CpE 221 – Numerical

Methods

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PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
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CpE 221 – Numerical Methods
Second Edition, 2023

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Learning Module Development Team

Assigned
Title Author
Chapter
Chapter 1: Introduction to Numerical Methods
Chapter 2: Roots of an Equation Dionisio M. Martin Jr.
Chapter 3: System of Linear Equations

Evaluators:

(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position

(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position
(First Name, Middle Initial, Last Name), Position
Course Overview
Introduction

Numerical Methods is a three-unit computer engineering professional course, that requires

knowledge in calculus and differential equation. This course discusses the root findings,
systems of equations, least-squares approximation, interpolation, integration and the ordinary
differential equations.

Numerical methods are techniques to approximate mathematical procedures (e.g., integrals).

Approximations are needed because we either cannot solve the procedure analytically (e.g., the
standard normal cumulative distribution function) or because the analytical method is
intractable (e.g., solving a set of a thousand simultaneous linear equations for a thousand
unknowns). By end of this course, students will be able to apply the numerical methods for
the following mathematical procedures and topics: differentiation, nonlinear equations, and
simultaneous linear equations, interpolation, regression, integration, and ordinary differential
equations. Additionally, they will be able to calculate errors and implement their relationship
to the accuracy of the numerical solutions. To be prepared for this course, students should have
a passing grade in introductory physics, integral calculus, differential calculus, and ordinary
differential equations.

Course General Objectives

At the end of the semester, 85% of the students have attained 90% level of understanding for
being aware in the engineering economics, locally and globally.

1. Understand the concepts of numerical methods in solving functions.

2. Recognize the difference between analytical and numerical solutions.
3. Understand and used the rules truncation and round-off as well as the concept of
significant figures, accuracy and precision.
4. Familiar with the concepts of stability and conditions.
5. Understand the difference between bracketing and open method for root location.
6. Familiar with terminology such as forward elimination, back substitution, pivot
equation and pivot coefficient.
7. Solve problems using the inverse and matrix norms to evaluate system condition.
8. Understand the difference between local and global truncation errors and how they
relate to the choice of a numerical method for a particular problem.

Course Details:

• Course Code: CpE 221

• Course Title: Numerical Methods
• No. of Units: 3-unit lecture
• Classification: Lecture-based
• Pre-requisite / Co-Requisite: Differential Equations
• Semester and Academic Year: 2nd Semester, AY 2022-2023
• Schedule: Open CpE 2A – Monday, Wednesday and Friday, 3:00PM-4:00PM
Open CpE 2B – Monday, Wednesday and Friday, 4:00PM-5:00PM
• Name of Faculty: Dionisio M. Martin Jr.
• Contact Details
Email: dmmartinjr@yahoo.com
Mobile Number: 0939-906-0585
FB Account: Dionisio Martin Jr.
• Consultation
Day: TTH
Time: 8:00-9:30AM

Learning Management System

The University LMS will be used for asynchronous learning and assessment. The link and class
code for LMS will be provided at the start of class through the class’ official Facebook Group.

• Edmodo
• Google Classroom
• University LMS

Assessment with Rubrics

Students will be assessed in a regular basis thru quizzes, assignments, individual/group outputs
using synchronous and/or asynchronous modalities or submission of SLM exercises. Rubrics
are also provided for evaluation of individual/group outputs.

Major examinations will be given as scheduled. The scope and coverage of the examination
will be based on the lessons/topics as plotted in the course syllabus.
 0323

Module Overview
Introduction

This module aims to introduce the concepts of numerical analysis in dealing with engineering
problems and techniques in finding the root of an equations, solving linear and non-linear
equations, polynomial approximation and interpolation, and the ordinary differential equations.

Numerical methods are techniques by which mathematical problems are formulated so that
engineers can solved with different arithmetic operations. Although there are many kinds of
numerical methods, they have one common characteristic: they invariably involve large
numbers of tedious arithmetic calculations.

The students will learn how to solve mathematical problems using different arithmetic
operations at the end of each lesson/chapter.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to Numerical Methods

Chapter 2: Roots of an Equation
Chapter 3: System of Linear Equation
 Numerical Methods

Chapter 3

System of Linear Equation

– Part III
Chapter 3

System of Linear Equations

Introduction

Systems of linear equations that have to be solved simultaneously arise in problems that include
several (possibly many) variables that are dependent on each other. Such problems occur not
only in engineering and science, which are the focus of this book, but in virtually any discipline
(business, statistics, economics, etc.). A system of two (or three) equations with two (or three)
unknowns can be solved manually by substitution or other mathematical methods. Solving a
system in this way is practically impossible as the number of equations (and unknowns)
increases beyond three.

In this chapter, we will explore the concept of simultaneous linear equations and learn how to
solve them using different methods of solving. We shall discuss the simultaneous equations
rules and also solve a few examples based on the concept for a better understanding.

Three direct methods for solving systems of equations – Gauss elimination, Gauss-Jordan, and
LU decomposition and two indirect (iterative) methods – Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel are going to
discuss in this chapter.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

- know the different method use in solving a system of linear equations in iterative
approach
- understand and familiar the convergence of different iterative method uses in solving a
system of linear equations
- solve problems for finding the roots a system of linear equations

Duration

Chapter 3: System of Linear Equations – Part III = 9 hours

(8.5-hours discussion;
0.5-hour assessment)

_____________________________________________

Iterative Method
A system of linear equations can also be solved by using an iterative approach. The process,
in principle, is the same as in the fixed-point iteration method used for solving a single
nonlinear equation. In an iterative process for solving a system of equations, the equations are
written in an explicit form in which each unknown is written in terms of the other unknown.
The explicit form for a system of four equations is
[𝑏1 −( 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 + 𝑎14𝑥4 )]
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 + 𝑎14 𝑥4 = 𝑏1 𝑥1 = 𝑎11
[𝑏2 −(𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎23𝑥3 + 𝑎24 𝑥4 )]
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 + 𝑎24 𝑥4 = 𝑏2 𝑥2 = 𝑎22
[𝑏3 −(𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32𝑥2 + 𝑎34 𝑥4 )]
𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥2 + 𝑎33 𝑥3 + 𝑎34 𝑥4 = 𝑏3 𝑥3 =
𝑎33
[𝑏4 −(𝑎41 𝑥1 + 𝑎42 𝑥2 + 𝑎43 𝑥3 )]
𝑎41 𝑥1 + 𝑎42 𝑥2 + 𝑎43 𝑥3 + 𝑎44 𝑥4 = 𝑏4 𝑥4 = 𝑎44

Standard Form Explicit Form

The solution process starts by assuming initial values for the unknowns (first estimated
solution). In the first iteration, the first assumed solution is substituted on the right-hand side
of the equations, and the new values that are calculated for the unknowns are the second
estimated solution. In the second iteration, the second solution is substituted back in the
equations to give new values for the unknowns, which are the third estimated solution. The
iterations continue in the same manner, and when the method does work, the solutions that are
obtained as successive iterations converge toward the actual solution. For a system with 𝑛
equations, the explicit equations for the [𝑥𝑖 ] unknowns are:
𝑗=𝑛
1
𝑥𝑖 = [𝑏 − ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑗 ] 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛
𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑖
𝑗=1, 𝑗≠𝑖

The iterative method is convergence if the arrangement of the three matrixes follows the
RSC (Row Sum Criteria) rule which means diagonally dominant, with the high value of 𝑥, 𝑦
and 𝑧. An 𝑛𝑥𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is strictly diagonally dominant if the absolute value of leading diagonal
entry is greater than the sum of the absolute values of other entries of the row.
|𝑎11 | > |𝑎12 | + |𝑎13 | + ⋯ + |𝑎1𝑛 |
|𝑎22 | > |𝑎21 | + |𝑎23 | + ⋯ + |𝑎2𝑛 |
⋮
|𝑎𝑛𝑛 | > |𝑎𝑛1 | + |𝑎𝑛3 | + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑛𝑛 |

Jacobi Iterative Method

The first iterative technique is called the Jacobi method, named after Carl Gustav Jacob
Jacobi (1804–1851) to solve the system of linear equations.
Jacobian method or Jacobi method is one the iterative methods for approximating the
solution of a system of n linear equations in n variables. The Jacobi iterative method is
considered as an iterative algorithm which is used for determining the solutions for the system
of linear equations in numerical linear algebra, which is diagonally dominant. In this method,
an approximate value is filled in for each diagonal element. Until it converges, the process is
iterated. This algorithm was first called the Jacobi transformation process of matrix
diagonalization. Jacobi Method is also known as the simultaneous displacement method.
For a system of linear equations:
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + … + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + … + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮
 𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + … + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛

To find the solution to this system of equations 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵, we assume that the system of
equations has a unique solution and there is no zero entry among the diagonal or pivot elements
of the coefficient matrix 𝐴.
Now, we shall begin to solve equation 1 for 𝑥1 , equation 2 for 𝑥2 and so on equation n for
𝑥𝑛 , we get
[𝑏1 − ( 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 + … + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 )]
𝑥1 =
𝑎11
[𝑏2 − (𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 + … + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 )]
𝑥2 =
𝑎22
⋮
[𝑏𝑛 − (𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + … + 𝑎𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛−1 )]
𝑥𝑛 =
𝑎𝑛𝑛

By making an initial guess for the solution 𝑥 (0) = (𝑥1 (0) , 𝑥2 (0) , … , 𝑥𝑛 (0)) and substituting
these values only to the right hand side of the above equations we get first
approximations 𝑥 (1) = (𝑥1 (1) , 𝑥2 (1) , … , 𝑥𝑛 (1) ). Continuing this process iteratively we get
sequence of approximations {𝑥 (𝑘) } such that as 𝑘 → ∞, this sequence converges to exact
solution of the system of equation up to a given error tolerance.

Example 1: Solve the system of equations using the Jacobi Method.

26𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 12.6
3𝑥1 + 27𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −14.3
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 17𝑥3 = 6
Obtain the final answer to three decimal places. Use absolute relative error 𝑑 𝑘 ≤ 0.00050.
Solution:
Check for the convergence of approximations:
26 > 2 + 2
27 > 3 + 1
17 > 2 + 3
The three equations:
[12.3 − ( 2𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 )]
𝑥1 =
26
[−14.3 − ( 3𝑥1 + 𝑥3 )]
𝑥2 =
27
[6 − ( 2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 )]
𝑥3 =
17

Let 𝑥1 (0) = 0, 𝑥2 (0) = 0 and 𝑥3 (0) = 0

First Iteration:
[12.3 − ( 2(0) + 2(0))]
𝑥1 (1) = = 0.48462
26
[−14.3 − ( 3(0) + 0 )]
𝑥2 (1) = = −0.52963
27
 [6 − ( 2(0) + 3(0))]
𝑥3 (1) = = 0.35294
17
Second Iteration:
[12.3 − ( 2(−0.52963) + 2(0.35294))]
𝑥1 (2) = = 0.49821
26
[−14.3 − ( 3(0.48462) + 0.35294 )]
𝑥2 (2) = = −0.59655
27
[6 − ( 2(0.48462) + 3(−0.52963))]
𝑥3 (2) = = 0.38939
17

To continue the solution using the table:

𝑘 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑑𝑘 Remarks
0 0 0 0 - Continue
1 0.48462 -0.52963 0.35294 - Continue
2 0.49821 -0.59655 0.38939 - Continue
3 0.50006 -0.59941 0.39960 0.01134 Continue
4 0.50000 -0.59999 0.39989 0.00052 Continue
5 0.50001 -0.60000 0.40000 0.00010 Stop

therefore,
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒙𝟐 =– 𝟎. 𝟔
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟒

Example 2: Solve the system of equations using the Jacobi Method.

3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 11
𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 11
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −9
Obtain the final answer to one decimal place. Use absolute relative error 𝑑 𝑘 ≤ 0.001.
Solution:
Check for the convergence of approximations:
3 > 2+1
3 > 1+2
4 > 2+1
The three equations:
[11 − (−2𝑦 + 𝑧 )]
𝑥=
3
[11 − ( 𝑥 + 2𝑧 )]
𝑦=
−3
[−9 − ( 2𝑥 + 𝑦 )]
𝑧=
−4

Let 𝑥1 (0) = 0, 𝑥2 (0) = 0 and 𝑥3 (0) = 0

Jacobi method table:

𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑘 Remarks
0 0 0 0 - Continue
 1 3.667 -3.667 2.250 - Continue
2 0.472 -0.944 3.167 - Continue
3 1.982 -1.398 2.250 - Continue
4 1.985 -1.506 2.892 - Continue
5 1.699 -1.077 2.866 - Continue
6 1.993 -1.190 2.830 - Continue
7 1.930 -1.116 2.949 - Continue
8 1.940 -1.057 2.936 - Continue
9 1.983 -1.063 2.956 0.011 Continue
10 1.973 -1.035 2.976 0.008 Continue
11 1.985 -1.025 2.978 0.001 Stop

therefore,
𝒙=𝟐
𝒚 = −𝟏
𝒛=𝟑

Gauss-Seidel Method
The Gauss-Seidel method is an improvisation of the Jacobi method. This method is named
after mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and Philipp L. Seidel (1821–1896).
This modification often results in higher degree of accuracy within fewer iterations.
In Jacobi method the value of the variables is not modified until next iteration, whereas in
Gauss-Seidel method the value of the variables is modified as soon as new value is evaluated.
For instance, in Jacobi method the value of 𝑥𝑖 (𝑘) is not modified until the (𝑘 + 1)th iteration
but in Gauss-Seidel method the value of 𝑥𝑖 (𝑘) changes in in 𝑘th iteration only.

Example 3: Solve the following system of equations using Gauss-Seidel method.

45𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 58
−3𝑥1 + 22𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 47
5𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 20𝑥3 = 67
Obtain the final answers to two decimal places. Use absolute relative error 𝑑 𝑘 ≤ 0.0001.
Solution:
Check for the convergence of approximations,
45 > 2 + 3
22 > 3 + 2
20 > 5 + 1
The three equations:

[58 − ( 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 )]

𝑥1 =
45
[47 − ( −3𝑥1 + 2𝑥3 )]
𝑥2 =
22
[67 − ( 5𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )]
𝑥3 =
20

Let 𝑥 (0) = 0, 𝑦 (0) = 0 and 𝑧 (0) = 0

 First Iteration:

[58 − ( 2(0) + 3(0) )]

𝑥1 (1) = = 1.2889
45
[47 − ( −3(1.2889) + 2(0)]
𝑥2 (1) = = 2.3121
22
[67 − ( 5(1.2889) + 2.3121 )]
𝑥3 (1) = = 2.9122
20
Second Iteration:

[58 − ( 2(2.3121) + 3(2.9122) )]

𝑥1 (2) = = 0.9920
45
[47 − ( −3(0.9920) + 2(2.9122)]
𝑥2 (2) = = 2.0069
22
[67 − ( 5(0.9920) + 2.0069 )]
𝑥3 (2) = = 3.0017
20
To continue the solution using the table:

𝑘 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑑𝑘 Remarks
0 0 0 0 Continue
1 1.2889 2.3121 2.9122 Continue
2 0.9920 2.0069 3.0017 Continue
3 0.9996 1.9998 3.0001 0.0012 Continue
4 1 2 3 0.0002 Continue
5 1 2 3 0 Stop

therefore,
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟏
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐
𝒙𝟑 = 𝟑

Example 4: Solve the following system of equations using Gauss-Seidel method. Use
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)0 = (0, 0, 0).
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 11
𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 11
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −9
Obtain the final answer to one decimal place. Use absolute relative error 𝑑 𝑘 ≤ 0.001.
Solution:
Check for the convergence of approximations:
3 > 2+1
3 > 1+2
4 > 2+1
The three equations:
[11 − (−2𝑦 + 𝑧 )]
𝑥=
3
[11 − ( 𝑥 + 2𝑧 )]
𝑦=
−3
 [−9 − ( 2𝑥 + 𝑦 )]
𝑧=
−4

Let 𝑥1 (0) = 0, 𝑥2 (0) = 0 and 𝑥3 (0) = 0

Jacobi method table:

𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑘 Remarks
0 0 0 0 - Continue
1 3.667 -2.444 3.473 Continue
2 0.880 -1.058 2.426 Continue
3 2.153 -1.332 2.994 Continue
4 1.781 -1.077 2.871 Continue
5 1.992 -1.089 2.974 Continue
6 1.949 -1.034 2.966 Continue
7 1.989 -1.026 2.988 0.007 Continue
8 1.987 -1.012 2.991 0.005 Continue
9 1.995 -1.008 2.996 0.001 Stop

therefore,
𝒙=𝟐
𝒚 = −𝟏
𝒛=𝟑

Example 5: Solve the system of equations using both Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel Method. Use
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)0 = (0, 0, 0).
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −2
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 39
5𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 19
Obtain the final answer to one decimal place. Use absolute relative error 𝑑 𝑘 ≤ 0.001 to
stop iteration.
Solution:
Rearrange the equations:
5𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 19
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −2
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 39
Check for the convergence of approximations,
5 > 1 + 2
4 > 1+2
8 > 2+3
The three equations:
[19 − ( 𝑦 + 2𝑧)]
𝑥=
5
[−2 − (𝑥 − 2𝑧)]
𝑦=
4
[39 − (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)]
𝑧=
8

Let 𝑥 (0) = 0, 𝑦 (0) = 0 and 𝑧 (0) = 0

 Using Jacobi method:
𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑘 Remarks
0 0 0 0 - Continue
1 3.800 -0.500 4.875 - Continue
2 1.950 0.988 4.113 - Continue
3 1.957 1.069 4.017 0.018 Continue
4 1.979 1.019 3.985 0.015 Continue
5 2.002 0.998 3.998 0.002 Continue
6 2.001 0.999 4 0 Stop

therefore,
𝒙=𝟐
𝒚=𝟏
𝒛=𝟒

Using Gauss-Seidel method:

𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑘 Remarks
0 0 0 0 - Continue
1 3.800 -1.450 4.469 - Continue
2 2.302 1.159 3.865 Continue
3 2.022 0.927 4.022 Continue
4 2.006 1.010 3.995 0.022 Continue
5 2 0.998 4.001 0.005 Continue
6 2 1.001 4 0.001 Stop

therefore,
𝒙=𝟐
𝒚=𝟏
𝒛=𝟒

_____________________________________________

References/Additional Resources/Readings

S. Chapra & R. Canale (2010). Numerical Methods for Engineers, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill
Education, Inc.

J. Epperson (2013). An Introduction to Numerical Methods and Analysis, 2nd ed., John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.

https://nm.mathforcollege.com/chapter-01.02-measuring-errors/

https://www.cuemath.com/algebra/simultaneous-equations/
Assignment
ASSIGNMENT 5

Name: ______________________Course/Year/Section: ___________ Score: _________

Direction: Solve the following equations. Obtain the final answer to one decimal place. Use
𝑑𝑘 ≤ 0.001 to stop iteration.
1.) Given:
4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 10.5
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 12.9
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3.8
a. Using Jacobi method and (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)0 = { 0, 0, 0 }, find 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧.
b. Using Gauss-Seidel method and (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)0 = { 1, 0.5, 0 }, find 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧.

2.) Solve the system of equations using both Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel Method. Use (𝑥)0 =
{ 0, 0, 0 }.
5𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = −1
−3𝑥1 + 9𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 2
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 7𝑥3 = 3

3.) Solve the following set of four linear equations using Jacobi iteration method. Use
(𝑥)0 = { 0, 0 }.
𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 = −4
7𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 6

4.) Solve the following set of four linear equations using the Gauss-Seidel iteration method.
9𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 54.5
2𝑥1 + 8𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 3𝑥4 = −14
−3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 11𝑥3 − 4𝑥4 = 12.5
−2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 + 10𝑥4 = −21
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How do you want it to be enhanced?

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NOTE: This is an essential part of course module. This must be submitted to the subject
teacher (within the 1st week of the class).