PHYSICS2L/Exp. No.

1/Page 2

INTRODUCTION In the field of engineering especially electrical and electronics, study of electric circuits is so pervasive. As engineers, it is crucial that we know how to analyze systems containing several electric components. It is important to note that the experimental analysis of electric circuits requires the fabrication and measurement of several parameters (e.g., voltage, current, resistance). For this particular experiment, we were introduced to some of the basic and electrical measuring instruments. One of the instruments essential in the study of electric circuits is the voltmeter, ammeter and multitester which usually combines several measurement functions in one unit. The typical multitester is capable of measuring voltage, current and resistance. It is in a digital form. Digital meters are widely used in experiments due to its efficiency and precision. Analog meters, on the other hand provide students an intuitive knowledge on the fundamental concepts of electric circuits. In analyzing basic electric circuits, it is important to have a basic knowledge in measuring parameters such as current, voltage and resistance. A voltmeter for example should be connected in parallel with the component to measure the voltage across it. Resistance is measured by connecting the test probes of the multitester across the resistor. When measuring current, the ammeter should be connected in series with the component to measure the current through it. Were going to state the OHMS LAW which is used to relate current to resistance and voltage. Probably the most important mathematical relationship between voltage, current and resistance in electricity is something called Ohms Law (Ohm's Law is used to describe the mathematical relationship between voltage, current, and resistance.) Ohm's Law tells us that the electrical current in a circuit can be calculated by dividing the voltage by the resistance. In other words, the current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. So, an increase in the voltage will increase the current as long as the resistance is held constant. Alternately, if the resistance in a circuit is increased and the voltage does not change, the current will decrease.

When we connect various components together with wires, we create an electric circuit. The electrons must have a voltage source to create their movement and, of course, they need a path in which to travel. This path must be complete from the EMF source, through the other components and then back to the EMF source.

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 3

The voltage for any electric circuit can come from many different sources; here we used dry cells (batteries). As a matter of fact, since no current can flow unless there is a voltage source, we also refer to these sources as current sources. In other words, without the voltage source, there will be no current flowing. This makes it a current source instead of a voltage source. Batteries create voltage through a chemical process. In addition to the voltage source, we need to have wires and other components to build an electric circuit. Remember that copper wires are conductors since they can easily conduct the flow of electrons. We may also use resistors or other forms of loads to form a complete circuit. If we did not include resistors in our circuit, there may be too much current flowing to and from our voltage source and we could damage the voltage source

This is called a series circuit because there is only one path for the electrons to take between any two points in this circuit. In other words, the components, which are the battery, the switch, the ammeter, and light, are all in series with each other. We put a resistor in the series circuit; it is a component that is used to control that amount of current flowing in a circuit.

Electric current is measured using an ammeter. It is very important to have a way to measure and quantify the flow of electrical current. When current flow is controlled it can be used to do useful work. Electricity can be very dangerous and it is important to know something about it in order to work with it safely. The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes. (The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric charge is the ampere, which is charge flowing through some surface at the rate of one coulomb per second)

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 4

We also need to know something about the force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit. This force is called electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is convenient to think of EMF as electrical pressure. In other words, it is the force that makes electrons move in a certain direction within a conductor. There are many sources of EMF. Some of the more common ones are: batteries, generators, and photovoltaic cells, etc. Batteries are constructed so there are too many electrons in one material and not enough in another material. The electrons want to balance the electrostatic charge by moving from the material with the excess electrons to the material with the shortage of electrons. However, they cannot because there is no conductive path for them to travel.

However, if these two unbalanced materials within the battery are connected together with a conductor, electrical current will flow as the electron moves from the negatively charged area to the positively charged area. When you use a battery, you are allowing electrons to flow from one end of the battery through a conductor and something like a light bulb to the other end of the battery. The battery will work until there is a balance of electrons at both ends of the battery. Caution: We should never connect a conductor to the two ends of a battery without making the electrons pass through something like a resistor which slows the flow of currents. If the electrons are allowed to flow too fast the conductor will become very hot, and it and the battery may be damaged. EMF is measured in units called volts.

Voltage, measured in volts is the difference in electric potential between two. A voltage may represent either a source of energy (electromotive force), or it may represent lost or stored energy (potential drop). Voltmeter is used to measure the voltage (or potential difference) between two points in a system; usually a common reference potential such as the ground of the system is used as one of the points. Voltage can be caused by static electric fields, by electric current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or a combination of all three.

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 5

Here is another important property that can be measured in electrical systems. This is resistance, which is measured in units called ohms (We can measure the resistance of the resistor via the multitester) Resistance is a term that describes the forces that oppose the flow of electron current in a conductor. All materials naturally contain some resistance to the flow of electron current. We have not found a way to make conductors that do not have some resistance. Resistance can be both good and bad. If we are trying to transmit electricity from one place to another through a conductor, resistance is undesirable in the conductor. Resistance causes some of the electrical energy to turn into heat so some electrical energy is lost along the way. However, it is resistance that allows us to use electricity for heat and light. The heat that is generated from electric heaters or the light that we get from light bulbs is due to resistance. In a light bulb, the electricity flowing through the filament, or the tiny wires inside the bulb, cause them to glow white hot. If all the oxygen were not removed from inside the bulb, the wires would burn up. An important point to mention here is that the resistance is higher in smaller wires. Therefore, if the voltage or EMF is high, too much current will follow through small wires and make them hot. In some cases hot enough to cause a fire or even explode. Therefore, it is sometimes useful to add components called resistors into an electrical circuit to restrict the flow of electricity and protect the components in the circuit. Resistance is also good because it gives us a way to shield ourselves from the harmful energy of electricity. Because it takes energy to force electrons to flow against the opposition of a resistance, there will be voltage manifested (or "dropped") between any points in a circuit with resistance between them. It is important to note that although the amount of current (the quantity of electrons moving past a given point every second) is uniform in a simple circuit, the amount of voltage (potential energy per unit charge) between different sets of points in a single circuit may vary considerably. Electricity is a naturally occurring force that exists all around us, it is a form of energy and it is the flow of electrons. When the balancing force between protons and electrons is upset by an outside force, an atom may gain or lose an electron. When electrons are "lost" from an atom, the free movement of these electrons constitutes an electric current. Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a medium. This charge is typically carried by moving electrons in a conductor such as wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons in plasma.

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 6

DATA AND RESULTS a) Using Ammeter to measure the current Reading for 1amp Rage = 0.6 amp Reading for 10amp Rage = 0.56 amp R=3

3V Observation: The two readings are almost the same. Even if you will change the range of the ammeter, you will still get the same result. And that result will depend on how large or small the value that you got from the ammeter. From the 10amp range we only got .56amp probably because it will be difficult for the ammeter to measure it because it is too small. But still, if you will round it off, you will still get the same answer

b) Using Voltmeter to measure the voltage Reading for 3 volts range = 1.5 volts Reading for 15 volts range = 1.7 volts

R=3

A V

3V Observation: Based on the results of our experiment, we got 1.7 volts in 3 volts range and 1.5 volts in 15 volts range .It shows in our result that the data we got is almost the same although the voltage range is different .it is probably because it has also the same resistance . Resistance is directly proportional to volts R=V/I.

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 7

c) Using multitester to measure the resistance of 1 meter length of aluminum wire Reading for 5ohms Resistor = 3.0 ohms Reading for Resistance of wire = 0.7 ohms Observation: We got an exact 3 ohms with the 3ohm resistor. Regarding with the wire, even it has no resistor connected to it, we still got 0.7 ohms. But we had a hard time measuring it because it is very small and most of the time the reading in the multi tester is fluctuating maybe because of its very small value.

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 8

ANALYSIS OF DATA Based from the result of the first procedure (a) which is when we measured the current of electricity in the given series circuit, we can say that we have acquired correct values. From the 1 amp range we got a reading 0.6 amp which is very similar or close to reading for the 10 amp range which is 0.56 amp, a difference of 0.04 amp. The values that we acquired were coherent and yet of course with a little inconsistency, because the equipment we used is using an analog to which the accuracy of it depends on the person reading it. In theory, given that the resistor has a value of 5 and the power source provides a 3V power for the circuit, we should be getting a value of 0.6 amp the current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance which is . By calculating the percentage of error based from our measurement with the right value, we came up an error percentage of 6.67%

For the procedure (b) we were asked to measure the voltage of the resistor in the given series circuit. We have obtained values for this part is reading for 3 volts range is 1.5V and for the 15 volts range is 1.7 V. As from the data than we obtained the measurements are quite the same, the measurements we have obtained were also firm. For the last procedure (c) we have to measure the value of the resistance of the 3ohm resistor and 1 meter aluminum wire using an ohmmeter. Based from our measurements, we got an exactly 3.0 ohm reading the 3 ohm resistor, as for the meter wire, We had a hard time figuring if what we did is exactly accurate because the reading of the multitester is always fluctuating and of course, we didnt get a stable measurement. We got a quite small value which is 0.7 ohm for an aluminum meter.

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 9

CONCLUSION In this experiment, we were trained about the uses and application of different electrical measuring instruments in order for us to analyze and determine several parameters in complex or complicated circuits. We were instructed to use these equipments to determine their functions and get familiarized with the common electric devices utilized in the laboratory especially the ammeter, voltmeter and multi-tester and to test the behavior of some electric circuits. It is very important to measure current to ensure if a circuit is operating as intended and also to check current consumption of various components. In our experiment, to measure the current, we used ammeter where in we performed an indirect measurement by measuring the voltage across a precision resistor. We also learned that measuring higher current with a lower current range set can blow your DMM fuse, and also damage the circuitry within. If you need to measure higher currents, more than 200mA, then connect the red lead to port named 10A (or 20A, 30A if your multi-meter supports). Move the knob to 10A and measure it in the same way. The force motivating electrons to flow in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is a specific measure of potential energy that is always relative between two points. When we speak of a certain amount of voltage being present in a circuit, we are referring to the measurement of how much potential energy exists to move electrons from one particular point in that circuit to another particular point. Chemical reactions, radiant energy, and the influence of magnetism on conductors are few ways in which voltage may be produced. Respective examples of these three sources of voltage are batteries, solar cells, and generators. In this experiment we understand how voltage sources can be applied to create electron flow in a circuit. The experiment also shows the relationship between voltage, current and resistance, and somehow proves the ohms law which states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Based from the objective of this experiment which is to train students the uses and applications of the different electrical measuring instruments in complex circuit We would say that we have accomplished well the objective of this experiment.

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 10

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 1. Why is that an ammeter and voltmeter were designed with low and high resistances respectively? - Both are designed to have minimum impact on the circuit being measured. The voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit being measured, so the higher the resistance the less the meter affects the circuit. The ammeter goes in series with the circuit so the lower the resistance the less it affects the circuits. - Think about the changes we would have to make to a practical circuit in order to include the ammeter. To start with, we need to break the circuit so that the ammeter can be connected in series. All the current flowing in the circuit must pass through the ammeter. Meters are not supposed to alter the behavior of the circuit, or at least not significantly, and it follows that an ammeter must have a very LOW resistance. - This time, we do not need to break the circuit. The voltmeter is connected in parallel between the two points where the measurement is to be made. Since the voltmeter provides a parallel pathway, it should take as little current as possible. In other words, a voltmeter should have a very HIGH resistance.

2. What would happen to an ammeter when connected across a high EMF battery? - The ammeter would display a very high value of current, for a very short time, until either the ammeter movement fuse burned open. - Nothing should happen if you connect an ammeter across a voltage source unless it was very high voltage compared to the rating of the meter.

PHYSICS2L/Exp. No. 1/Page 11

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allan Robinson. (1999). How to Use Ammeters. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://www.ehow.com/how_5250682_use-ammeters.htm Alcohen2006. (n.d.) What would happen to an ammeter when connected across a high emf battery?. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_would_happen_to_an_ammeter_when_connected_across_ a_high_emf_battery

Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd. (2000-2011) Circuits. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_8/4.html

John Hewes. (2011). Resistance. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/resistan.htm

Keiji Oenoki, Hector Judez. (1997, July). Chapter13: The Current. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://library.thinkquest.org/10796/ch13/ch13.htm

Ricardo D. Quintero Jr,.Familiarization with Electrical Measuring Instruments retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://www.scribd.com/doc/43945650/Familiarization-With-Electrical-Measuring-Instruments Tony R. Kuphaldt (2000-2011) Lessons In Electric Circuits, under the terms and conditions of the Design Science License, Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://openbookproject.net/electricCircuits/DC/DC_8.html

William J. Beaty (1998). What is Voltage?. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from http://amasci.com/miscon/voltage.html