Chapter #3 – Hardware

Part 1:
Q1. What is CPU?

 It is also known as microprocessor or processor.

 It is central to all modern computer systems.
 It is installed as an integrated circuit on a single microchip.
 It has responsibility for the execution or processing of all the instructions
and data in a computer application.
 Main components of CPU are: Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU), Registers and buses
Q2. What is the concept of Von Neumann Architecture?

 The concept of Von Neumann Architecture is “stored program computer”

 i.e. The program and data are stored in the same memory unit.
Q3. Write down the features of Von Neumann Architecture.

 The features of Von Neumann Architecture are:

1. The concept of a central processing unit.
2. The CPU was able to access the memory directly.
3. Computer memories could store programs as well as data.
4. Stored programs were made up of instructions which could be executed in
sequential order.
Q4. Draw the Von Neumann Architecture?

Q5. Define ALU

 The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) allows the required arithmetic (e.g. +, -
and shifting) or logic (e.g. AND, OR) operations to be carried out while a
program is being run.
 It is possible for a computer to have more than one ALU to carry out specific
functions.
 Multiplication and division are carried out by a sequence of addition,
subtraction and left or right logical shift operations.
Q6. Define CU

 The control unit (CU) reads an instruction from memory.

 The control unit ensures synchronization of data flow and program
instructions through out the computer.
Q7. Define system clock.

 It is used to produce timing signals on the control bus to ensure this vital
synchronisation takes place.
 Without the clock the computer would simple crash.
Q8. Define RAM/IAS.

 RAM holds all the data and instructions needed to be accessed by the CPU.
 The RAM is often referred to as Immediate Access Store (IAS).
 The CPU takes data and programs held in Backing store (e.g. hard disk
drive) and outs them into RAM temporarily.
 This is done because read/write operations carried out using RAM and
considerably faster than read/write operations to backing store.
Q9. What are registers?

 A small, fast unit of memory located on the CPU.

 Are used temporarily for storing data.
Q10. Write down the name of computer registers and their description.

Computer Register Description

1. Program Counter (PC)  holds the address of the next
instruction that is to be fetched-
decoded-executed.
 Increments automatically as the
current instruction is being
decoded.
2. Memory Address Register  Holds the address of the current
(MAR) instruction being executed
3. Memory Data Register (MDR)  Contain both instructions and
data
4. Current Instruction register  Store the current instruction to
(CIR) be decoded and executed
(copied from the MDR)
5. Accumulator(ACC)  Carry out ALU calculations
 Stores data temporarily during
calculations
Q11. What are system buses? Write down the name of system buses.

 The set of electrical wires that are used to transmit data/instructions

between the different components are known as system buses.
 There are three system buses.
1. Address Bus 2. Data Bus 3. Control Bus
Q12. Explain the types of Busses.
 Address Bus:
 It carries addresses throughout the computer system.
 Between the CPU and memory, the address bus is unidirectional (i.e.
bits can travel in one direction only).
 The wider the address bus, the more memory locations that can
directly addressed at any given time.
 For example: Bus of width 16 bits can address 216 = 65 536 memory
locations. Bus of width 32 bits can address 232 memory locations.
 Data Bus:
 It carries data from CPU to memory(and vice versa) and to and from
input/output devices.
 This bus is bidirectional (i.e. bits can travel in both directions).
 The wider the data bus, the larger the word length that can be
transported
 A word is a group of bits which can be regarded as single unit
 e.g. 16-bit, 32-bit or 64-bit word lengths are most common.
 Larger word length can improve the computer’s overall performance.
 Control Bus:
 It carries signals from the control unit to all other computer
components.
 This bus is bidirectional (i.e. signals can travel in both directions).
 It is usually 8-bit wide.
Q13.Explain the role of memory unit during fetch – execute
cycle.

 The computer memory unit is made up of a number

of partitions.
 Each partition consists of an address and its contents.
 Address and contents uses 8 bits.
 In a real computer memory, the address and its
contents are actually much larger than this.
 The address will uniquely identify every LOCATION in the memory and
the contents will be the binary
Q14. Explain Fetch- Decode –Execute Cycle.

 To carry out a set of instructions,

 the CPU first of all fetches some data and instructions from memory and
stores them in suitable registers.
 Both the address bus and data bus are used in this process.
 Once this is done, each instruction needs to be decoded and finally being
executed.
 This is all known as the Fetch-Decode –Execute cycle.
Q15. Explain the Fetch- Decode –Execute Cycle?
Q16. Which factors determines the performance of a CPU/computer?
1. Increasing bus width (data and address buses) increase the performance
and speed of a computer system
2. Increasing clock speed will potentially increase the speed of a computer.
3. Use of multi-core CPUs increase computer’s performance.
4. Use of cache memories can also speed up a CPU’s performance.
Q17. How does cache memory increase computer’s performance?

 Cache memory is located within the CPU itself, which means it has much
faster data access time than RAM.
 Cache memory stores frequently used instructions and data that need to
be accessed faster, which improve CPU performance .
 When a CPU wishes to read memory, it will first check out the cache and
then move on to main memory/RAM if the required data isn’t there.
 The larger the cache memory size the better the CPU performance.
Q18. How does system clock increase computer’s performance?

 The clock defines clock cycles that synchronizes all computer operations.
 The control bus transmits timing signals ensuring everything is fully
synchronized.
 By increasing clock speed, the processing speed of the computer is also
increased.
 For example 3.5GHz means 3.5 billion clock cycles in one second.
Q19. How does multi core CPUs increase computer’s performance?

 Core is a unit on a CPU made up of an ALU, control unit and registers. A

CPU may contain a number of cores.
 Many computers are dual core ( the CPU is made up of two cores) or quad
cores ( the CPU is made up of four cores).
 The use of a different numbers of cores can improve the computer
performance.
Q20. Is it necessary that more cores increase the computer’s performance?

 Doubling the number of cores does not necessarily double computer’s

performance since we have to take into
account the need for the CPU to
communicate with each other.; this will
reduce overall performance.
 For example, with dual core the CPU
communicates with both cores using one
channel reducing some of the potential
increase in its performance.
 While, with a quad core the CPU
communicates with all four cores using six channels, considerably
reducing potential performance.
Q21. What are instruction set?

 Instructions are a set of operations which are decoded in sequence.

 Each operation will instruct the ALU and CU.
 Each operation is made up of an opcode and operand.
 The complete set of machine code instructions used a particular
microprocessor are known as instruction sets.
 The opcode informs the CPU what operation needs to be done.
 The operand is the data which needs to be acted on or it can refer to a
register in the memory.
Q22. What is the difference between instruction set and programming code?

 Instruction sets are the low-level language instructions that instruct the
CPU how to carry out operation.
 Program code needs interpreter or compilers to convert the code into
instruction set understood by the computer.
Q23. What are embedded systems?

 An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software which is

designed to carry out a specific set of function.
 The hardware is electronic, electrical or electro-mechanical.
 Embedded systems are based on:

Q24. Are embedded systems programmable or non-programmable?

 Depending on the device, embedded systems are either programmable or

non- programmable.
 Non- programmable devices need, in general, to be replaced if they
require a software upgrade.
 Programmable devices permit upgrading by two methods.
1. Connecting the device to a computer and allowing the download of updates
to the software. ( for example, this is used to update the maps on a GPS system
used in vehicles)
2. Automatic updates via a Wi-Fi, satellites or cellular(mobile phone network)
link. ( for example, many modern cars allow update to engine management
systems and other components via satellite link)
Q25. Write down the benefits and drawbacks of using embedded systems.

Q26. How does embedded system work?

 When embedded systems are installed in a device, either an operator can

input data manually or the data will come from an automatic source ,
such as sensors.
 The sensor input will be analogue or digital in nature.
 The output will then carry out the function of the embedded system by
sending signals to the components that are being controlled.
Q27. Is computer an example of embedded system?

 A computer is not an example of embedded system. Computers are multi-

functional. It can carry out many different tasks which can be varied by
using different software.
 This means that computers can not be classes as embedded systems.
Q28. Examples of use of embedded systems
Motor vehicles:

 Modern cars have many parts that rely on embedded systems to function
correctly.
E.g: 1. In-car entertainment systems 2. GPS system
3. Air bags 4. Fuel Injection System 5. Vehicle Security
Set-top box:

 a set-top box uses an embedded system to allow, for example, recording

and playback of television programmes.
 This can be operated remotely by the user when not at home using an
internet-enabled device or by using the interface panel when at home.
 The embedded system will look after many of the functions involving
inputs from a number of sources such as a Solid State Device (SSD)
(where television programmes can be stored or retrieved) or a satellite
signal (where it will be necessary to decode the incoming signal).
Security systems:

 The security code is set in RAM and the alarm is activated or deactivated
using the keypad.
 Data from sensors is sent to the controller which checks against values
stored on the SSD (these settings are on SSD rather than RAM in casethe
sensitivity needs to be adjusted).
 An output can be a signal to flash lights, sound an alarm or send a
message to the home owner via their mobile phone.
 Again, the home owner can interface with the system remotely if
necessary.

Washing machines:

 Refrigerators, washing machines, microwave ovens are controlled by

embedded systems.
 They all come with a keypad or dials that are used to select the
temperature, wash cycle or cooking duration. This data forms the input to
the embedded system, which then carries out the required task without
any further human intervention.
  As with other devices, these ‘white goods’ can also be operated remotely
using an internet-enabled smartphone or computer.

Lighting systems:

 Embedded systems are used in modern sophisticated lighting systems

from simple home use to major architectural lighting systems.
 We will concentrate here on a lighting system used in a large office.
 The system needs to control the lighting taking into account:
 the time of day or day of the week
 whether the room is occupied
 the brightness of the natural light.
 An embedded system can automatically control the lighting using a
number of inputs (such as light sensors) and key data stored in memory.
 There are many internal and external lighting systems that could be
controlled by embedded systems (e.g. a fountain light display or a light
show on a building to commemorate a special occasion).
 They are also used to trigger emergency lighting in, for example,
aeroplanes in case of an emergency.
 Some lighting systems use Bluetooth light bulbs. This allows the
embedded system to control each bulb independently. Many of the bulbs
available today use LEDs and many come in a number of colours to
change the mood.
Vending systems:

 Vending machines make considerable use of embedded systems. They

usually use microcontrollers to control a number of functions that we all
associate with vending machines.
 At the heart of the vending machine is an embedded system in the form of
a microcontroller.
 Inputs to this system come from the keypad (item selection) and from
sensors (used to count the coins inserted by the customer, the
temperature inside the machine and a ‘tilt sensor’ for security purposes).
The outputs are:
 actuators to operate the motors, which drive the helixes (see figure
below) to give the customers their selected item(s)
 signals to operate the cooling system if the temperature is too high »
item description and any change due shown on an LCD display panel
 data sent back to the vending machine company so that they can remotely
check sales activity (which could include instructions to refill the
machine) without the need to visit each machine.
Part 2: Input Devices
Input Devices:

 The devices which are used to enter data or instructions in the computer
system are known as input devices.
 Example: mouse, keyboard, scanner, microphone, joystick, sensors, camera,
barcode readers, QR code reader.
Barcodes:

 Barcodes consist of a series of dark and light lines (black and white) of
varying thickness.
 Each digit or character is represented by a number of lines.
 Barcode stores manufacturer code number and product number.
 In UPC(Universal Product Code) the actual left hand and right hand sides of
a barcode are separated using guard bars.
 It has three guard bars(left, right, centered)
 Black lines if barcode represent by ‘1’ and white line represent by ‘0’
 7 bit make a digit using different coding methods for left and right sides.
Scanning Of Barcode:
1. The barcode is first read by a red laser or red LED(Light Emitting Diode)
2. Light is reflected back off the barcode, the dark areas reflect little or no
light which allows the bars to be read.
3. The reflected light is read by sensors(Photoelectric Cells)
4. As the laser is scanned across the barcode, a pattern is generated which is
converted into digital data. This allows the computer to understand the
barcode.
5. The light areas represent ‘0’ and dark represent ‘1’.
 6. If barcodes are not scanned correctly then the barcode is typed in
manually using a keyboard.

Automatic Stock Control Using Barcodes:

1. The barcode is scanned and the number is looked up in the stock
database.
2. When this number is found, the stock item record is looked up.
3. Details of this item are returned to the checkout or POS(Point Of Sale
Terminal)
4. The number of item in stock is reduced by 1 in the record and the new
value is written.
5. The number of stock items is compared to reorder level.
6. If this value is less than or equal to this value, more stock items are
automatically reordered.
7. If an order for more items is generated, a flag is added to the record to
stop reordering.
8. When the new stock arrives, the stock levels are updated in the database.
Advantages of Barcodes to Management:

 Easier and faster to change prices of items.

 Better, up-to-date sales information.
 Not necessary to write the price on every item in the store.
 Allow automatic stock control.
 Customers spending habits can be checked if barcodes are linked to
loyalty cards.
Advantages of Barcodes to Customers:

 Checkout queries are faster.

 Reduction of errors.
 Itemized bills can be printed.
  Cost savings can be passed on.
 Better track of expiry dates.

QR Codes:

 It is a type of barcode.
 Made up of a matrix of filled in dark squares on a light baground.
 Consists of block of small squares known as pixels.
 Allow internet address to be encoded
 As more and more data is added, its structure becomes more complex.
 The 3 large squares at the corners of the code function as a form of
alignment
 The remaining small corner squares are used to ensure the correct size
and correct angle of camera shot when QR code is read.
Uses:

 Advertising products
 Giving access to website or contact telephone number
 Storing boarding passes electronically at airport and train station
Advantages:

 Hold more information

 Fewer errors; higher capacity of code allows the use of built in error
checking system
 Easier to read; don’t need expensive laser or LED scanner
 Easy to transmit either as text messages or images
 Encrypt QR codes; higher protection
Disadvantages:

 More than one format available

 Transmit malicious code known as Attaging.
Frame QR codes:

 Frame QR codes come with a ‘canvas area’ where it is possible to include

graphics or images inside the code itself.
 Unlike normal QR codes, software to do this isn’t usually free
Digital Cameras:

 They link to a computer system via USB port or by using Bluetooth.

 Controlled by embedded systems which can automatically carry out:
 Adjust shutter speed
 Focus the image automatically
 Operates flash
 Adjust size of image
 Removes red eye when flash is used
 Adjust aperture size
Keyboards:

 Used as input devices on computer, tablets, mobiles etc.

 It is connected to the computer either by using a USB connection or by
wireless connection.
 In case of tablets or phones, keyboards are virtual or type of touchscreen
technology.
 Each character on the keyboard has an ASCII value.
 Each character press is converted into digital signals which the computer
interprets.
Advantages:

 Easiest way to enter data

Disadvantages:

 Slow method of data entry

 Prone to errors
 Repetitive strain injury(RSI) in hands and wrists
Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI):

 Due to frequent use of keyboards.

Overcome:

 Ergonomic Keyboards: they have keys arranged differently. They are

deigned to give more support to the wrists and hands while typing.
Microphones:

 Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices
connected through the USB port or using Bluetooth connectivity.
Optical Mouse:

 Example of pointing device.

 Uses tiny cameras to take 1500 images per second.
 Can work virtually on any surface.
 A red LED is used in its base.
Benefits of Optical over Mechanical Mouse:

 No moving parts; more reliable

 Dirt cannot get trapped in any of the mechanical components
 No need to have a special surface
Benefits of Wired Mouse:

 No signal loss; constant signal pathway (wire) is available

 Cheaper; no need to buy or change batteries
 Fewer environmental issues; no need to dispose batteries


Part 4:
Memory and Storage
Memory:
 Memory is usually referred to as the internal devices used to store
data that the computer can access directly
Storage devices:
 Storage devices allow users to store applications, data and files.
 Data is stored permanently and they can change it or read it.
 Storage needs to be larger than internal memory since the user may
wish to store large files.
 Storage devices can also be removable to allow data to be
transferred between computers.
 Removable devices allow a user to store important data in a
different location in case of data loss.
 Memory and storage devices can be split up into two distinct groups:
» primary memory » secondary storage.
 Primary Primary Memory:
 Primary memory is the part of the computer memory which can be
accessed directly from the CPU.
this includes random access memory (RAM) and readonly memory
(ROM).
 Primary memory allows the CPU to access applications and services
temporarily stored in memory locations.
RAM:
 RAM stands for Random Access Memory.
 It is a volatile memory and the contents of the memory are lost as soon as
the electricity supply is cut-off.
 The CPU can write and read to and from the RAM. So RAM is also known
as read/write memory.
 It is faster than secondary devices.
 It is used to store data, files or part of operating system.
 The larger the size of RAM the faster the computer will operate.
 RAM never runs out of memory; it continues to operate but just gets
slower and slower.
 As the RAM becomes full, the processor has to continually access the hard
disk drive to overwrite old data on RAM with the new data.
 There are two types of RAM:
 Dynamic Ram (DRAM)
 Static RAM (SRAM)
DRAM:

 Each DRAM chip consists of transistors and capacitors.

 The function of each part is:
 Capacitor – this holds the bits of information (0 or 1)
 Transistor – this acts like a switch; it allows the chip control circuitry to
read the capacitor or change the capacitor’s value. This type of RAM
needs to be constantly refreshed (that is, the capacitor needs to be re-
charged ever otherwise it would lose its value). If it wasn’t refreshed, the
capacitor’s charge would leak away very quickly leaving every capacitor
with the value 0.
SRAM:

 SRAM doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed.

 It makes use of flip flops, which hold each bit of memory.
Difference Between DRAM and SRAM:

ROM:

 ROM stands for Read Only Memory.

 ROM is a non-volatile memory. So the data and programs stored in ROM
chip is not lost when electricity is cut-off.
 They are often used to store the start up instructions when computer is
first switched on.
 The contents (i.e., instructions) stored in this memory can be read but
new data cannot be written into it. This is the reason why it is called read
only memory.
 The manufacture of the ROM writes the data and programs permanently
into it and contents of this memory cannot be changed afterwards.
Difference between RAM and ROM:
Q. Describe how ROM and RAM chips could be used in remote –control toy car.

 A remote control toy car has a circuitry which contain both ROM and
RAM chips.
 The remote control car is a hand-held device.
ROM:

 Stores the factory settings such as remote control frequency.

 Stores the ‘start up’ routines when the toy car is first switched on.
 Stores the set routines i.e. how the button on the hand held device control
turning left, acceleration, stopping and so on.
RAM:

 The user may wish to program their own routines, these new instructions
would be stored in the RAM chip.
 The RAM chip will store data/instructions received from the remote
control unit.

Secondary Storage Devices:

 Secondary storage is a non-volatile medium that holds data until it is

deleted or overwritten.
 Not directly accessed by the CPU.
 It is sometimes referred to as external memory and auxiliary storage.
Secondary storage is where programs and data are kept on a long-term
basis.
 Store more data.
 Data access time is longer.
 All applications, the operating system, device drivers and general files
(for example, documents, photos and music) are stored on secondary
storage
 Types of of secondary storage devices:
 Magnetic
  Solid state
 Optical

Magnetic Storage:
Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

 Hard disk drives are non-volatile magnetic storage devices.

 Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the disk (or
platters).
 The hard disk drive will have a number of platters which can spin at
about 7000 times a second.
 Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to store data.
 These read-write heads can move very quickly. They can move from the
centre of the disk to the edge of the disk and back again 50 times a
second.
 Data is stored on the surface in sectors and tracks. A sector on a given
track will contain a fixed number of bytes.
 Access to data is slower than RAM. Many applications require the read-
write heads to move in and out several times to seek the appropriate data
block. This is referred to as LATENCY
 Latency is the time taken for a specific block of data on a track to rotate
around to the read-write head.
 Typical HDD capacities are measured in Terabytes (TB).
 They can be installed inside a computer or purchased in a portable
(external) format
Fragmentation:

 When a file or data is stored on a HDD, the required number of sectors

needed to store the data will be allocated.
 However, the sectors allocated may not be adjacent to each other.
  Through time, the HDD will undergo numerous deletions and editing
which leads to sectors becoming increasingly fragmented resulting in a
gradual deterioration of the HDD performance.
 Defragmentation software can improve on this situation by “tidying up’
the disk sector.
Applications Of Hard Disk Drive(HDD):

 Desktop computers
 Laptop computers
 TV and satellite recorders
 Servers and mainframes
 Portable (external) drives are sometimes used to backup home
computers or transfer large files
Benefits and Drawbacks of HDD:
Removable hard disk drives are essentially HDDs external to the computer
that can be connected to the computer using one of the USB ports. In this way,
they can be used as a back-up device or another way of transferring files
between computers.
Q.How is data stored on magnetic storage devices?

 Magnetic storage media and devices store data in the form of tiny
magnetised dots.
 These dots are created, read and erased using magnetic fields created by
very tiny electromagnets.
Solid State Drives (SSD):

 Solid state drives are non-volatile storage devices capable of holding

large amounts of data.
 They do not have moving parts ; therefore all data is retrieved at the same
rate and latency is not an issue.
 They do not rely on magnetic properties; they store data by controlling
the movement of electrons in NAND chips .
 The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny resistors within the chip.
  Some SSDs use ELECTRONICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-
ONLY MEMORY (EEPROM)
 NOR chips are used in it.
 They are much faster in operation but more expansive than NAND
technology.
 This allows data to be read or erased in single bytes at a time.
Floating Gate and Control Gate Transistors:

 Floating gate and control gate transistors use CMOS (complementary

metal oxide semi-conductor) NAND technology.
 Flash memories make use of matrix; at each intersection on the matrix
there is a floating gate arranged as follow.
 A dielectric coating separate the two transistors, which allow the floating
gate transistor to retain its charge.
 The floating gate transistors has a value 1 when it is charged and a value
0 when it is not.
 To program one of these ‘intersection cells’ a voltage is applied to the
control gate and electrons from the electron source are attached to it.
 But due to the dielectric coating, the electrons become trapped in the
floating gate.
 Hence, we have control over the bit value stored at each intersection.

Applications of SSD:

 Smartphones
 Tablet computers
 High-end laptops
 Two drive desktop solutions
  Portable drives are sometimes used in HD video cameras.
Benefits and Drawbacks of SSD:

Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:

 They are more reliable (no moving parts go wrong)

 They are lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
 They do not have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly.
 They have lower power consumption.
 They run much cooler than HDDs.
 Because of no moving parts, they are very thin.
 Data access is faster than HDD.
Benefits of HDD over SSD:

 HDD are cheaper for larger amount of storage space.

 HDD has greater longevity for read and write functions.
 No requirement for increased speed of SSD.
  Expensive to change technology and HDD are trusted technology.
USB Flash Memories/ Memory Stick:

 USB flash memories use optical storage technology.

 They usually connect with computer through USB port.
 There main advantages are
 Small , light weight devices which make them suitable to transfer files
between computers.
 Used as back up devices for music and photo files.
 They are used as DONGLE with complex or expensive software such as
Expert Systems.
 Digital Cameras use XD(eXtreme Digital) or SD(Secure Digital) cards.
 These memory cards allow photos to be transferred from cameras to
computer via USB ports.
 Many computers and printers also have card slots allowing the device to
read the memory card directly.
 Each memory card is made up of NAND chips. And have no moving parts.
 They need to be read every now and then to retain their data integrity
and it is important to follow the correct removal procedure to avoid
corrupting the storage device.
Optical Storage Devices:

 CD, DVD and Blu-Ray drives are optical storage devices.

 Binary data is stored as changes to the texture of the disc’s surface,
sometimes thought of as microscopic pits and bumps.
 These ‘bumps’ are located on a continuous spiral track, starting at the
centre of the disc.
 Whilst the disc is rotating at a constant speed, a laser is pointed at the
spiral track of ‘bumps’.
 The laser will reflect/bounce off the disc surface in different directions
depending upon whether a 1 or 0 has been read
CDs and DVDs:
  These are optical storage devices.
 Laser light is used to read data and
to write data in the surface of the
disk.
 Both CDs and DVDs use thin layer of
metal alloy or light – sensitive
organic dye to store the data.
 Both use a single spiral track which
runs from the centre of the disk to the edge.
 The data is store in ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ on the spiral track.
 A red laser is used to read and write the data.
 CDs and DVDs can be designated R (write once only)
or RW (can be written to or read from many times).
Difference between CD and DVD:

 DVD can hold more data than CD due to dual layering

technology (the disk has two individual recording
layers).
 DVDs have larger storage capacity than CDs because the ‘pit’ size and
track width are both smaller. This means that more
data can be stored on the DVD surface.
 DVDs use laser with a wave length of 650
nanometres; CDs use laser with wave length of 780
nanometres. The shorter the wavelength of the laser
light, the greater the storage capacity of the medium.
DVD RAM:

 Instead of a single, spiral track, they use number of concentric tracks.

 Use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write operations
to take place.
 They allow numerous read and write operation (up to 100 000 times )
and have great longevity (over 30 years) which makes them ideal for
archiving.
Blu-Ray Disks:

 Blu-Ray disks are optical storage devices.

 Blue laser is used to carry read and write operations; the wavelength of
blue light is only 405 nanometer(compared to 650nm red light )
 Using blue laser means that the ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ can be much smaller, so
they can store upto 5 times more data than normal DVD.
 Blu ray uses single 1-1 mm thick polycarbonate disk; normal dvd uses a
sandwich of two 0.6 mm thick disks.
 Using two sandwich layers can cause Birefringence (light is reflected into
two separate beams causing reading errors); because blu ray disks use
only one layer, disk doesn’t suffer from birefringence.
Difference between Blu-Ray disks and DVDs:

 In blu ray disks, blue laser light is used to carry out read and write
operations while DVDs use red laser.
 Wavelength of blue light is only 405 nm while red light has 650 nm
wave length. The shorter the wavelength, more data can be stored.
 Using blue laser means that the ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ can be much smaller,
so they can store upto 5 times more data than normal DVD.
 Blu ray uses single 1-1 mm thick polycarbonate disk; normal dvd uses
a sandwich of two 0.6 mm thick disks.
 Blu ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system that
helps to prevent privacy and copyright infringement.
 The data transfer rate for DVD is 10Mbps and for Blu ray disks it is 36
Mbps.
Uses of Optical Storage Devices:
 CDs:
 Back up systems
 Transfer files between computers
 Manufacturers can supply their software using cds in a read only format
 Supply of songs
  DVDs
 Back up systems
 Transfer files between computer
 Manufacturers can supply their software using cds in a read only format
 Supply movies and games
 Blu ray:
 Supply movies and games

Virtual Memory:

 One of the problems associated with memory management is the case

when the processes run out of RAM.
 If the amount of available RAM is exceeded due to multiple programs
running, it is likely to cause a system crash.
 This can be solved by utilizing the HDD or SSD if we need more memory.
 This is the basics behind virtual memory.
 Essentially RAM is the physical memory, while virtually memory is RAM +
swap space on the HDD or SSD.
 To execute the program, data is loaded into memory from HDD or SSD
whenever required.
Benefits:

 Programs can be larger than physical memory and still be executed.

 There is no need to waste memory with data that isn’t being used (e.g.
During error handling).
 It reduces the need to buy and install more expensive RAM memory.
Drawbacks:
Disk Thrashing:

 When using HDD for virtual memory the main drawback is disk
thrashing. As main memory fills, more and more data needs to be
swapped in and out of virtual memory leading to a very high rate of hard
disk read/write head movements; this is known as disk thrashing.
 If more and more time is spent on moving data in and out of memory than
actually doing any processing, then the processing speed of the computer
will be considerably reduced.
 A point can be reached when the execution of a process comes to a halt
since the system is so busy moving data in and out of memory rather than
doing any actual execution – this is known as the thrash point.
 Due to large numbers of head movements, this can also lead to premature
failure of a hard disk drive.
Ways to reduce Disk Thrashing:

 Install more RAM

 Reduce the number of programs running at a time
 Reducing the size of the swap file
 Use SSD rather than HDD
Cloud Storage:

 Method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers.

Data Redundancy:

 The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance
or repair, allowing clients to access data at any time. This is known as
data redundancy.
 The physical environment is owned and managed by a hosting company
and may include hundreds of servers in many locations.
Common systems used in Cloud Storage:
Public cloud: this is a storage environment where the customer/client and
cloud storage provider are different companies
Private cloud: this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a
company firewall; customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated
and operate as a single entity
Hybrid cloud: this is a combination of the two above environments; some data
resides in the private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be
accessed from a public cloud storage provider.

Benefits and Drawbacks:

Network Hardware:

Network hardware card (NIC):

 A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a

network (such as the internet).
 It is usually part of the device hardware and contains the Media Access
Control (MAC) address generated at the manufacturing stage.
Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC):
  They are the same as NICs in that they are used to connect devices to the
internet or other networks.
 However, they use wireless connectivity utilizing an antenna to
communicate with networks via microwaves.
 They would normally plug into the USB port or be part of an internal
integrated circuit.

Media Access Control (MAC):

 It is a unique address of NIC.

 It is a 48 bit long and is converted into 12 hexadecimal digits
 It has 2 parts: the first part represents the manufacturer number and
second part represents the serial number of the device.
 General format: NN-N-NN-DD-D-DD

 If NIC card is changed, MAC address is also changed.

Types of MAC:

There are two types of MAC address:

 Universally Administered MAC Address (UAA)

 Locally Administered MAC Address (LAA).

Universally Administered MAC Address (UAA):

 They are the most common type of MAC address.

 These are the MAC address set by manufacturer at the factory.
 It is rare for the user to change this MAC address.
 Locally Administered MAC Address (LAA):
  They are changed locally to bypass firewall, or to assign MAC address of
specific format.
Difference between MAC Addresses and IP addresses.

MAC Address:

 Identifies the physical address of a device on the network

 Unique for device on the network.
 Assigned by the manufacturer of the device and is part of the NIC.
 They can be universal on local.
 when a packet of data sent and received, the MAC address is used to
identify the senders and recipients, devices.
 Can be UAA and LAA and Uses 48 bits (12 hexadecimal digits)

Internet Protocol (IP):

 Identifies the global address on the Internet.

 May not necessarily be unique
 Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by ISP using DHCP each time the
device connects to the internet.
 Dynamic IP addresses change every time a device connects to the
internet; static IP addresses don't change.
 Used in routing operations as they specifically identify where the device
is connected to the internet.
 Use either 32 bits (IPV4) or 128 bibs (IPV6)
 Can be static or dynamic.

Types of IP addresses:

There are two types of IP addresses:

 1) Static (don't change)

 2) Dynamic (change every time a device connects to the Internet).

Static:
  Static IP addresses are permanently assigned to a device by the Internet
service provider ISP.
 They don't change each time a device logs onto the internet.
 Static IP addresses are usually assigned to
 Remote servers which are hosting a website.
 Online data base
 A file transfer protocol (FTP) server. FTP servers are used when files
need to be trans found to various computers throughout the network.

Dynamic:

 Dynamic IP address are assigned by the ISP each time La device logs onto
the internet.
 This is done using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (NACP).
 A computer on the internet, configured as a DHCP server, is used by the
Isp to automatically assign an IP address to a device.
 A dynamic IP address could be different every time a device connects to
the internet.
Routers:

 Routers enable data packets to be routed between different networks, for

example, to join a LAN to a WAN.
 The router takes data transmitted in one format from a network (which is
using a particular protocol) and converts the data to a protocol and
format understood by another network, thereby allowing them to
communicate.
 A router would typically have an internet cable plugged into it and
several cables connecting by computer and other devices on the LAN.