Linux

About
UNIX is still regarded as one of the most versatile, flexible and powerful operating systems in the computer
world. It was created at Bell Labs by /ken thompson and dennis ritchie in 1970 written in the C programming
language, which was developed at the same time.
It supports large numbers of simultaneous users, provides some platform independence.

Linux is a relatively new UNIX flavor derived from the work of Linus Torvalds, who was interested to develop
a UNIX for academic use. Linux is absolutely free and open source (FOSS).

Linux architecture

Hardware Layer: This layer consists all peripheral devices like RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc.

Kernel: Kernel is the core of the Linux based operating system. It virtualizes the common hardware
resources of the computer to provide each process with its virtual resources.. This makes the process seem
as if it is the sole process running on the machine. The kernel is also responsible for preventing and
mitigating conflicts between different processes. This virtualisation protects the vital computer resources.
Different types of the kernel are:
● Monolithic Kernel
● Hybrid kernels
● Exo kernels
● Micro kernels

Shell: It is an interface to the kernel which hides the complexity of the kernel’s functions from the users. It
takes commands from the user and executes the kernel’s functions. Popular shells in linux are bourne shell
(sh), c-shell (csh), korn shell (ksh) and bourne again shell (bash).

System Library: Isthe special types of functions that are used to implement the functionality of the
operating system.

System Utility: It provides the functionalities of an operating system to the user.

Kernel Mode vs User Mode

Kernel component code executes in a special privileged mode called kernel mode with full access to all
resources of the computer. This code represents a single process, executes in single address space and
do not require any context switch and hence is very efficient and fast. Kernel runs each processes and
provides system services to processes, provides protected access to hardware to processes.

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Support code which is not required to run in kernel mode is in System Library. User programs and other
system programs works in User Mode which has no access to system hardware and kernel code. User
programs/ utilities use System libraries to access Kernel functions to get system's low level tasks.

Features
● Portable. Can be configured on any processor/ hardware. Supports all application programs.
● Open Source. It is freely available on internet along with its source code. Users can modify the
code and redistribute the software, leading to several distributions/distros. Also it has a large
community support.
● Dual boot.
● Multi-User. All users can use the system resources simultaneously.
● Multi-tasking. More than one function can be performed simultaneously by dividing the CPU time
intelligently.
● Multiprogramming. Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at
same time.
● Hierarchical File System: The linux filesystem is structured a follows, starting from / i.e. the root
directory, which can only be accessed by the root user.

● Shell
● Security. Linux is more secure than any other operating system due to its layered architecture.
Frequent updates/patches further enhance its security.
● Daemon.These are background services (printing, sound, scheduling, etc) that either start up
during boot, or after you log into the desktop
● Desktop environment, Linux is command line based OS but it can be converted to GUI based by
installing packages like GNOME. Several distros have inbuilt desktop environment.

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Popular Linux Distributions/Distros
● Ubuntu
● CentOS
● Fedora
● Debian
● Redhat
● Kali

Installation
Choose your distro and download the image(ISO) corresponding to your hardware architecture (e.g. intel /
amd processor)
Burn the ISO onto a DVD, or create a bootable flash drive for installation
Restart system, press F8/F12 to enter BIOS settings and select the startup disk as DVD/USB.
You will be presented with the splash screen and some options- to guide you through the installation.
1. You will be asked to set root password (admin mode), among other settings like location, time
zone, language etc.
2. Partitioning: Depending on the distro, you are asked about how you want to partition and format
your hard disk for installing the OS. It may also ask you if you want to enable hard disk encryption.
3. Installation of software packages. You may customize what components you want to include in
your installation.
4. GRUB Bootloader installation.
5. Reboot.

Start up and user management

Login access computer; start interactive session

Logout disconnect terminal session

Passwd change local login password;

date show date and time

history list of previously executed commands

man show on-line documentation by program name

w, who who is on the system and what are they doing

who am i who is logged onto this terminal

top show system status and top CPU-using processes

File system commands

Meta characters/ wild card characters

? : match with single character. E.g. in pa?, ? can be matched with any character. So possible matches can
be pan, pal, pak,pa$, pa1 etc.

* : match with a group of characters. E.g. a* would give a list of all words/file names starting with ‘a’

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 ls list files in a directory and their attributes
ls-a : hidden files
ls-l : detailed info about files

cat combine files, view contents of file, edit files

vi Text editor.

more show text file on display terminal with paging control

tail show last few lines of a file; or reverse line order

grep display lines that match a pattern

diff compare two files and show differences

cmp compare two binary files and report if different

wc count characters, words, and lines in a file

mv change file name or directory location

rm remove files

chmod set file permissions

cd change to new directory

mkdir create new directory

rmdir remove empty directory (remove files first)

pwd show current directory

Glossary of important terms

Gigahertz (GHz): it is also used to measure the speed of computer processors. For example, each CPU is
rated at a specific clock speed. This number indicates how many instruction cycles the processor can
perform each second. Since modern processors can perform millions or even billions of instructions per
second, clock speeds are typically measured in megahertz or gigahertz.
Hacking: The practice of gaining unauthorized access to a device/network, bypassing the various security
mechanisms. Hackers are usually expert programmers. Black hat hackers perform hacking illegally to
cause damage to the victim. White hat hackers use their skills to identify vulnerabilities and improve security
systems. Gray hat hackers are still do hacking illegally, but without any intent to cause damage.
Homepage A starting point or a doorway to the Website,. It refers to the Web page that identities a Website
and contains the hyperlink to other Web pages in the Website.
Hub A network device that connects multiple computers on a LAN, s0 that they can communicate with one
another.
Hyperlink An image or portion of text on a Web page that is linked to another Web page.
HTML Hyper Text Markup Language is mainly used for design Websites
HTTP/HTTPS Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is used to transfer data over the World Wide Web. That's why
all Web site addresses begin with "http://". Whenever you type a URL into your browser and hit Enter, your
computer sends an HTTP request to the appropriate Web server. The Web server, which is designed to

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handle HTTP requests, then sends to you the requested HTML page. HTTPS is Http secure and uses SSL
protocol for security. Usually used in websites requiring login information.
HDMI "High-Definition Multimedia Interface." HDMI is a digital interface for transmitting audio and video
data in a single cable. It is supported by most HDTVs and related components.
Host This is a computer that acts as a server for other computers on a network.
Hover When you roll the cursor over a link on a Web page, it is often referred to as "hovering" over the link.

MCQs from previous lecture:

1.Which of the following-Operating System does not implement multitasking truly?
(1) Windows 98
(2) Windows NT
(3) Windows XP
(4) MS DOS
Ans- (4) MS DOS

2.Which Operating System doesn't support networking between computers?

(1) Windows 95
(2) Windows 3.1
(3) Windows 2000
(4) Windows NT
Ans- (2) Win 3.1

3.Where does the minimized application reside in windows?

(A) Task bar
(B) My computer
(C) My Document
(D) Recent documents
Ans- (A) Taskbar

4.Which control panel applet gives the information of computer?

(A) System and security
(B) Hardware and sound
(C) Programs
(D) Appearance and personalization
Ans- (A) System and Security

5.Which shortcut key is used to refresh windows desktop?

(A) F1
(B) F2
(C) F5
(D) F12
Ans- (C) F5

6.What steps should be taken, if windows not updated automatically?

(A) Start - control panel - settings - add programs - enable automatic update
(B) Start - setting - control panel - system - enable automatic updated
(C) Re- installs windows OS
(D) Restart windows
Ans- (B)

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