ray-tracing techniques and the lens
formula (based on Gaussian optics) as we did with mirrors, to locate the position, orientation,
and size of images formed in simple lens systems.
• Gaussian optics, also known as paraxial optics uses the approximation that light rays are close
to the lens axis and that they make small angles (< 20◦ ), therefore,
sin φ ≈ φ and cos φ ≈ 1. See Section ??
2.2. REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES: LENSES 27

2.2.1 Types of lenses

• In general there are two types of lense: (1) converging and (2) diverging lenses (see Fig. ??).

Figure 2.7

• Converging or positive lens

– Converges light rays to a focal point.

– thicker in the middle than at the edges.

– focal length is positive.

– image formed is real.

• Diverging or negative lens

– diverges or spreads out parallel light rays incident on the lens as if emerging from a
specific point (focal point F).

– thinner in the middle than at the edges.

– focal length is negative.

– image formed is virtual.

Figure 2.8

• In Figure ??, plane wave fronts are changed to converging spherical wave fronts by the positive
lens and to diverging spherical wave fronts by the negative lens.

• This occurs because light travels more slowly in the lens medium than in the surrounding air,
so the thicker part of the lens retards the light more than the thicker parts.
28CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

Figure 2.9: Refraction of parallel light rays by the converging and diverging lenses.

2.2.2 Image formation by ray tracing in thin lenses

• A lens is considered a thin lens if its thickness (t) is very small compared to the distances
associated with its optical properties, i.e. radii of curvature of the two spherical surfaces,
primary and secondary focal lengths, and object and image distances.

Figure 2.10: Thin lenses have the same focal lengths on either side. (a) Parallel light rays entering
a converging lens from the right cross at its focal point on the left. (b) Parallel light rays entering
a diverging lens from the right seem to come from the focal point on the right.

• To locate the image of an object formed by a thin lens, we use 3 key points, i.e. left focal
0
point F, right focal point F , and the lens vertex v. We associate each one of these with a
defining ray of light (see Figure ??).

Figure 2.11: Ray diagrams for image formation by positive and negative lenses.
2.2. REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES: LENSES 29

• Using these ray-tracing techniques, you should be able to locate the position of the image
point of a corresponding object point in either positive or negative lens. Depending on the
position of the object, the corresponding image may be magnified or diminished.
• For example, for positive lens, if the object is closer to F the image will be further away from
0 0
F and magnified, whereas if the object is further away from F, the image will be closer to F
and diminished.

Figure 2.12: Ray diagram for image formation through two lenses.

• Principles of ray tracing can be applied to optical systems consisting positive and negative
thin lenses chained together (see Figure ??), where the real object RO1 is traced to a real
image RI1 . For a second lens, RI1 becomes RO2 which is traced into a virtual image VI2 .
• Note the convention of representing positive (up and down arrow heads) and negative (arrow
heads facing each other) thin lenses in Figure ??.

2.2.3 Thin lens formula

(a) Ray-tracing by refraction on (b) The geometry used to derive

thin lens. the thin lens formula.

Figure 2.13

0
• In Figure ??, 2 rays are traced from the object of height y to the image of height y . s and
0 0
s are the object and image distances from the lens centre, respectively, and x and x their
0
respective distances from focal points F and F .
0 0
• Triangles Q TS and F TA are similar, hence the proportionality between their corresponding
sides yield
0
y−y y
0 = 0 (2.17)
s f

• Similarly from triangles QTS and FAS, we have

0 0
y−y y
=− (2.18)
s f
30CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

0
Adding Eq. ?? and ?? and remembering that f = f for thin lenses:
0 0 0
y−y y−y y y
0 + = 0 −
s s f f
!
0 1 1 1 0
(y − y ) + 0 = (y − y )
s s f
1 1 1
=⇒ + 0 = (2.19)
s s f

which is the thin lens formula.

2.2.4 Sign conventions

The following sign conventions are used in conjunction with the lens formula Eq. ??, etc.
1. All figures are drawn with light traveling from left to right.
2. All object distances are considered positive when measured to the left of the vertex and
negative when measured to the right.
3. All image distances are positive when they are measured to the right of the vertex and
negative when measured to the left.
4. Both focal lengths are positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens.
5. Object and image dimensions are positive when measured upward from the lens axis and
negative downward.
6. All convex surfaces are taken as having a positive radius of curvature, whereas all concave
surfaces are taken as having a negative radius.
7. If the magnification M is positive, the image is virtual and erect, while if it is negative, the
image is real and inverted (see Eq. ??).

2.2.5 Magnification
• Image magnification by the lens can be derived from Figure ??. In this figure we see triangles
0 0
QMA and Q M A are similar, hence their corresponding sides are proportional and we can
write
0 0 0
MQ AM
= (2.20)
MQ AM
0 0
y s
M= =− (2.21)
y s
(2.22)
0 0
where AM is the image distance s and AM the object distance s. Following conventions and
0 0 0
taking upward distance as positive, y = MQ, and downward as negative, y = −M Q , which
result in Eq. ?? when substituted.
0
• If both object s and image s distances are positive, the negative sign on the value of magnification
M signifies that the image is inverted.
2.2. REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES: LENSES 31

2.2.6 Lens maker’s formula

• Consider the convex lens shown in Figure ?? with 2 refracting surfaces having the radii of
curvatures R1 and R2 , respectively.
• The refractive indices of the surrounding medium and the lens material are n1 and n2 , (n2 >
n1 ), respectively.

(a) Convex lens.

(b) Concave lens.

Figure 2.14: Geometry for derivation of lens maker’s formula.

• For a point size object on the principal axis in the medium n1 , if surface ADC is absent, a
ray of light OM incident on the first surface ABC will be refracted along MN which meets the
lens axis at I1 . Thus, I1 can be treated as a real image formed by surface ABC of n2 .
• The n1 , n2 , v1 , u, v, R1 , and R2 are related as follows:
For the first surface,
n2 n1 n2 − n1
− = (2.23)
v1 u R1
(2.24)
When surface 2 ADC is present, the ray refracted earlier by surface 1 (ABC) gets refracted
further by surface 2. i.e. MN refracted by ADC meets the lens axis at point I, which is the
final image of the object O. Thus, For the second surface:
n1 n2 n1 − n2
− = (2.25)
v v1 R2
Adding Eq. ?? and ??,
n2 n1 n1 n2 n2 − n1 n1 − n2
− + − = +
v1 u v v1 R1 R2
!
1 1 n2 − n1 n2 − n1
n1 − = −
v u R1 R2

dividing out by n1
!
1 1 1 1 1
− = (n2 − n1 ) −
v u n1 R1 R2

When the medium in which the lens is placed is air, i.e. n1 = 1,

!
1 1 1 1
− = (n − 1) − (2.26)
v u R1 R2
32CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

• When the object is placed at infinity u = ∞, the image will be formed at the focus, i.e. v = f ,
so
!
1 1 1
= (n − 1) − (2.27)
f R1 R2

• The lens’ focal length depends upon the refractive index of the material of the lens and the
radii of curvatures of the two surfaces.
• Lens manufacturers commonly use the lens maker formula for manufacturing lenses of the
desired focal length.

Exercise
Derive the lens maker formula using the concave lens shown in Fig. ??.

2.2.7 Thick lens formula

• We have extensively discussed image formation using thin lenses, but most optical systems
require thick lenses.
• When the thickness of a lens cannot be considered small compared with its focal length, then
it is a thick lens, and some thin lens formulas discussed earlier no longer apply.
• A thick lens can be either a single homogeneous lens with two spherical surfaces separated by
a large distance (compared with the focal length) or a system of several coaxial component
surfaces that may or may not be in contact.
• In thick lenses, each surface acts as an image forming component which contributes to the
final image formed by the system as a whole.
• For thick lenses, optical distances such as the focal length, object and image distances, etc. are
measured with respect to two hypothetical planes called the principal planes, or specifically
principal points, in a lens system wherein all the refraction can be considered to happen (see
Fig. ??).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.15: Principal planes H1 and H2 in (a) and geometry used to derive thick lens formula in
(b).

• By definition, principal planes are planes having unit positive lateral magnification.
• Consequently, the effective focal length for a thick lens with respect to the principal planes is
given by " #
1 1 1 (n − 1)d
P = = (n − 1) − + , (2.28)
f R1 R2 nR1 R2
2.2. REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES: LENSES 33

and the distances from the lens vertices to the principal points are

f (n − 1)d
h1 = − and
nR2
f (n − 1)d
h2 = −
nR1

• Eq. ?? (thick lens formula) can be derived using Figure ??. Like was the case in Section ??
while deriving the Lens maker formula ??, the first surface creates an image which acts as an
object for the second surface.

nm nl nl − nm
+ = (2.29)
so1 si1 R1
nl nm nm − nl
+ = (2.30)
so2 si2 R2

But s02 = d − si1 , so Eq. ?? becomes

nl nm nm − nl
+ = (2.31)
d − si1 si2 R2

Adding Eq. ?? and ?? gives

" #
nm nm 1 1 nl d
+ = (nl − nm ) − + (2.32)
so1 si2 R1 R2 (si1 − d)si1

since 1/so + 1/si = 1/f , so that

" #
1 1 1 (nl − 1)d
P = = (nl − 1) − + (2.33)
f R1 R2 nl R1 R2

The distances from the vertices to the principal points are

f (nl − 1)d
x1 = − (2.34)
nl R2
f (nl − 1)d
x2 = − (2.35)
nl R1

• Similarly, other cardinal points, e.g. the first and the second focal points, F1 and F2 , can be
determined using
" #
(n − 1)
F1 = −f 1 + (2.36)
nR2
" #
(n − 1)
F2 = +f 1 − (2.37)
nR1

• Eq. ?? alone is not enough to give a complete description of the final image formed by a thick
lens.
34CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

• Consider a thick lens in Fig. ??. The first surface has cardinal points: primary and secondary
0 0 00
focal points F1 and F1 and centre of curvature C1 , while F2 and F2 , and C2 belong to the
second surface.

Figure 2.16: Ray-tracing in thick lens.

• Any of the two rays from the object O (i.e. rays 1, 3, 5) interacting with the first surface in
0 0
(a) will form a real image M Q , which in turn becomes the object for the second surface.
0
• In (b) rays 8 and 9 are drawn from Q towards C2 and the centre of the second surface, while
00
ray 5 which is parallel to the axis gets refracted along ray 7 through the focal point F2 of the
00
second surface. The intersection of these rays (7 and 8) locates the final image point Q , that
00 00
is M Q .
• We can use the lens formula to determine the location of the final image (see example below).
Example
An 2 cm thick equiconvex lens with radii of 2 cm is placed in a water tank. An object in
air is placed on the axis at 5 cm from the lens’ vertex. Find the position of the final image
assuming nair = 1.00, nwater = 1.33, and nlens = 1.50.

Solution
Using Eqns. ?? the image formed by the first surface is at
1.00 1.50 1.50 − 1.00
+ =
5 si1 2
=⇒ si1 = +30 cm
For a second surface we note that the image made by the first surface is now the object, so
that s02 = d − si1 = 2 − 30 = −28 cm, it must be negative because it is a virtual object,
i.e. sitting on the right of the lens. Note also that by conventions R2 is negative since it is
measured to the left. We can use Eq. ?? as follows
1.50 1.33 1.33 − 1.50
+ =
2 − 30 si2 −2
=⇒ si2 = +9.6 cm

• The final image is formed in water at a distance +9.6 cm from the vertex of the second surface.
That this image distance is positive signifies that the image is real.
• Remember the sign conventions of the object and image distances with reference to the two
surfaces while performing these kinds of calculations.
• In summary, in order to trace any ray through a thick lens, the positions of the focal points
and principal points must first be determined.
2.2. REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES: LENSES 35

2.2.8 Variation of f of thick biconvex lens

• Consider a biconvex lens (double convex in Fig. ??) with R1 = +r1 and R2 = −r1 , where
r1 , r2 > 0, Eq. ?? becomes
" #
1 1 1 (n − 1)d
= (n − 1) + − (2.38)
f r1 r2 nr1 r2

For thin lens, i.e. d = 0, the focal length f0 can be obtained as

" #
1 1 1
= (n − 1) + , (2.39)
f0 r1 r2

which when substituted in Eq. ?? gives,

1 1 (n − 1)2 d
= − (2.40)
f f0 nr1 r2

Eq ?? tells us that as thickness of the lens increases, so does its focal length, hence the
ratio 1/f decreases, approaching zero. In other words, the power of the lens decreases with
increasing thickness, i.e. with increasing f .
• If thickness of the biconvex (converging) lens continue to increase, at some point the ratio
1/f will equal zero, and beyond that the lens becomes a concave (diverging lens). The critical
thickness dc where this transition occurs can be obtained from Eq. ?? as
" #
1 1 1 (n − 1)dc
= (n − 1) + − =0
f r1 r2 nr1 r2
1 1 (n − 1)dc
+ − =0
r1 r2 nr1 r2
(n − 1)dc 1 1
= +
nr1 r2 r1 r2
n
dc = (r1 + r2 ) (2.41)
(n − 1)

if r1 = r2 = r, then
n
dc = 2r (2.42)
(n − 1)

2.2.9 Power of a thick lens

" #
1 1 1 (nl − 1)d
P = = (nl − 1) − +
f R1 R2 nl R1 R2
nl − 1 nl − 1 (nl − 1)2 d
= − +
R1 R2 nl R1 R2
d
∴ P = P1 + P 2 − P1 P 2 (2.43)
nl

where P1 = (nl − 1)/R1 and P2 = −(nl − 1)/R2

36CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

2.2.10 Optical Instruments

• The design of efficient optical instruments is the ultimate purpose of the this course; geometrical
and wave optics.
• The principles governing image formation by lenses, or combination of lenses, mirrors and
prisms have wide application in optical instruments, such as the cameras, magnifying glass,
microscope, telescope and oculars.
• Other applications of geometrical optics includes use of lenses to solve the problem of nearsightedness
2.2. REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES: LENSES 37

2. Single-lens systems, e.g. a magnifying glass,

– relies on the angular size of the object subtended by the eye’s field of vision. In
essence what the eye perceives as the size of an object is simply the angle the object
subtends in the field of the eye’s vision.

Figure 2.19: Angular size.

– Therefore, to increase size of the object, it must be brought closer to the eye. But
there is a limit to how close the object can be brought closer to the eye (known as
near-point distance). Beyond this limit, the eye can no longer focus to create a sharp
image on the retina.
– This distance is equal to 25 cm for a normal eye. It increases with the age and is
about 50 cm at age 40 and to 500 cm or greater at age 60.
– On the contrary, the farthest distance a normal eye can see an object is called the
far-point distance and is at infinity for a normal eye. Therefore, a person with normal
eye can see very distant objects like moon.
– A magnifying glass is a converging lens which creates an image of the object very
close to the eye at near-point distance so that the image seen may be seen sharp.
– As shown in Fig. ??, if the height of the object is y, its angular size in the small-angle
approximation is nearly the same as the tangent of the angle, i.e.
y
θ= , (2.44)
p
But the eye is most relaxed when it is focused at infinity, hence the image formed
by the glass should be as far away as possible, which means p ≈ f , thus Eq. ?? can
be written as
y
θ= , (2.45)
f
which is also the angular size of the image.

Figure 2.20: Image formation by a magnifying glass.

– With the naked eye, the object at near point distance dy , the angular size would be
0 y
θ = , (2.46)
dy
38CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

so that the angular magnification of the magnifying glass is

θ y dy
mθ = 0 = y = . (2.47)
θ f× dy
f

– This means that the magnifying glass should have small focal length compared to
near-point distance dy . Typically, dy is estimated to be ≈ 25 cm.
3. Compound optical systems
– Many useful instruments consist of two or more lenses aligned on a common axis.
The same ray-tracing techniques, and the same thin-lens formulas may be applied,
bearing in mind that the image formed by the first lens becomes an object for the
second lens, etc. See example in figure ??.

Figure 2.21: A two-lens system.

0
– The image distance i by the first lens L1 is given by
1 1 1
+ 0 = , (2.48)
p i f1
0 0
and as the object distance for the second lens L2 , its distance will be p = L − i .
Hence the final image is formed at a distance i from the second lens, L2 , and can be
calculated using
1 1 1
0 + = . (2.49)
L−i i f2
0
Eliminating i , we end up with the equation
1 1 1 1 1
+ + = + , (2.50)
p i L f1 f2
an equation that relates p, i, f1 , and f2 .
(a) The telescope:
– A telescope is an optical device which provides angular magnification of very
distant objects so that we see them clearly.
– The two types of telescopes include:
1. the refracting; astronomical and terrestrial telescopes, and
2. the reflecting telescope.
2.2. REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES: LENSES 39

– A telescope generally consists of two elements; the objective and the eyepiece,
or ocular.

(a) A refracting telescope. (b) A spyglass.

Figure 2.22

– In Figure ??, the objective of the telescope forms the image of the object at an
image distance equal to its focal length. The eyepiece is set up so that its focal
point practically coincides with that of the objective, so that the intermediate
image will form an image at infinity as shown.
– Because the focal length of the eyepiece is smaller, the angular size of the final
image is larger than the angular size of the object.
0
– The magnification is given by mθ = θ /θ, and from Figure ??, the angle

h
θ = tan ]BAD ≈ ]BAD = , (2.51)
f0

where fo is the focal length of the objective, and h is the height of the image
formed by the objective, and

0 h
θ = tan ]BCD ≈ ]BCD = − , (2.52)
fe

where fe is the focal length of the eyepiece. Therefore the angular magnification
will be 0
θ fo
mθ = =− . (2.53)
θ fe

– The spyglass or terrestrial telescope is the type of telescope that uses the diverging
lens, hence produces the upright image.

2.2.11 Aberrations
• Aberrations in the image are deviations from the object in terms of shape, orientation and
colour, etc.
• Aberrations are not caused by faulty construction of lens or impurities in lens material but
an inherent short coming arising due to the failure of the lens to behave precisely according
to the formula derived.
• Generally, aberrations are in 2 categories:
40CHAPTER 2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION ON CURVED OR SPHERICAL SURFACES

1. Chromatic aberrations: These are defects produced due to variation of the refractive
index, wavelength, or dispersion of light (i.e. object illuminated by white light). These
include:
(a) Longitudinal or axial chromatic aberrations, and
(b) Lateral or transverse chromatic aberrations.

Figure 2.23

2. Monochromatic aberrations: are image defects due to wide angle of incidence and peripheral
incidence (or due to marginal ray), even if object is illuminated with monochromatic light.
Chapter 3

Wave optics

3.1 Interference
Refer to class notes.

3.2 Diffraction
• Interference occurs when two or more coherent light beams resulting either from division of
wavefront or division of amplitude meet each other.
• When interference occurs due to the effect of secondary wavelets from the same wavefront or
from a single aperture, the process is called diffraction.
• In general diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an
obstacle, e.g. when light passes through a slit or aperture, it spreads out.
• The consequence of this is that when an object is in the way of a ray of light the shadow cast
has a blend of dark and bright fringes near the edges.

(a) Diffraction. (b) Diffraction

patterns.

Figure 3.1

• Decreasing the size of the aperture makes the fringes more distinct. That is, as the size of
the aperture becomes comparable to the wavelength of incident light the fringes broadens and
begin to cover the entire region of the shadow, such that bright and dark fringes are now seen
on the screen instead of a sharp image (see Fig. ??).
• With a small aperture light bends around the corners of the obstacle (or object), whereas if
it is much bigger than the wavelength of light used then bending is minimal.

41
42 CHAPTER 3. WAVE OPTICS

• Thus, the amount of light bending around the corners of the object depends on the relative
size of the wavelength of light to the size of the aperture opening.
• In everyday life, the effects of diffraction are seen, for example, on a CD or DVD, colourful
patterns around a bright source of light, or the spread of colours in a rainbow,etc.

3.2.1 Differences between interference and diffraction

1. Interference occurs between two separate wavefronts originating from two coherent sources
while in the phenomenon of diffraction the interference occurs between the secondary
wavelets originating from different points of the exposed part of the same wavefront.
2. In interference patterns all maxima points are of the same intensity but in diffraction
patterns the intensity of the central maximum point is the largest and the intensity goes
on decreasing as you move away from the centre (see Fig. ??).
3. The minima are perfectly dark in interference but not so in diffraction patterns.
4. The interference fringes or rings are usually equally spaced while the diffraction fringes
or rings are never equally spaced.

3.2.2 Fresnel and Fraunhofer classes of diffraction

Diffraction is classified into Fresnel (or near-field) and Fraunhofer (far-field) diffraction. The
differences between these types of diffraction are:

3.2.3 Fresnel’s half period zones

– According to Huygens principle, each point on a wavefront acts as a source of secondary
disturbance. When a wavefront is incident on a slit, most of it is obstructed by the
slit and the small portion of it that passes through the slit is equivalent to a string of
coherent point sources.
– Thus, the intensity at any point on the screen may be obtained by suitably summing up
the intensities of wavelets originating from the point sources at the slit and superposing
at a point point on the screen. Therefore, diffraction patterns are formed at the screen
due to the interference of secondary wavelets.
3.3. POLARIZATION 43

– Since the coherent sources are located at different distances from any point of reference
on the screen, the waves reach that point with different phases
Read the summary in the handout PHY2712 Lecture Notes B.pdf

3.3 Polarization
Read the summary in the handout PHY2712 Lecture Notes B.pdf