Kattel and Sapkota Agric & Food Secur (2018)

7:61
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0213-1
Agriculture & Food
Security

RESEARCH Open Access

Brain drain of agriculture and veterinary

graduates to abroad: evidence from Nepal
Rishi Ram Kattel1 and Mahesh Sapkota2*

Abstract
Background: Though the migration of skilled manpower is common all over the world, it has created serious prob- lem and
huge loss to least developed countries like Nepal. Most of the skilled manpowers are attracted toward devel- oped countries
through better incentives, scholarships and better services and facilities. Although remittance has significant and high contribution
to national gross domestic product but in long term, it reduces human welfare and economic growth of the nation. Nowadays,
migration of agriculture and veterinary graduates is increasing day by day resulting in scarcity of skilled manpower in this sector.
This paper aimed to assess the magnitude and determinants of the brain drain of Nepali agriculture and veterinary graduates to
abroad, showing that brain drain (or high-skill migra- tion) is becoming dominant pattern of international migration and a major
aspect of globalization.
Methods: Web-based structural survey questionnaire was used to assess push and pull factors to migrate abroad and factors
determination among already brain drained respondents and students those studying agriculture
and veterinary in Nepal. The total of 450 samples were obtained from online survey as well as few face-to face interviews in July
2015. Descriptive analysis and Logit model were used to derive necessary inferences using Stata software.
Results: The study revealed that about 52% of students intend to go abroad, either to pursue higher study or for bet- ter job
opportunities and better livelihood. Poor higher education system in Nepal (42.7%), socioeconomic condition (29.8%) and desire
to go abroad (25%) were major push factors toward brain drain, whereas high income and better living standard (29.7%), better
job and working environment (25.6%), family future security (17.4%), personal freedom (9.9%) and political stability in abroad
(10.7%) were found major pulling factors of skilled manpower to abroad from Nepal. Logit model revealed that the age of
respondent and household member migration to abroad were positive and significant determining factors for brain drain,
whereas total household income has negative impact on brain drain controlling other socioeconomic variables.
Conclusion: This study identified that majority of the students studying agriculture and veterinary sciences in Nepal are willing
to go abroad either for better higher education or for better living standard and job opportunities. This suggests that brain drain is
individual feature in least developed country like Nepal and government should formulate better policy to control brain drain
considering all consequences that can hamper economic growth of the country.
Keywords: Agriculture and veterinary graduates, Brain drain, Logit, Nepal

*Correspondence: sapkotamahes@gmail.com
2
Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development,
Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s) 2018. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
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changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/)
applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
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Introduction in long term, it reduces the human welfare and

The migration of skilled manpower from least developed economic growth in the least developed countries. A
countries to developed countries is a global similar threat is felt in Nepal. The problem of brain
phenomenon and this has helped developed countries to drain in agriculture and veterinary graduates is
be more sta- ble and prosperous, whereas least prominent. Many of the grad- uates migrate abroad for
developed countries are losing their pillars for the further study but they do not return to their home
development of the nation. Most of the people migrate country which has created severe brain drain problem
from poor and least devel- oped countries to rich and in Nepal. The status of skilled brain drain has brought
developed countries those are advanced in negative growth effects due to loss of productive
industrialization and mechanization. Edu- cated skilled resources from the country. Many graduates go abroad
graduates are attracted toward developed countries in and learn new, high and improved technolo- gies who
the form of incentives, scholarships, better living can contribute directly for the economic devel- opment
standard and political stability, better job opportu- of their country. Some emigrants are using the
nities, etc. It is generally argued that this outflow is knowledge and skills gained in abroad to uplift the
com- pensated through remittances and brain local economic situation and for better living standard
circulation. But this has created a lack of educated and in their own country.
skilled graduates in the respective field which has created a Nepal is at transitional phase due to recent change in
huge gap in the economic development of the country. government structure to federal democratic republican
Brain drain refers to the migration of skilled and country. The development of the country is handicapped
educated labor, rooted precariously in the least by high political instability (10 prime ministers in a time
developed and developing coun- tries since many years. period of one decade, 2008–2018) and lack of good gov-
The causes of brain drain can be well justified by pull and ernance resulting in higher outmigration for study and
push factors like unemployment, liberty, topographical employment opportunities. This has also hindered inno-
challenge, salary and better oppor- tunities [1]. The vation, and country is forced toward remittance-based
development of any country is based on the development model. Nepal is at an early stage of brain
development of the industrial sector. The shortage of a drain, so government should focus and bring attractive
qualified skilled worker in the country slows the pace strategy to reduce emigration and should create a better
of development. The various pull factors of developed environment to attract the migrant skilled manpower.
countries are attracting a number of skilled manpower According to the Department of Foreign Employment,
from developing countries. The imbalance in about 1200 Nepali per day go to abroad in search of bet-
population and economic growth has resulted in ter opportunities. The rate of migration of students to the
migration. This has created good source of skilled United States of America (USA) and Australia is increas-
manpower for developed countries and situation of ing day by day at a rapid rate. According to the Insti-
underemployment and scarce of the educated tute for International Education in New York, there was
population (skilled manpower) in LDCs and increase in Nepali students in the USA by 27.9% in the
developing countries. year 2006–2007 and total students has reached to 7754.
Nepal is also exporting substantial human capital either Nepal is at 13th position as compared to the 23rd posi-
in the form of labor or in the form of skilled manpower. tion in 2004 in case of a number of students studying in
About more than thousand youths migrate abroad spe- the USA. About NRs. 54 billion is spent during 1997–
cially gulf countries and then European and American 2000 for studying in abroad. Similarly, the figure was
countries for various purposes. The remittance is double in the year 1990–2005 spending more than NRs.
becom- ing the major source of the national economy 30 billion annually to study in countries other than India
contribut- ing around 28% to national GDP [2]. Better
(http://nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=15211#.V4IVP
education opportunities and better facilities at abroad
fl97IU).
are major pull factors for the migration from Nepal. In Nepal, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science
Migration have positive effects such as inflow of huge (IAAS) under Tribhuvan University (TU) was established
money and trans- fer of technology. But, larger in 1972 which provides higher education up to Ph.D. level
migration of skilled and educated people has created in agriculture and veterinary field. To address the cur-
scarcity of skilled human resources in the country. rent demand and to ensure quality education, the Agri-
Economic growth rate and existing situation of the culture and Forestry University (AFU) was established
country is crucial and has high influence on the in 2010. Similarly, there is an increase in private
migration rate of graduates and skilled manpower. colleges nowadays to provide agriculture education to
High emigration has helped in reducing the poverty due students. There is a large number of graduate students
to high remittance flow inside the country. The increase per year in the field of agriculture and veterinary but
in remittances has reduced the poverty from 49 to 25% the country is
in Nepal [3]. Although remittance, skills and
entrepreneurship have brought economic benefits,
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facing lack of technical manpower in agriculture field.

Iravani [10] conducted research in Iran using cen-
It is only because of high emigration to abroad for
sus data from United Nation Institute for training and
higher study and in search of better opportunities and
research. T-Psycho social problem, economic and political
not returning to their home country [4]. About 250
instability were the major factors affecting the brain drain.
agricul- ture graduates, 70 veterinarians and 80 forestry
The educated people being at the state of
graduates are produced annually but more than 30% of
unemployment was found as a major alarming problem
them go to abroad in search of better opportunities [5].
in many coun- tries like Pakistan, Iran, Nigeria, South
In Nepal, the ratio of technician to farmers is 1:1500,
Korea, Philippines, Columbia, China and India. Iravani
whereas the ratio in developed countries is 1:400 [6].
concluded that the major reasons of brain drain were
Nepal government is investing huge amount of money
less employment gen- eration, inappropriate job
in agriculture and vet- erinary sector to produce skilled
according to job qualification, over production and lack
manpower in this sec- tor. Most of them study under
of experience to compete in those jobs which require high
government scholarship schemes and very few from the
efficiency, training and aca- demic excellence. It
private sector. The eco- nomic cost of migrated
identified that the problem of brain drain can be
students is in billion, and a large share is from
reduced by providing job to their expertise field so that
agricultural graduates. There is no such study in Nepal
they can prove their capabilities.
to identify the causes of brain drain. The government
Simon Commander [11] analyzed analytical and
has not succeeded to bring the appropriate policy to
empirical literature and concluded that the brain drain
minimize the problem of brain drain. This study helps the
of skilled manpower from the country is most
government sector as well as other stakehold- ers for
detrimental for the development of the country.
future research and policy dialogue to stop the
Gouda et al. [12] in a survey of Irish medical students
increasing trend of brain drain to abroad.
going abroad after graduation or before internship
The study was conducted based on the following
revealed better career scope (85%), unfavorable working
objectives:
situation (83%), better lifestyle (80%), handsome salary
(65%) and training standard (60%) were the major factors
1. to investigate tfle perceived influencing factors
influencing brain drain in country. Oyelere [13] stated
toward brain drain among Nepali agriculture and
that the brain drain from health sector is an emerging
veterinary graduates
issue. The study revealed that the cost involved to edu-
2. to identify tfle determinants of brain drain of agricul-
cate individual from primary level up to medical doc-
ture and veterinary graduates
tor was around US$ 66,000 and loss was US$ 517,931
3. to suggest remedial measures to minimize brain
worth from investment who migrates. The total cost of
drain
educating a nurse in Kenya was about US$ 43,000, and
if migrates then loss incurred was about US$ 338,868
Literature review
worth of returns from investment. This data of Kenya
There is high emigration towards the country where there
showed a huge loss to any country when there is a migra-
is more and better career opportunities, high remunera-
tion of skilled manpower and has attracted the attention
tion and high civil liberties [7]. In Zimbabwe, number
of government to reduce this problem.
of skilled manpower migrating to abroad is increasing,
Johnson [14] stated that low economic status and poor
and mainly the health and teaching professions were
countries face difficulty to compete globally and difficult
most affected due to brain drain [8]. The major causes
to retain skilled manpower. Riano [15] studied about
behind brain drain were due to work-related factors
the labor market situation of women and most of the
(low sal- ary in the country) followed by to attend
respondents responded that they were insecure in the
higher educa- tion, whereas majority of the respondents
labor market. The majority of skilled migrant women
(62.5%) stated that they were willing to return to their
faced problems of loss of their capabilities (about 50%
country and 25% were not sure that they would return
respondents were not having appropriate job as per their
or not. There were more young and old-aged groups
qualifications), confidence and lack of freedom to work
who showed interest to return to their country. Tansel
independently. Therefore, the majority of the women
and Gungor [9] con- cluded that 25% of the
felt no improvement due to migration, and they found
respondents preferred abroad study for prestige and
the loss in their social status. In case of migrant skilled
facilities associated at abroad. In Turkey, main reason
women, they were not awarded with high professional
for brain drain was unavailability of sophisticated
status, especially to those from countries other than EU.
laboratory and equipment/tools. Migrants from Turkey
Skilled migrant women had to do any sort of job available
were not willing to return to their coun- try because of
as it was very difficult to find the job according to their
economic crisis, lack of employment and political
qualifications.
instability.
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Research methodology
migrated to abroad plus plan to go abroad (Y3 = 1). The
The respondents in this survey were confined to the
dependent variable in Logit model has a binary response,
Nepali agriculture and veterinary students and gradu-
Yi = 1 if migration = yes, otherwise 0. Socioeconomic,
ates from Nepal and abroad. The collection of data was
demographic and institutional variables were used as
done by internet survey using survey face online survey
explanatory variables in the model to measure the prob-
questionnaire (www.surveyface.com) and few by direct
ability of a decision to migrate abroad.
face-to-face interview. The questionnaire was prepared
The Logit model was based on the following economet-
online using survey face web page. The semi-structured
ric expression:
questionnaire consisted of section of demographic infor-
mation, level of education received, source of income, Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 + β5X5
further career-related intentions and some variables + β6X6 + β7X7 + β8X8 + ei
related to push and pull factors.
where Y is the dependent variable having a binary
The web address containing questionnaire was dissemi-
response. Y = 1 if migrated to abroad, otherwise 0.
nated to agriculture and veterinary graduates staying at
β0 = Constant term, X1 = Age of respondent, X2 =
Nepal and at abroad via email, Facebook messenger, post
Gender of respondent, X3 = Household size, X4 =
on the wall of agriculture-related common groups in
Marital status, X5 = Occupation of household head, X6
Facebook. In order to avoid duplication of filling form,
= Education of mother, X7 = Annual household
respondents were requested not to fill twice at the time
income, X8 = Migration status from household, e = Error
of sending questionnaire link. Email addresses of
term, β1…β8 are the regression coefficients to be
potential respondents working at I/NGOs were collected via
estimated.
phone calls and Facebook messenger. The email addresses,
stud- ying and staying at abroad were collected via
individual contact and alumni pages on Facebook. Few
Results and discussion
direct face– face interview was done with the students
Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents
of Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS)
The total sample size was 450 and there were some miss-
and Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU) at Rampur,
ing data in some of the variables. Therefore, the sample
Chitwan. Dur- ing face-to-face interview, to avoid
size varies to the variables described here in this sec-
duplication, the con- firmation was made that they had
tion. With respect to gender, there was missing data
not participated in the survey by any means. This collected
on about 55 samples. Thus, out of 395 respondents in
sample through face- to-face interview was entered in
the variable gender, majority of the respondents were
Microsoft Excel.
male (63%) followed by female (37%). This reflects the
The data collection was started from mid-July 2015
fact that population of male students is greater than
and ended on August 2015. It took about one and half
female in agriculture and veterinary sciences in the pre-
months to collect responses. Altogether there were 450
sent context. Similarly, most of the respondents were
samples via online and purposive random sampling.
unmarried, i.e., about 70.7% as majority of the respond-
The responses with incomplete information were sort
ents were below 30 years of age. There is good linkage
out and removed. Therefore, the number of samples
and connection of students studying bachelor degree
varies in different variables in the result section. During
at Nepal with students studying at abroad which make
data collection, it was difficult to collect responses
ease to go abroad and go at early age. The age-group of
from the respondents who were abroad. It might be due
respondents was classified under four age-groups as less
to the word ‘brain drain’ used for them. They found the
than 20, 21–30, 31–40 and over 40 years. The major-
word ‘brain drain’ abusive for them. Microsoft Excel,
ity of respondents were between 21 and 30 years of age
Statisti- cal Packages for Social Science (SPSS) and
(75.3%) followed by 31–40 years of age (13.9%). Up to
Stata soft- ware were used to analyze the data.
bachelor degree, it is 17 years of schooling in Nepal, so
Descriptive analysis and Logit model to assess factors
most of them fall under the age-group of 21–30 years.
influencing migration of agriculture and veterinary
The majority of respondents (78.5%) did not have any of
graduates to abroad were analyzed.
the family members at abroad. This might be due to poor
The decision of migration to abroad for higher study
and better job opportunities was estimated using Logit access and socioeconomic condition of the respondent’s
model to derive the determinants of brain drain (Yi = household. About 21.5% of the respondents households
have at least one family member abroad either for work
1). Logit model was used in three cases, already
or for education in gulf countries, European countries,
migrated to abroad (Y1 = 1), plan to go abroad (Y2 =
1) and already USA and Australia (Table 1).
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Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics

Table 2 Plan after graduation, knowledge
of the respondents. Source: Online and field survey,
about the consequences and control of brain drain Source:
2015
Online and field survey, 2015
Variables Frequency Percent Variables Frequency Percent
Gender of respondent: (n = 395) Plan after graduation of agriculture and veterinary studying students:
Male 249 63 (n = 266)
Female 146 37 Stay in Nepal 128 48.1
Marital status of respondent: (n = 393) Pursue abroad study 138 51.9
Unmarried 278 70.7 Know consequences of brain drain: (n = 341)
Married 115 29.3 Yes 326 95.6
Age category of respondent: (n = 396) No 15 4.4
Less than 20 years 39 9.8 Could brain drain be controlled: (n = 379)
21–30 years 295 75.3 Yes 314 82.8
31–40 years 55 13.9 No 65 17.2
Above 40 years 7 1
Migration status of family member to abroad: (n = 390)
Yes 84 21.5 Push and pull factors for brain drain of agriculture
No 306 78.5 and veterinary graduates
To determine the push factor, the factors were classified
into four categories such as poor higher education system
Plan after graduation and knowledge of the country, socioeconomic situation, desire of the indi-
about the consequences and control of brain drain vidual to go abroad and others. The responses were col-
Among the students currently pursuing bachelor degree lected in these factors, and it was found that about 43%
education in agriculture institutions, 51.9% of students of the respondents responded that the major push factor
intend to go abroad for further study and grab better job for the brain drain was due to the poor higher education
opportunities and better livelihood. Similarly, 48.1% stu- system of the country. Similarly, about 30, 25 and 2% of
dents intend to stay at Nepal with an aim to pursue their the respondents responded on the socioeconomic situ-
careers in the different service sectors (GOs, I/NGOs, ation, desire of the individual to go abroad and other fac-
etc.) or run own business. This revealed that the major- tors, respectively (Fig. 1). The study revealed that the poor
ity of the student studying either agriculture or veterinary higher education system of the country was the major fac-
would like to go abroad. tor for brain drain of agriculture and veterinary students
Out of the total 341 respondents, almost all (95.6%) from the country.
were aware of the consequences of brain drain to the To determine the pull factors, the factors were classified
society and country and 4.4% were unaware about the into five categories such as high income and living standard,
consequences of brain drain. This might be due to access better job and working environment, family future
of most of respondents to the media via different means secu- rity, personal freedom and political stability. In
like newspapers, web, television and various sources. This this study, about 30% of the respondents responded high
might be attributed to the education level of respondent income and better living standard as the major pull
(Table 2). factor to attract agriculture and veterinary students to
The results showed that most of the respondents abroad (Fig. 2). Simi- larly, about 26% of the respondents
(82.8%) agreed or believed that brain drain could be con- responded better job and working environment whereas
trolled through an improvement in the education 17% responded family future security as major pull
system in the country, availability of better job factors. The other pull factors such as personal freedom,
opportunities and better livelihood options and political stability and other fac- tors accounted for about
improved socio-polit- ical situation in the country as 10, 11 and 7%, respectively. The study revealed that
shown in Table 2. About 17% of the respondents were higher income and better living stand- ard at abroad were
not optimistic about that brain drain could be controlled the major pulling factors for brain drain among Nepali
owing to the globaliza- tion, better opportunities and agriculture and veterinary students.
stable situations at abroad.
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Econometric results: factors affecting brain drain

Push factors for the brain drain to abroad
(Source: Online and field survey, 2015) to abroad
45 42.74 Description of the variables
40 Table 3 presents description of the variables used in
35
29.84 Logit model. The average age (AGE) of the respondents
30 25
was found to be 25.47 years and the average age of brain
Percent

25
20 drained respondents to abroad was higher (28.24 year)
15 as compared to non-brain drain of the agriculture and
10
5 2.42 veterinary respondents (25.14 year). The age difference
0 between brain drain and non-brain drain respondents
Poor education Socio-economic Desire to abroad Other
situation
was found statistically significant at 1% level. Similarly,
Fig. 1 Percentage of different push factors for the brain drain to altogether there were about 63% male respondents in
abroad this study (GENDER) which accounts 69 and 62% male
respondents in brain drain and non-brain drain agri-
culture and veterinary students, respectively. The aver-
age household size (HHSIZE) of the respondents was

Pulling factors for the brain drain to

abroad (Source: Online and field survey,
35.00
2015)
29.75
30.00
25.62
25.00
20.00 17.36
Percent

15.00
9.92 10.74
10.00 6.61
5.00
0.00
high income better job and Family future personal political others
and living workong env. security stability
standard freedom
Fig. 2 Percentage of different pull factors for brain drain to abroad

Table 3 Description of the variables used in Logit model

Variables Description Observation Overall Brain
Non-brain Mean difference
drain
drain
(n =
(n = 358)
43)

AGE Age of respondent (year) 394 25.47 28.28 25.14 3.14***

GENDER Gender of the respondent (male = 1, otherwise 0) 392 0.63 0.69 0.62 0.07
HHSIZE Total family member in household 400 5.38 5.25 5.40 — 0.15
MARITAL Marital status of the respondent (married = 1, otherwise 0) 392 0.29 0.51 0.26 0.25***
OCCUPATION Major occupation of the household head (agriculture = 1, 401 0.31 0.30 0.32 — 0.02
otherwise 0)
EDU_MOTHER Mother’s education (literate = 1, otherwise 0) 401 0.85 0.86 0.84 0.02
INCOME_HH Total annual HH Income (NRs.) (natural log transformation) 379 10.63 10.78 10.61 0.17
MIGRATION_HH Family member’s migration status (migrated = 1, otherwise 381 0.22 0.42 0.19 0.23***
0)
Mean difference is based on t statistics
***p ≤ 0.01
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found 5.38 members. In case of marital status of the

other hand, it might be due to farmers’ enforcing their
respondents (MARITAL), 29% were married which was
educated children to work in Nepal and do believe that
found higher among brain drain respondents (51%) as
could raise their social status in the society. Therefore,
compared to non-brain drain respondents (26%) and
the probability to plan abroad by such HH decreases.
the difference was statistically significant at 1% level.
Similarly, for those HH who had any of the family mem-
About 31% respondents’ household head occupation
ber migrated to abroad, the probability of agriculture and
(OCCUPATION) was found agriculture, whereas 85%
veterinary graduates to plan abroad increases by about
respondents’ mothers were found literate in education
15% and it was found statistically significant at 10% level.
(EDU_MOTHER). In case of out migration of household
It might be due to ease in abroad processing, mentality
member to abroad for better job opportunity (MIGRA-
to go abroad and some push and pull factors as shown in
TION_HH), 22% were migrated to abroad which was
Figs. 1 and 2.
found higher among brain drain respondents (42%) as
Case III (Model 3): Already migrated to abroad plus
compared to non-brain drain (19%) and found statisti-
plan to go abroad (Yes = 1) as a dependent variable:
cally significant at 1% level. With respect to total annual
Age of respondent, household income and migration
household income (INCOME_HH), the differences in
status of the household were found statistically signifi-
household (HH) income among brain drain and non-
cant variables to determine brain drain of agriculture and
brain drain respondents were statistically nonsignificant.
veterinary graduates staying at abroad and planning to go
abroad. Visualizing the marginal effect of statistically sig-
Determination of brain drain factors using Logit model
nificant explanatory variables, it was found that increase
Logit model was used to determine the factors affect-
in the age of respondent by 1 year, the probability of
ing brain drain of agriculture and veterinary graduates.
brain drain to abroad would increase by about 2% which
Logit model was used for three different cases. Those
was found statistically significant at 10% level. Similarly,
who are already migrated to abroad (Brain drain = 1),
for those HH who has any family member migrated
plan to go abroad after graduation (Yes = 1) and already
to abroad, the probability of brain drain to abroad was
migrated respondents plus willing to go abroad (Yes = 1) increased by about 13% and it was statistically significant
were taken as dependent variables in Logit model. The at 1% level. Similarly, increase in total household income
explanatory variables used in these models are described
by 1%, the probability of brain drain would decrease by
in Table 3.
about 0.02% and it was found statistically significant
Case I (Model 1): Already migrated to abroad (Yes = 1)
at 10% level. Whereas other variables such as gender,
as a dependent variable:
marital status of the respondent and mother’s education
The results showed that age of the agriculture gradu-
influence positively to brain drain but were found statis-
ate (AGE), family members’ migration status (MIGRA-
tically nonsignificant, however, agricultural occupation
TION_HH) were major factors for determining brain
of household head had negative coefficient but it was
drain. For those HH who had migrated member to
also statistically nonsignificant (Table 4). The findings
abroad, the probability of brain drain increases by about
revealed that brain drain to abroad among agriculture
12% and was statistically significant at 1% level. The
and veterinary graduates from Nepal are individual char-
result revealed that increase in age of the respondents by 1
acteristic with household features.
year, the probability of brain drain increases by about
0.5% and was found statistically significant at 10% level.
Conclusion
Case II (Model 2): Plan to go abroad after graduation
From this study, we concluded that brain drain is
(Yes = 1) as a dependent variable:
becom- ing serious issue in agriculture and veterinary
In this case, occupation of household head (HHH)
sector as more than half of the students from this sector
and migration status of HH were the major factor
intends to go abroad. This situation leads to heavy loss
influencing toward brain drain of agriculture and
in invest- ment for production of graduates in this
veterinary gradu- ates. With respect to occupation, if
sector. Realiz- ing the push and pull factors for brain
the occupation of HHH was agriculture, then the
drain, government should focus on developing plans to
probability to plan to go abroad decreases by about
retain graduates in the country by creating suitable job
15% and it was found statisti- cally significant at 10%
opportunities and better facilities. Capable and skilled
level. It might be due to the fact that the majority of
manpower are the pillars of rapid economic growth and
farmers in Nepal are poor and receive low return from
development of the country.
agricultural production. The Visa pro- cessing charge
Focusing on agriculture and veterinary graduates,
and other expenses to go abroad are also high, and they
education system should be made strong. Being techni-
are unable to afford this high charge by the HH having
cal field, well-equipped research laboratories, various
agriculture as their main occupation. On the
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Table 4 Factors influencing to brain drain and plan after graduation

Variables Brain drain (yes = 1) Plan to go abroad after graduation
Brain drain (already
(yes = 1)
abroad plus plan to go abroad = 1)

Coefficient dy/dx Coefficient dy/dx Coefficient dy/dx

AGE 0.056* (0.035) 0.005* (0.003) 0.020 (0.033) 0.005 (0.008) 0.110*** (0.035) 0.020*** (0.006)
GENDER 0.449 (0.397) 0.041 (0.036) 0.244 (0.287) 0.059 (0.067) 0.433 (0.278) 0.079 (0.050)
HHSIZE — 0.046 (0.113) — 0.004 (0.010) 0.039 (0.089) 0.009 (0.021) 0.020 (0.075) 0.003 (0.013)
MARITAL 0.661 (0.454) 0.061 (0.042) — 0.188 (0.455) — 0.045 (0.109) 0.395 (0.365) 0.072 (0.066)
OCCUPATION — 0.229 (0.426) — 0.021 (0.039) — 0.605* (0.329) — 0.146* (0.077) 0.131 (0.291) 0.024 (0.053)
EDU_MOTHER 0.145 (0.580) 0.013 (0.053) 0.088 (0.440) 0.021 (0.106) 0.032 (0.397) 0.006 (0.072)
INCOME_HH — 0.096 (0.070) — 0.008 (0.006) 0.019 (0.074) 0.004 (0.018) — 0.107* (0.055) — 0.019* (0.009)
MIGRATION_HH 1.268*** (0.367) 0.117*** (0.033) 0.631* (0.348) 0.152* (0.081) 0.724*** (0.283) 0.132*** (0.050)
Constant — 3.319** (1.328) — 0.933 (1.243) — 3.358*** (1.046)
No. of observation 116 251 367
LR value (8) 26.53*** 8.41 53.16***
Pseudo-R2 0.10 0.02 0.11
Standard errors in parentheses
***p ≤ 0.01; **p ≤ 0.05; *p ≤ 0.1

equipments and research plots are very important to this study, support to prepare draft manuscript, finalized the final manuscript and
conduct higher education and researches smoothly. drafted the manuscript to journal. Both authors read and approved the final
Along with brain drain, it is also youth drain as most of manuscript.
the migrants are aged between 21 and 30 years of age- Author details
group. As youths of this age are competent, enthusiastic 1
Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, Faculty
and energetic, they should be provided competitive plat- of Agriculture, Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), Rampur, Chit- wan, Nepal. 2
Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development,
form to show their expertise with attractive incentives. Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal.
Abroad study is better for exchange of knowledge system
and technologies but bringing them back is very impor- Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to M.Sc.Ag. (Agricultural Economics) students of second
tant to utilize the knowledge gained by them. semester (2014–2016 batch of AFU) (especially Sagar Bista, Ramjiwan Thakur,
Political stability and development in industrial sec- Mahima Bajracharya, Prakash Pant and all others) at Department of Agricultural
tor should be focused to create employment opportuni- Economics and Agribusiness Management for their contribution in questionnaire
design, data collection and basic analysis. Authors are also deeply indebted to the
ties. The better environment and good governance agriculture graduates and students those who were studying agriculture and
might attract the migrated individuals. The study veterinary sciences in Nepal.
suggests that brain drain is individual features in least
Competing interests
developed country like Nepal, so government should We would like to declare that there are no competing interests among the authors.
formulate better policy to control brain drain
Availability of data and materials
considering all con- sequences that can hamper
The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the
economic growth of the country. corresponding and main author on reasonable request.

Consent for publication

Abbreviations A verbal consent for publication has been received from the participants in this
%: percent; US$: United States Dollar; AFU: Agriculture and Forestry University; EU: study under the condition of anonymity, which was strictly maintained in this paper.
European Union; GDP: Gross Domestic Product; HH: household; HHH: household
head; IAAS: Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science; I/NGOs: Data and funding
International/Non-governmental Organizations; LDCs: least developed coun- tries; Data were collected by M.Sc.Ag. (Agricultural Economics) postgraduate stu- dents in
Ph.D.: Doctor of Philosophy; SPSS: Statistical Packages for Social Sciences; TU: Econometrics course in 2015 under the supervision and guidance of main author. The
Tribhuvan University; USA: United States of America. online survey questionnaire was developed and applied to collect data and analysis was
done using SPSS and Stata software. No external funding was available in this study.
Authors’ contributions
RRK is the principal researcher of this study. He designed the overall study, guided Ethics approval and consent to participate
to all students during questionnaire design, data collection, data extract, analysis Not applicable.
and prepared the initial draft and final manuscript. MS is the co-researcher of this
study who helped main author in every steps of this study. He and his colleagues
prepared online questionnaire, collected data, data entry and made necessary analysis.
He collected necessary literature for
Kattel and Sapkota Agric & Food Secur (2018) Page 9 of
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