QUANTUM MECHANICS

Modern physics
Introduction:
At the end of 19th century and in the beginning of 20th century, many new phenomena such
as photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, pair production, Zeeman Effect, radiation effects,
nuclear radiations etc., were discovered. Since classical mechanics fails to explain the
above phenomena, a new physics known as modern physics was developed on the basis of
quantum theory of radiation. In order to explain the distribution of energy in the blackbody
radiation Planck introduced the concept of quantum theory of radiation in 1900.
Radiation:
It is a process of transmission of energy from one place to another without the aid of any
intervening medium.
Heat radiation can pass through vacuum just as light. Heat radiation is also called
thermal radiation.
OR
“Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves by matter when supplied with
appropriate amount of energy”.
Blackbody radiation
Black body: when thermal radiation is incident on the surface of blackbody, it absorbs a
part of the incident energy. The amount of energy absorbed depends on
1. Nature of the surface
2. Surface area
3. Temperature of the surface
“A body which absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident on it is called a perfect
blackbody”. Such a body cannot reflect or transmit a radiation and therefore it appears
black. Thus r = 0, t = 0 & a = 1. After absorbing the radiation the blackbody gets heated &
starts emitting radiation of all possible wavelengths.The radiation emitted is independent of
the nature of the body & depends only on the temperature of the blackbody. This radiation
is known as blackbody radiation. Thus a perfect blackbody is a good absorber as well as
good emitter”.
In practice a perfect blackbody doesn’t exist. An artificial blackbody designed by Fery is as
shown in the figure.
It consists of hollow double walled sphere with a fine hole and a pointed projection in front
of the hole. The space between the two walls is evacuated. The inner wall is coated with
lampblack. The pointed projection prevents direct reflection of the incident radiation. Any
radiation entering through the hole is completely absorbed after multiple reflections. That
is at each reflection 98% of the incident radiation is absorbed. Thus after a few reflections
at the inner surface, the radiation is completely absorbed. Hence this device acts as a
blackbody absorber. It can also be used as blackbody radiator by heating it in a suitable
bath to high temperature.
Emissive power and Absorption power
Emissive power: The emissive power (E) of a surface is the amount of radiation of all
wavelengths emitted by unit area of the surface in unit time.
OR
The emissive power (eλ) of a body at a temperature (T) for a wavelength (λ) is defined as
the energy emitted per second per unit surface area of the body within a unit wavelength
range.
The emissive power of a perfect blackbody is maximum and it is denoted by Eλ.
Absorptive power: The absorptive power (A) of a surface is the fraction of the incident
radiation of all wavelengths which is absorbed by it.
Amount of energy (radiation) absorbed Amount of radiation
A =i.e.,
incident
OR
The absorptive power (aλ) of a body at a temperature (T) and for a wavelength (λ) is
defined as the ratio of amount of energy absorbed by the surface in a given time to the
amount of energy incident on the same surface in the same time.
The absorptive power of a perfect blackbody is maximum and it is equal to 1 i.e., Aλ =
1.
According to Kirchhoff’s law, the ratio of the emissive power (eλ) to the absorptive power
(aλ) for a given wavelength (λ) at a given temperature (T) is the same for all bodies and is
equal to the emissive power of a perfect blackbody at that temperature.

ie.,
 Distribution of energy in blackbody radiation
The distribution of energy among the different wavelength of blackbody radiation was
studied by Lummer and Pringsheim in 1809. The curve in the figure shows the variation
of intensity of radiation with wavelength for different temperature of the blackbody (T1 <
T2 < T3). As a result, an examination of these curves leads us to the following conclusions.

1. At a given temperature, the energy distribution is not uniform in the spectrum of blackbody
radiation.
2. At a given temperature, the blackbody emits continuous range of wavelengths of radiation.
As the wavelength increases the intensity of radiation increases reaches a maximum value
at a particular wavelength λm and then decreases with further increase in wavelength.
3. As the temperature increases, the wavelength λm corresponds to maximum energy density
decreases or shift towards shorter wavelengths region. The points on the dotted line
represent λm at various temperatures. It is found that This shows Wien’s displacement law.
i.e., m  1/T
4. For all wavelengths, an increase in temperature causes an increase in the energy emission
or intensity.
5. For a given temperature, the area under the curve represents the total energy emitted for the
complete spectrum. The area under the curve increases with increase in temperature. It is
found that the area is directly proportional to the
4th power of absolute temperature of the blackbody i.e., E  T4.
This represents Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Laws of Blackbody radiation
Stefan’s law or (Stefan-Boltzmann law) :
Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation states that “the emissive power (E) of a blackbody is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature (T)”.
E T4 or E =  T4
Where σ is a constant known as Stefan’s constant. Its value is 5.67x10-8 Wm-2k-4. This law
was suggested experimentally by Stefan and later derived by Boltzmann and hence it is
called as Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Wien’s displacement law:
Wien’s law states that “the wavelength λm corresponds to maximum energy is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature T of the blackbody”.
i.e.,  =1/T or = constant

Where b is called the Wien’s constant and it is equal to 2.892x10-3 mK. It shows that, as
temperature increases λm decreases. Thus if λm1, λm2, λm3 etc., are the wavelengths
corresponds to the maximum energy densities at temperatures T1, T2, T3 etc., then
according to Wien’s law we have,
m T1 = m T2 = m T2 =, = b
This is known as Wien’s displacement law.
Wien’s law of Radiation:
Wien has also shown that the “maximum energy Em is directly proportional to fifth power
of the absolute temperature T”. 5

i.e., E  T 5 or E T -5 = constant
m m
or
This is known as Wien’s law of radiation.
Wien’s distribution law:
The energy density emitted by a blackbody in the wavelength range λ and λ + dλ in a given
temperature T is given by,

where C1 & C2 are the constants. This is known as Wien’s distribution law.
Wien’s law holds good only in shorter wavelength region with the experimental results at
high temperature of the source. It fails to explain the gradual decrease in the intensity of
radiation with the wavelength beyond the wavelength λm corresponds to the peak value.
Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
Rayleigh and Jeans gave a mathematical expression for the distribution of energy in
blackbody radiation.
According to Rayleigh-Jeans law the energy density or intensity emitted by a blackbody in
the wavelength range λ and λ + dλ is given by,

This equation doesn’t shows any peak in the energy value but the energy goes on decreases
with increase in wavelength. This law holds good only in the longer wavelength region of
the experimental results.

Drawbacks of Wien’s law and Rayleigh-Jeans law (ultraviolet catastrophe)

The Wien’s law is valid only for the shorter wavelength region at high temperature of the
source. It doesn’t holds good in the longer wavelength region and it fails to explain the
gradual decrease in the intensity of radiation whose wavelength are larger than the
wavelength λm corresponds to the peak value.
Rayleigh-Jeans law holds good only in the longer wavelength region and it doesn’t holds
good in the shorter wavelength region. According to Rayleigh-Jeans law,

As λ→0, eλ→∞ thus at lower wavelength region, as the wavelength decreases the energy
density increases and when the wavelength reaches ultraviolet region the energy density
becomes large. Such a large increase in the energy density in the
 lower wavelength region below ultraviolet doesn’t occur experimentally. This discrepancy
is known as “ultraviolet catastrophe”.
Planck’s radiation law:
In 1900 Max Planck proposed a new theory called quantum theory which successfully
explained the energy distribution among different wavelengths in the blackbody radiation.
The Planck’s theory is based on the following postulates (or) assumptions.
1. A blackbody consists of a large number of oscillating particles (atoms). These particles can
vibrate in all possible energies.
2. An oscillator can have a discrete set of energies which are integral multiples of a finite
quantum of energies. ie., En = nh
where n is an integer (n = 1, 2, 3, 4…,), h is a Planck’s constant and  is the frequency of
the oscillating particle.
3. The atomic oscillator can emit or absorb energy in discrete units only by making a
transition from one quantum state to another.
Thus, the energy of a quantum is directly proportional to the frequency, the quantum
traverse in space with the velocity of light.
According to Planck’s, the energy density emitted from a blackbody at a temperature T
for all wavelength range λ and λ+dλ is given by,

where k is the Boltzmann constant. According to this equation, the distribution of energy in
blackbody radiation agrees well with the experimental observations in all wavelength
range. This equation is known as Planck’s law or Planck’s radiation law.

E = h
En = nh
h = 6.6261 10 −34 Js
  −e   − 2e   − re 
N = N 0 + N 0 exp   + N 0 exp   + .... + N 0 exp   + ...
 KT   KT   KT 
N0 1
= (1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ...... =
  − e  1− x
1 + exp  
  KT 
the total energy
 −e   − 2e   − 3e   − re 
E = ( N 0  0) + N 0 exp   + 2N 0 exp   + 3N 0 exp   + ... + rN 0 exp   + ...
 KT   KT   KT   KT 
 − e   −e   − 2e   − (r − 1)e 
= N 0 exp   1 + 2 exp   + 3 exp   + .... + re exp  
 KT    KT   KT   KT 
 −e  1 1
= N 0 exp   .......(1 + x + x 2 + .... =
 KT    − e 
2
(1 − x 2 )
1 − exp  
  KT 
 multiplyin g  & N
8 2 h
E d = 3 d 
c   h  
exp   − 1
  KT  
8h 3 1
or E d =  d
c 3
  h  
exp   − 1
  KT  

c  c 
= & d =  − 2 d
   
8h  c 3  1  c 
E d = 3  3    2 d 
c      hc     
exp   − 1
  KT  
8hc h
or E d = 5  d
   hc  
exp   − 1
  KT  
de-Broglie HYPOTHESIS
The dual nature of light possessing both wave and particle properties was explained by
combining Plank’s expression for the energy of a photon E = h ν with Einstein’s mass energy
relation E = m c2 (where c is velocity of light , h is Plank’s constant , m is mass of particle )
 h ν = m c2
Introducing ν = c / λ, we get h c / λ = m c2
 λ = h / mc = h / p where p is momentum of particle

λ is deBroglie wavelength associated with a photon.

de-Broglie proposed the concept of matter waves , according to which a material particle of mass
‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ should be associated with deBroglie wavelength ‘λ’ given by
λ =h/mv=h/p
The above eqn. represents de-Broglie wave eqn.
Characteristics of Matter waves:
Since 𝜆 =
1. Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
2. Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the wavelength associated with it.
3. For v = 0, λ = ∞. This means that only with moving particle, matter waves is associated.
4. Whether the particle is changed or not, matter waves is associated with it.
5. It can be proved that matter waves travel faster than light.
We know that 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 and 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐
 ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 or 𝜈 =
Wave velocity (ω) is given by 𝜔 = 𝜐𝜆 = 𝜆
Substituting for λ, we get 𝜔 = =
As the particle velocity ‘v’ cannot exceed velocity of light, ω is greater than the velocity
of light.
6. No single phenomena exhibit both particle nature and wave nature simultaneously.
7. The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of the particle & the
momentum of the particle exists when both are determined simultaneously.

DAVISSON AND GERMER’s EXPERIMENT

C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer were studying scattering of electrons by a metal target
and measuring the intensity of electrons scattered in different directions.
Experimental Arrangement:
An electron gun, which comprises of a tungsten filament is heated by a low
tension battery B1, produces electrons. These electrons are accelerated to desired velocity by
applying suitable potential from a high tension source B2. The accelerated electrons are
collimated into a fine beam by allowing them to pass through a system of pin holes provided in
the cylinder. The whole instrument is kept in an evacuated chamber.
The fast moving beam of electrons is made to strike the Nickel target capable of
rotating about an axis perpendicular to the plane. The electrons are now scattered in all directions
by the atomic planes of crystals. The intensity of the electron beam scattered in a direction can be
measured by the electron collector which can be rotated about the same axis as the target. The
collector is connected to a galvanometer whose deflection is proportional to the intensity of the
electron beam entering the collector.

Fig. Davisson and Germer's Apparatus

The electron beam is accelerated by 54 V is made to strike the Nickel crystal and a
sharp maximum is occurred at angle of 50o with the incident beam. The incident beam and the
diffracted beam in this experiment make an angle of 65o with the family of Bragg’s planes.
d = 0.091nm (for Ni crystals)
According to Bragg’s law for maxima in diffracted pattern,
2d sin θ = n λ
For n =1, λ = 2d sin θ
= 2 x0.91x 10-10x sin 65o
= 0.165 nm
For a 54 V electron, the deBrogllie wavelength associated with the electron is given by
. .
= = °𝐴
√ √
= 0.166 nm.
This value is in agreement with the experimental value. This experiment provides a direct
verification of deBroglie hypothesis of wave nature of moving particles.

G.P. THOMSON’s EXPERIMENT:

G.P. Thomson investigated high speed electrons produced by applying the high voltage
ranges from10 to 50kV. The principle is similar to that of that of powdered crystal method of X-
ray diffraction.
In this experiment, an extremely thin ( 10-8m ) metallic film F of gold, aluminium etc., is
used as a transmission grating to a narrow beam of high speed electrons emitted by a cathode C
and accelerated by anode A. A fluorescent screen S or a suitable photographic plate P is used to
observe the scattered electron beam. The whole arrangement is enclosed in a vacuum chamber.
The electron beam transmitted through the metal foil gets scattered producing diffraction
pattern consisting of concentric circulars rings around a central spot. The experimental results
and its analysis are similar to those of powdered crystal experiment of X- ray diffraction.
 Fig. Thomson’s Apparatus

L: distance between the foil and screen

R(r): radius of the diffraction ring
θ: glancing angle
The method of interpretation of the experimental results is same as that of the Davisson and
Germer experiment. Here also we use Bragg’s law and deBroglie wavelength.
We have 2d sin θ = n λ
θ = n λ / 2d -- I since θ is small sin θ = θ
From fig.
R/L = tan2 θ ≈ 2 θ
R = L 2 θ - II
From eqn I, II R = L 2 n λ / 2d = L n λ / d
Since L and d are fixed in the experiment
R α n λ or D α n λ D is diameter of the ring
Combing with the deBroglie expression
λ = √ (150 / V (1+r))
Where (1+r) is the relativistic correction we notice that D√ (V (1+r)) must be constant for a
given order the experiment repeated with different voltages. The data shows that D√ (V(1+r)) is
constant, thus supporting the deBroglie concept of matter waves.

HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

According to classical mechanics, a moving particle at any instant has a fixed position in
space and a definite momentum which can be determined simultaneously with any desired
accuracy. The classical point of view represents an approximation which is adequate for the
objects of appreciable size, but not for the particles of atomic dimensions.
Since a moving particle has to be regarded as a deBroglie group, there is a limit to the
accuracy with which we can measure the particle properties. The particle may be found
anywhere within the wave group, moving with the group velocity. If the group is narrow, it is
 easy to locate its position but the uncertainty in calculating its velocity or momentum increases.
On the other hand, if the group is wide, its momentum can be estimated satisfactorily, but the
uncertainty in finding the location of the particle is great. Heisenberg stated that the simultaneous
determination of exact position and momentum of a moving particle is impossible.
If Δ x is Error in the measurement of position of the particle along X-axis
Δ p is Error in the measurement of momentum
Then Δ x. Δ p = h ---------- (1) where h is Plank’s constant
The above relation represents the uncertainty involved in measurement of both the position and
momentum of the particle.
To optimize the above error, lower limit is applied to the eqn. (1)
Then (Δ x). (Δ p) ≥ Ђ / 2 where ђ = h / 2 Π
A particle can be exactly located (Δ x → 0) only at the expense of an infinite momentum (Δ p →
∞).
There are uncertainty relatio0ns between position and momentum, energy and time, and angular
momentum and angle.
If the time during which a system occupies a certain state is not greater than Δ t, then the energy
of the state cannot be known within Δ E,
i e (Δ E ) ( Δ t ) ≥ ђ / 2 .

SCHRÖDINGER’s TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:

Schrödinger, in 1926, developed wave equation for the moving particles. One of its forms
can be derived by simply incorporating the deBroglie wavelength expression into the classical
wave eqn.
If a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ is associated with a group of waves.
Let ψ be the wave function of the particle. Also let us consider a simple form of progressing
wave like the one represented by the following equation,
Ψ = Ψ0 sin (ω t – k x) --------- (1)
Where Ψ = Ψ (x, t) and Ψ0 is the amplitude.
Differentiating Ψ partially w.r.to x,
∂ Ψ / ∂ x = Ψ0 cos (ω t – k x) (- k)
= -k Ψ0 cos (ω t – k x)
Once again differentiate w.r.to x
∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 = (- k) Ψ0 (- sin (ω t – k x)) (- k)
= - k 2 Ψ0 sin (ω t – k x)
∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 = - k 2 ψ (from eqn (1))
∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + k 2 ψ = 0 ----------- (2)
∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + (4 Π2 / λ2) ψ = 0 --------- (3) (since k = 2 Π / λ)
From eqn. (2) or eqn. (3) is the differential form of the classical wave eqn. now we incorporate
deBroglie wavelength expression λ = h / m v.
Thus we obtain
∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + (4 Π2 / (h / m v) 2) ψ = 0
∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + 4 Π2 m2 v 2 ψ / h2 = 0 -------------- (4)
The total energy E of the particle is the sum of its kinetic energy K and potential energy V
i e E = K + V -------------- (5)
And K = mv2 / 2 ---------- (6)
 Therefore m2 v 2 = 2 m (E – V) ------------ (7)
From (4) and (7)
=> ∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + [8Π2 m (E-V) / h2] ψ = 0 ------------ (8)
In quantum mechanics, the value h / 2 Π occurs more frequently. Hence we denote,
ђ=h/2Π
Using this notation, we have
∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 ------------ (9)
For simplicity, we considered only one – dimensional wave. Extending eqn. (9) for a three –
dimensional, we have
∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + ∂2 ψ / ∂ y2 + ∂2 ψ / ∂ z2 + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 ------------ (10)
Where Ψ = Ψ (x, y, z).
Here, we have considered only stationary states of ψ after separating the time dependence of Ψ.
Using the Laplacian operator,
▼2 = ∂2 / ∂ x2 + ∂2 / ∂ y2 + ∂2 / ∂ z2 ------------- (11)
Eqn. (10) can be written as
▼2 Ψ + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 --------------- (12)
This is the Schrödinger Time Independent Wave Equation.

Physical Significance of Wave Function:

Max Born in 1926 gave a satisfactory interpretation of the wave function  associated
with a moving particle. He postulated that the square of the magnitude of the wave function ||2
(or  * it  is complex), evaluated at a particular point represents the probability of finding the
particle at the point. ||2 is called the probability density and  is the probability amplitude.
Thus the probability of the particle within an element volume dt is ||2 d. Since the particle is
certainly somewhere, the integral at ||2 d over all space must be unity i.e.

- ||
 2
.d = 1 ___________________ (28)

A wave function that obeys the above equations is said to be normalized. Energy
acceptable wave function must be normalizable besides being normalizable; an acceptable wave
function should fulfill the following requirements (limitations)
.
1. It must be finite everywhere.
2. It must be single valued.
3. It must be continuous and have a continuous first derivative everywhere.

Normalization Of a wave function:

Since |(x, y, z) 2| .d is the probability that the particle will be found in a volume element d.
Surrounding the point at positron (x, y, z), the total probability that the particle will be
somewhere in space must be equal to 1. Thus, we have
- |(x, y, z) | .d = 1
 2
 Where  is a function of the space coordinates (x, y, z) from this ‘normalization
condition’ we can find the value of the complaint and its sign. A wave function which satisfies
the above condition is said to be normalized (to unity).

The normalizing condition for the wave function for the motion of a particle in one
dimension is
- |(x) | .dx = 1
 2

From these equations, we see that for one – dimensional case, the dimension of (x) in L-1/2 and
for the three – dimensional case the dimension of (x, y, z) in L-3/2.
PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL BOX:
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ placed inside a one-dimensional box of infinite height

and width L.
Fig. Particle in a potential well of infinite height.

Assume that the particle is freely moving inside the box. The motion of the particle is restricted by
the walls of the box. The particle is bouncing back and forth between the walls of the box at x = 0
and x = a. For a freely moving particle at the bottom of the potential well, the potential energy is
very low. Since the potential energy is very low, moving particle energy is assumed to be zero
between x =0 and x = a.
The potential energy of the particle outside the walls is infinite due to the infinite P.E outside the
potential well.
The particle cannot escape from the box
i.e. V = 0 for 0 < x < a
V = ∞ for 0 ≥ x ≥ a
Since the particle cannot be present outside the box, its wave function is zero
i e │ψ│2 = 0 for 0 > x > a
│ψ│2 = 0 for x = a & x = 0
The Schrödinger one – dimensional time independent eqn. is
▼2 Ψ + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 ----------(1)
For freely moving particle V = 0
▼2 Ψ + [ 2 m E / ђ 2 ] ψ = 0 ----------(2)
Taking 2 m E / ђ 2 = K2 ------------ (3)
Eqn.(1) becomes ∂2 ψ / ∂ x2 + k2 Ψ = 0 -------------(4)
Eqn. (1) is similar to eq. of harmonic motion and the solution of above eqn. is written as
Ψ = A sin kx + B cos kx -----------(5) where A, B and k are unknown quantities and
to calculate them it is necessary to construct boundary conditions.
Hence boundary conditions are
 When x = 0, Ψ = 0 => from (5) 0 = 0 + B => B = 0 -------- (6)
When x = a, Ψ = 0 => from (5) 0 = A sin ka + B cos ka ---------- (7)
But from (6) B = 0 therefore eqn. (7) may turn as
A sin ka = 0
Since the electron is present in the box a ≠ 0
Sin ka = 0
Ka = n Π
k = n Π / a -------------- (8)
Substituting the value of k in eqn. (3)

2 m E / ђ 2 = (n Π / a )2

E = ( n Π / a )2 ( ђ 2 / 2 m ) = ( n Π / a )2 ( h2 / 8 m Π2 )

E = n2 h2 / 8 m a2

In general En = n2 h2 / 8 m a2 ------------(9)

The wave eqn. can be written as

Ψ = A sin (n Π x / a) ---------- (10)

Let us find the value of A, if an electron is definitely present inside the box, then

=>∫∞-∞ │ψ│2 dx = 1

=>∫a0 A2 sin2 ( n Π x / a ) dx = 1

=>∫a0 sin2 (n Π x / a) dx = 1 / A2

=>∫a0 [1 - cos (2 Π n (x / a)) / 2] dx = 1 / A2

A = √ 2 / a ---------- (11)

From eqn’s. (10) & (11)

Ψn = √ 2 / a sin ( n Π x / a ) ----------(12)

Eqn. (9) represents an energy level for each value of n. the wave function this energy level is
given in eqn. (12). Therefore the particle in the box can have discrete values of energies. These
values are quantized. Not that the particle cannot have zero energy .The normalized wave
functions Ψ1 , Ψ2, Ψ3 given by eqn (12) is plotted. the values corresponding to each E n value is
known as Eigen value and the corresponding wave function is known as Eigen function.

The wave function Ψ1, has two nodes at x = 0 & x = a

The wave function Ψ2, has three nodes at x = 0, x = a / 2 & x = a

The wave function Ψ3, has three nodes at x = 0, x = a / 3, x = 2 a / 3 & at x = a

The wave function Ψn, has (n + 1) nodes

Substituting the value of E in (3), we get

(2 m / ђ 2 ) ( p2 / 2 m) = k2

=> p2 / ђ 2 = k2

k = p / ђ = p / (h / 2 Π) = 2 Π p / h

k = 2 Π / λ where k is known as wave vector.

BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

BLOCH THEOREM
A crystalline solid consists of a lattice which is composed of a large number of ionic
cores at regular intervals, and, the conduction electrons can move freely throughout the lattice.
Let the lattice be in only one-dimension i.e., only an array of ionic cores along x-axis is
considered. The potential energy of any body bound in a field of attraction is negative,
since the conduction electron is bound to the solid; its potential energy V is negative. Further,
as it approaches the site of an ionic core V → - ∞. Since this occurs symmetrically on either
side of the core, it is referred to as potential well. The width of the potential well b is not
uniform, but has a tapering shape.
If V0 is the potential at a given depth of the well, then the variation is such that
b→0, as V0 → ∞ ., and ,
The product b V0 is a constant.
Now, since the lattice is a repetitive structure of the ion arrangement in a crystal, the type of
variation of V also repeats itself. If a is the interionic distance, then , as we move in x-
direction, the value of V will be same at all points which are separated by a distance equal to a.
ie V(x) = V( x + a ) where, x is distance of the electron from the core.
Such a potential is said to be a periodic potential.
 The Bloch’s theorem states that, for a particle moving in a periodic potential, the
Eigen functions for a conduction electron are of the form,
χ ( x ) = U (x) cos kx
Where U ( x ) = U ( x + a )
In order to understand the physical properties of the system, it is required to solve the
Schrödinger’s equation. However, it is extremely difficult to solve the Schrödinger’s equation
with periodic potential described above. Hence the Kronig – Penney Model is adopted for
simplification.

THE KRONIG -PENNEY MODEL

It is assumed in quantum free electron theory of metals that the free electrons in a metal
express a constant potential and is free to move in the metal. This theory explains successfully
most of the phenomena of solids. But it could not explain why some solids are good conductors
and some other are insulators and semi conductors. It can be understood successfully using the
band theory of solids.
According to this theory, the electrons move in a periodic potential produced by the
positive ion cores. The potential of electron varies periodically with periodicity of ion core and
potential energy of the electrons is zero near nucleus of the positive ion core. It is maximum
when it is lying between the adjacent nuclei which are separated by interatomic spacing. The
variation of potential of electrons while it is moving through ion core is shown fig.

Fig. One dimensional periodic potential

V ( x ) = { 0 , for the region 0 < x < a

{ V0 for the region -b < x < a ---------------------(1)
Applying the time independent Schrödinger’s wave equation for above two regions
d2Ψ / dx2 + 2 m E Ψ / ħ2 = 0 for region 0 < x < a -----------(2)
and d2Ψ / dx2 + 2 m ( E – V ) Ψ / ħ2 = 0 for region -b < x < a -----------(3)
Substituting α2 = 2 m E / ħ2 ---------------(4)
β2 = 2 m ( E – V ) / ħ2 -----------(5)
d2Ψ / dx2 + α2 Ψ = 0 for region 0 < x < a -----------(6)
d2Ψ / dx2 + β2 Ψ = 0 for region -b < x < a -----------(7)
The solution for the eqn.s (6) and (7) can be written as
Ψ ( x ) = Uk ( x ) eikx ------------------(8)
The above solution consists of a plane wave eikx modulated by the periodic function.
Uk(x), where this Uk(x) has the periodicity of the ion such that
Uk(x) = Uk(x+a) ------------------(9)
and where k is propagating vector along x-direction and is given by k = 2 Π / λ . This k is
also known as wave vector.
Differentiating equation (8) twice with respect to x, and substituting in equation (6) and (7),
two independent second order linear differential equations can be obtained for the regions 0 <
x < a and -b < x < 0 .
Applying the boundary conditions to the solution of above equations, for linear equations in
terms of A,B,C and D it can be obtained (where A,B,C,D are constants ) the solution for
these equations can be determined only if the determinant of the coefficients of A , B , C ,
and D vanishes, on solving the determinant.
(β2 - α2 / 2 α β)sin hβb sin αa + cos hβb cos αa = cos k ( a + b ) ---------- ---- (10)
The above equation is complicated and Kronig and Penney could conclude with the equation.
Hence they tried to modify this equation as follows
Let Vo is tending to infinite and b is approaching to zero, so that V ob remains finite.
Therefore sin hβb → βb and cos hβb→1
β2 - α2 = ( 2 m / ħ2 ) (Vo – E ) – ( 2 m E / ħ2 )
= ( 2 m / ħ2 ) (Vo – E - E ) = ( 2 m / ħ2 ) (Vo – 2 E )
= 2 m V o / ħ2 ( since Vo >> E )
Substituting all these values in equation (10) it verities as
( 2 m Vo / 2 ħ2 α β ) β b . sin α a + cos α a == cos k a
( m Vo b a / ħ2 ) ( sin α a / α a ) + cos α a == cos k a
( P / α a ) sin α a + cos α a == cos k a -------------------(11)
2
Where P = [ m Vo b a / ħ ] ------------------(12)
and is a measure of potential barrier strength.
The left hand side of the equation (11) is plotted as a function of α for the value of P = 3 Π /
2 which is shown in fig, the right hand side one takes values between -1 to +1 as indicated by
the horizontal lines in fig. Therefore the equation (11) is satisfied only for those values of ka
for which left hand side between ± 1.
From fig , the following conclusions are drawn.
The energy spectrum of the electron consists of a number of allowed and forbidden energy
bands.
The width of the allowed energy band increases with increase of energy values ie increasing
the values of αa. This is because the first term of equation(11) decreases with increase
of αa.
( P / α a ) sin α a + cos α a == 3 Π / 2
 Fig. a) P=6pi b) p--> infinity c) p--> 0
With increasing P, ie with increasing potential barrier, the width of an allowed band
decreases. As P→∞, the allowed energy becomes infinitely narrow and the energy
spectrum is a line spectrum as shown in fig.
If P→∞, then the equation (11) has solution ie
Sin αa = 0
αa = ± n Π
α=±nΠ/a
α2 = n2 Π2 / a2
But α 2 = 2 m E / ħ2
Therefore 2 m E / ħ = n2 Π2 / a2
2

E = [ ħ2 Π2 / 2 m a2] n2
E = n h2 / 8 m a2 ( since ħ = h / 2 Π )
This expression shows that the energy spectrum of the electron contains discrete energy levels
separated by forbidden regions.
4) When P→0 then
Cos αa = cos ka
α = k , α 2 = k2
but α 2 = 2 m E / ħ2
therefore k = (h / 2 m ) ( 1 / λ2 ) = (h2 / 2 m ) (P2 / h2 )
2 2

E = P2 / 2 m
E =1/2mv2 ----------------(14)
The equation (11) shows all the electrons are completely free to move in the crystal without any
constraints. Hence, no energy level exists ie all the energies are allowed to the electrons and
shown in fig (5). This case supports the classical free electrons theory.
[ ( P / α a ) sin α a + cos α a ] , P → 0

Velocity of the electron in periodic potential:

According to quantum theory, an electron moving with a velocity can be treated as a

wave packet moving with the group velocity vg
v = vg = dω / dk -----------------(1)
where ω is the angular frequency of deBroglie wave and k = 2 Π / λ is the wave vector.
The energy of an electron can be expressed as
 E = ħ ω ---------------------(2)
Differentiating the equation (2) with respect to k
dE / dk = ħ dω / dk -------------(3)
from (1) & (3)
vg = 1 / ħ (dE / dk ) -----------------(4)
According to band theory of solids, the variations of E with k as shown in fig(1). Using this
graph and equation (4), the velocity of electron can be calculated. The variation of velocity with
k is shown in fig(2). From this fig, it is clear that the velocity of electron is zero at the bottom of
the energy band. As the value of k increases, the velocity of electron increases and reaches to
maximum at K=k. Further, the increases of k, the velocity of electron decreases and reaches to
zero at K= Π / a at the top of energy band.

Origin Of Energy Bands In Solids

Solids are usually moderately strong, slightly elastic structures. The individual atoms are
held together in solids by interatomic forces or bonds. In addition to these attractive forces,
repulsive forces also act and hence solids are not easily compressed.
The attractive forces between the atoms are basically electrostatic in origin. The bonding
is strongly dependent on the electronic structure of the atoms. The attraction between the atoms
brings them closer until the individual electron clouds begin to overlap. A strong repulsive force
arises to comply with Pauli’s exclusion principle. When the attractive force and the repulsive
force between any two atoms are balanced, they occupy a stable position with a minimum
potential energy. The spacing between the atoms under this condition is called equilibrium
spacing.
In an isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and have discrete, sharp energy levels.
When two identical atoms are brought closer, the outermost orbits of these atoms overlap and
interact. When the wave functions of the electrons on different atoms begin to overlap
considerably, the energy levels corresponding to those wave functions split. if more atoms are
brought together more levels are formed and for a solid of N atoms, each of the energy levels of
an atom splits into N levels of energy. The levels are so close together that they form an almost
continuous band. The width of this band depends on the degree of overlap of electrons of
adjacent atoms and is largest for the outermost atomic electrons. In a solid many atoms are
brought together so that the split energy levels form a set of bands of very closely spaced levels
with forbidden energy gaps between them.

Classification Of Materials

The electrons first occupy the lower energy bands and are of no importance in
determining many of the electrical properties of solids. Instead, the electrons in the higher energy
bands of solids are important in determining many of the physical properties of solids. Hence the
two allowed energy bands called valence and conduction bands are required. The gap between
these two allowed bands is called forbidden energy gap or band gap since electrons can’t have
any energy values in the forbidden energy gap. The valence band is occupied by valence
electrons since they are responsible for electrical, thermal and optical properties of solids. above
the valence band we have the conduction band which is vacant at 0K. According to the gap
between the bands and band occupation by electrons, all solids can be classified broadly into two
groups.
In the first group of solids called metals there is a partially filled band immediately above
the uppermost filled band .this is possible when the valence band is partially filled or a
completely filled valence band overlaps with the partially filled conduction band.

In the second group of solids , there is a gap called band gap

between the completely filled valence band and completely empty conduction band. Depending
on the magnitude of the gap we can classify insulators and semiconductors.
Insulators have relatively wide forbidden band gaps. For typical insulators the band gap
Eg > 3 eV. On the other hand, semiconductors have relatively narrow forbidden bands. For
typical semiconductors; Eg ≤ 1 eV.

E-K Diagram:

An E-k diagram shows characteristics of a particular semiconductor material. It shows

the relationship between the energy and momentum of available quantum mechanical states for
electrons in the material. The band gap (E G), which is the difference in energy between the top of
the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. The effective mass of electrons and
holes in the material. This is given by the curvature of each of the bands. This diagram indicates
(diagramatically) how the actual electron states are equally spaced in k-space.
 OR 1
2𝜋𝑚 ∗ 𝐾 𝑇 3 −(𝐸𝐴 −𝐸𝑉 )
𝑛 = (2𝑁 )2 [ 𝑝 𝐵 ]4 𝑒 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇
(𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑃−𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 ) 𝐴 𝑕2

Energy band diagrams of (a) Intrinsic semiconductor (b) N- type & (c) P- type semiconductors

Hall Effect

Determination of Hall coefficient RH, Hall voltage VH & Applications of Hall Effect
Definition:
If a piece of semiconductor carrying a current „I‟ is placed in a transverse or perpendicular
magnetic field, then an Electric field „E H‟ is generated in perpendicular to both „I‟ and „B‟.
Hence production of Hall electric field „E H‟ and generation of Hall voltage VH by applying
current „I‟ & „B‟ in perpendicular directions is called Hall Effect.

Derivation of RH, VH, & EH:

Assume an N – type semiconductor. Let „I‟ be the current passed along X- axis. Let „B‟ the
magnetic field applied along „Z‟ axis. Due to current „I‟, due to the flow of electrons, the force
acting on electrons is in opposite direction to the direction of conventional current.
Due to the magnetic field „B‟ there is a down ward force act on each electron given by Bev.
This makes the electrons deviated in a down ward direction along Z – axis. This causes a
negative charge to accumulate on the bottom face.
Hence FB = Bev
Where „e‟ = charge of electron, v = velocity of electron

A semiconductor applied to current and magnetic field perpendicularly in Hall Effect

40
A potential difference is formed from top to bottom of the specimen. The potential difference
causes a field EH to flow along negative Y- axis. Due to EH along negative Y- direction a force of
eEH acts in upward direction along positive Y- axis.
Hence FE = e EH
Under equilibrium condition
Upward force due to EH = Downward force due to B.
FB = FE
e EH = Bev
v = 𝐸𝐻 → (1)
𝐵
If J is the current density then J = nev
v =𝑛𝑒𝐽 →(2)
Equating (1) & (2) we get 𝐸𝐻 = 𝐽
𝐵 𝑛𝑒
𝐽𝐵
EH =
𝑛𝑒
EH =[−1] B J
𝑛𝑒
Let Hall coefficient RH = −1 for electrons
𝑛𝑒
−1
RH = for holes
𝑝𝑒
Hence EH = RH B J → (4)

RH = →(5)
BJ
Where n= electron density, P = hole density, E H = Hall electric field, RH = Hall coefficient
B = magnetic field, J = current density

Experimental determination of RH
Consider equation (5)
𝐸𝐻
RH =
BJ
Let VH is the Hall voltage across the sample of thickness„t‟
Generally V = Ed
In Hall effect VH = EH × t
H = →(6)
E
𝑡
If „b‟ is the width of the sample semiconductor, Area „A‟, thickness„t‟
Area = breadth × thickness
A=b×t
We know that current density J = 𝐴𝐼
J = 𝐼 → (7)
𝑏𝑡
Substituting equations (6) & (7) in (5) we𝑉 get
𝐻
[ ]
RH = 𝐼
𝐵[ 𝑏 ]𝑡

Hall coefficient RH = VH × b → (8)

𝐵×𝐼
Where VH = Hall voltage, b = breadth of a semiconductor, B = magnetic field

41
 I = current due to flow of electron
VH = 𝑅𝐻 → (9)
𝑏
Applications of Hall Effect
1. For determination of type of given semiconductor.
For N-type, Hall coefficient RH = negative; For P-type, Hall coefficient RH = Positive

2. To determine carrier concentration „n‟ and „p‟ ; that is n = p= 1

𝑅𝐻 𝑒
3. Determination of mobility of charge carriers (𝜇)
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇
𝜇 =1 𝜎 = 𝑅 𝜎 𝐻
𝑛𝑒
𝜇=[ ] , Where 𝜎 = electrical conductivity
𝐵 𝐼
4. For measurement of magnetic flux density „B‟ & Hall voltage.
5. To determine the sign of charge carriers, whether the conductivity is due to electrons or
holes.

42
Construction and working of - Light Emitting Diode:
 Emission of radiation from a solid when it is supplied with some form of energy is known as
LUMINESCENCE. Whatever the form of energy input to the luminescent material, the final stage
in the process is an electronic transition between two energy levels, E 2 and E1 (E2>E1). With the
emission of radiation of wavelength 𝜆 given by
ℎ𝑐
𝜆
= E2-E1 = Eg
ℎ𝑐
i.e) 𝜆 = 𝐸𝑔
→ (25)
Usually E1 and E2 are two groups of energy levels and hence instead of a single
wave length emission, a band of wavelength is emitted.
 PN junction diode operated under forward bias gives rise to injection luminescence. Under forward
bias, majority carriers from both sides of the junction across the internal potential barrier and enter
the other side of the junction where there are minority carriers. This process is called minority
carrier injection. These excess minority carriers while diffusing away from the junction undergo
radiative recombination with majority carriers emitting photons.
 In reverse bias, no carrier junction takes place and consequently no light is emitted.
 The number of radiative recombination’s is proportional to the carrier junction rate and hence to the
total current flowing. The current voltage (I-V) relationship for a diode can be written as
𝑒𝑣
I = I0 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝛽𝐾𝑇) − 1 ] →(26)

Where I0 is the saturation current and 𝛽 varies between 1 and 2 depending on the

Semiconductor and temperature.

Fig. Injection of minority carriers and subsequent radiative recombination with the majority

carriers in a forward biased p-n junction.

 Actually, all semiconductors diodes produce radiation when electrons from the conduction band
recombine with holes in the valance band and the emitted radiation is absorbed by the
surrounding semiconductor material.
49
  In an LED, the semiconductor as a high energy gap and the junction is constructed such that the
radiation from the junction can escape.

LED Materials

The main requirements for suitable LED materials are

1) It must have an energy gap of appropriate width (the energy gaps greater than or equal to

about 2ev are required to obtain visible radiation).

2) Both p and n types must exist with low resistivities.

3) Efficient radiative pathways must be present.

Silicon carbide (sic) can be doped as both n and p type doping with B, Al, Sc, and Be gives rise to yellow, blue,
green and red emission respectively. But since SIC is an indirect band gap material radiative transition efficiency
is low. Ga, As, Ga P and the ternary alloy GaAs1- xPx are most important III -IV components used.

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

This is a direct band gap semiconductor with E g = 1.443ev (𝜆g = 860 nm); p-n junctions are readily formed ,
when GaAs is doped with silicon , based on growing condition , either silicon can replace Ga or As. On Replacing
Ga it acts as a donor and on As replacement it acts as an acceptor. In silicon doped diodes the emission lies
between 910 and 1020 nm. This has high quantum efficiency. These diodes have become standard near – IR
emitting devices.

Gallium Phosphide (GaP)

This is an indirect band gap semiconductor with E g = 2.26 ev (𝜆g = 549 nm). Group 5 elements such as n and Bi
are commonly used as do pants. Since they have the same valency as the atoms which they replace (p), they do not
form normal donor accepts states. As the impurity atom differs considerably from the atom it replaces both in the
size and its tendency to acquire negative charge, it acts as a trapping centre called ISOELECTRONIC TRAPS.
Once a carrier is trapped, the resulting potential attracts a carrier of the opposite charge and emits radiation. The
nitrogen isoelectronic traps result in peak emission at about 565 nm i.e. green radiation. At high nitrogen
concentrations the temperature emission shifts to 590nm (i.e. yellow). Using Zn, O for double doping , emission at
690nm(i.e. red) is also possible from GaP.

Gallium arsenide phosphide

This material changes from being a direct band gap material (when x<0.45). to being an indirect band gap material
(when x>0.45).at changeover point , the E g ≅ 2.1v. from GaAs0.6 P0.6 ; red emission is obtained From GaAs0.35
P0.85; N, orange and yellow emission are obtained respectively.

Gallium Aluminum arsenide (Gax Al1-x As)

In hetero junction formed between n- type Ga0.3 Al0.7 As an p-type Ga0.6 Al0.4 As(with zinc as dopant). Radiative
recombination takes place and emission with higher efficiency occurs at 650nm. When Si is used as dopant to
50
form both donor and acceptor states, by varying Al concentration, band gap can be varied and emission between
870 and 890 nm can be obtained.

Construction of LED

 The typical construction of LED is shown in the figure. LED has to be designed and constructed in
such a way that most of the radiative recombinations takes place from the side of the junction
nearest to the surface so that loss due to reabsorption is minimized

Fig. Construction of typical LED

 For this p-n junction layer has to be parallel and closer to the surface layer. The LED is constructed
on a GaP n- doped substrate. A thin epitaxial p- doped GaP layer is grown on the top of this
substrate.
 Electrical contacts are made leaving as much of the upper surface of the p- material uncovered.
 The recombination takes place and radiation is generated between p and n layers i.e. p-n junction.
Since Gap layer is transparent, the radiation escapes through the top layer.
 To the bottom electrode a reflective layer is added to improve the efficiency.
 Although the internal quantum efficiencies of some LED materials can approach 100%, the external
efficiencies are much lower. The main reason is that most of the emitted radiation strikes the
material interface at angles greater than critical angle and so lost due to total
internal reflection. Since the III-IV materials have high refractive indices, the critical angles are small.
 For example in GaP and air interface, since the critical is 17 0, the rays’ incident at an angle greater
than this are lost.
 There are two ways of improving the situations; the first is to ensure that most rays strike surface at
angles less than critical angle. This is achieved shaping in the semiconductor/ air interface in to a
hemisphere; in this the p- material is made in to a hemisphere dome. More
radiation then strikes the semiconductor/ air interface at less than the critical angle and hence are not
lost. This technique is too difficult and more expensive.
 The second technique is to encapsulate the junction in a transparent plastic medium of high
refractive index. Moulding the plastic in to an approximately hemispherical shape, loss at the plastic
/ air interface is minimized.

51
 Intensity of the emission is an important optical parameter of an LED. The relative intensity
increases with LED current. LED output is not monochromatic but contains considerable band
width ( ≅ 30 to 40 nm) around the central wavelength.
 Output intensity is temperature dependant. If the temperature increases by 25 0 C, the intensity
decreases by 25%.
 Another very important characteristic of an LED is its fast response time, typically 90ns for yellow
and red and 500ns for green. This response time makes LEDs suitable as a source in communication
links.

Fig. Two methods used to reduce reflection looses in LEDs.

(a) Hemispherical dome made of p material and

(b) Plastic mould in hemispherical shape.

Advantages of LEDs in electronic Display

1) Output is bright and the intensity can be controlled easily by varying current.

2) They can be operated over a wide range of temperature 0 to 70 0 C

3) Very fast response time in the order of ns and hence very useful as source for optical Communication.

4) Available in different colors.

5) Very small in size and hence can be closely packed for high density display.

6) As long life (about 105 hours) and high degree reliability.

7) The viewing angle is not limited.

8) Very rugged and hence suitable for any environment.

P - N junction as a photo detector – Junction Photodiode

52
  The function of the photo diode junction is the opposite an LED function. In an LED, photons are
released in response to the current flow through the junction. In a photo diode, the photons are
absorbed resulting in the generation of the carriers that manifest as current through the junction.
 In p-type material holes are majority carriers and in n-type material electrons are minority
carriers on formation of a junction, on either side of the junction they diffuse, combine and
neutralize one another. Hence a region called DEPLETION REGION is formed on the either side
of the junction when there are no free carriers.

Fig. The generation & subsequent separation of an electron – hole pair by photon absorption within the depletion region of
a p –n junction

 Only ionized atoms of opposite polarity remain i.e in p- type material negatively ionized atoms
and in n- type material positively ionized atoms remain. This action generates a barrier voltage
that opposes further diffusion of the free carriers in to the junction.
 When an electron – hole pair is generated by photon absorption with this region, the internal field
causes the electron and hole to separate. This charge separation can be detected in two ways. If a
device is left an open circuit, an externally measurable potential appear between p and n regions.
This is known as the PHOTO VOLTAIC

MODE of operation. Instead, if we short circuit the device externally, an external current flows
between the p and n regions. This is known as the PHOTOCONDUCTIVE MODE of
operation. Under photoconductive mode it is usually operated under reverse bias conditions.
 When forward bias is applied to the junction, it opposes the barrier voltage, reduces the width of
the deflection region and increases the junction capacitance. When the bias
reaches the barrier voltage, the depletion region is eliminated and the junction becomes
conductive.
 When reverse bias is applied, the depletion region is widened, the junction capacitance reduced,
and the junction says non-conductive. The reverse bias junction can conduct current when free
carriers are generated in the junction by radiation of sufficient energy.

Advantages of Photoconductive mode:

The following are the advantages of photo conductive mode:

53
 1) Linear response

2) Faster response

3) Better stability and

4) Greater dynamic range.

Construction of a Junction Photodiode

 The most common semiconductor material used for photo diodes is silicon. It has an energy gap
of 1.14ev. It provides excellent photodiodes with quantum efficiencies up to 80% at wave length
between 0.8-0.9µm. It shows a typical silicon photodiode structure for photo- conductive
operation.
 A junction is formed between heavily doped p- type material ( p+ ) and fairly lightly doped n-
type material so that the depletion region extends well into the n- material . The
p+ layer is made fairly thin. Metallic contracts can be made directly to the p+ material but to obtain
an ohmic contact to the n – material an intermediate n+ layer is formed.

Fig.Typical silicon photo diode structure for photoconductive operation

 The penetration of photons through the layer depends on the wave length of radiation shorter
wave length ( ultra violets ) are absorbed at the surface, while the longer wave length (infrared)
can penetrate deep in to the structure .
 A wide response photo diode should therefore have a thin p- layer and a thick depletion layer so
that most of the photons are absorbed in the depletion layer. Hence the response time of the diode
is mainly determined by the thickness of the depletion layer.
 The thickness of the layer can be controlled by the doping level of the n- layer lower doping level
increase the thickness of the depletion layer and reduce the diode capacitance . This technique is
used in the PIN type photo diode, where a thick layer of
low doped and highly resistive n- type material is inserted between the p and n- layers. This
middle layer is called the intrinsic or I- layer, hence the name PIN diode.

54
  The PIN diode has a relatively thick depletion layer which, with modest reverse bias of 5v , can
be extended to the bottom of the intrinsic layer . The result is a photo diode with a faster response
time and an extended spectral response. The spectral response of the junction photo diodes
ranges from ultraviolet to infrared. It depends mainly on the semiconductor material, and also on
the junction design and window material.
 The silicon photo diode is one of the most popular of all radiation detectors in the wavelength
range 0.4 to 1 µm. it has the following features.

(1) High quantum efficiency

(2) Small size

(3) Good linearity of response.

(4) Large band width

(5) Simple biasing requirements and

(6) Relatively low cost.

Solar Cell
Definition

Solar cell is a P – N junction semiconducting diode which converts light energy into

electrical energy. The energy of light is transmitted by photons, small packets or quantums of light.
Electrical energy is stored in electromagnetic fields, which in turn can make a current of electrons flow.
Thus a solar cell converts light, a flow of photons, to electric current, a flow of electrons.

Construction

There are several technologies to construct a solar cell. One of them is Quantum Dot (QD) Solar
Cells. These are built up of a semiconductor (silicon) coated with a very thin layer of Quantum dots.
Quantum dots is just a fancy name of crystals in the size range typically a few nanometers in diameter.
These crystals are mixed into a solution and placed on a piece of silicon which is rotated really fast. The
crystals are then spread out due to the centrifugal force. The reason these quantum dots are given so
much attention is that normally one photon will excite one electron creating one electron-hole pair. The
energy loss is the original energy of the photon minus the energy needed to excite the electron(also
called the band gap). However, when a photon hits a quantum dot made of the same material, there may
be several electron-hole pairs created, typically 2-3, but 7 has been observed.

Working principle

The solar cell is basically a p – n junction diode that converts sunlight directly to electricity. The working

55
principle of solar cells is based on the photovoltaic effect. In general, the photovoltaic effect means the generation
of a potential difference at the junction of two different materials in response to visible or other radiation.

The basic processes behind the photovoltaic effect are

1. Generation of the charge carriers due to the absorption of photons in the materials that form a junction,

2. Subsequent separation of the photo-generated charge carriers in the junction,

1. Collection of the photo-generated charge carriers at the terminals of the junction.

The solar cell works in three steps

1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing an electric potential
difference. Current starts flowing through the material to cancel the potential and this electricity is
captured. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single
direction.
3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.

Fig. A typical solar cell consists of a glass or plastic cover, an antireflective coating, a
front contact to allow electrons to enter a circuit, a back contact to allow them to complete the circuit, and the semiconductor
layers where the electrons begin and complete their journey.

Explanation

The action of the solar cell is explained as follows:

 When a p – n junction diode is exposed to light, the photons are absorbed and electron pairs are
generated in both in both the p – side and n – side of the junction, as shown in the figure below.
The electrons and holes that are produced over a small distance from the junction reach the space
charge region X by diffusion.

56
  The electron – hole pairs are then separated by the strong barrier field that exists across the
region X. The electrons in the p – side slide down the barrier potential to move to the n – side
while the holes in the n – side while the holes in the n – side move towards the p – side.
 When the p – n junction diode is open circuited, the accumulation of electrons and holes on the
two sides of the junction gives rise to an open – circuit voltage V0. If a load resistance is
connected across the diode, a current will flow in the circuit. The maximum current, called the
short – circuit current is obtained when an electric short is connected across the diode terminals.
Note that the current flows as long as the diode is exposed to sunlight and the magnitude of the
current is proportional to the light intensity.
 Solar cells are used extensively in satellites and space vehicles as most important long duration
power supply. Solar cells are constructed with Silicon, Germanium, Gallium arsenide, Cadmium
sulphide and with many other semiconductors, and in various device configurations.

Fig. (a) p-n junction solar cell with load resistance,RL (b) Diffusion of electrons & Holes (c) Energy band diagram of solar
cell (d) Formation of the open circuit voltage Vo

57
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

UNIT - VI

10. DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES

Introduction: Dielectrics are insulating materials. In dielectrics, all the electrons are bound to
their parent molecules and there are no free charges. Even with normal voltage or thermal
energy, electrons are not released.

Electric Dipole: A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance
is called electric dipole.

Dipole moment: The product of charge and distance between two charges is called dipole
moment.

i e, μ = q x dl

Permittivity: It is a quantity, which represents the dielectric property of a medium. Permittivity

of a medium indicates the easily Polarisable nature of the material.

Units: Faraday / Meter or Coulomb / Newton-meter .

Dielectric constant: The dielectric characteristics are determined by the dielectric constant. The
dielectric constant or relative permittivity of a medium is defined as the ratio between the
permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of the free space.

ε r = ε / ε 0 = C / C 0 where

ε is permittivity of the medium

ε 0 is permittivity of the free space
C is the capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric
C 0 is the capacitance of the capacitor without dielectric

Units: No Units.

Capacitance: The property of a conductor or system of conductor that describes its ability to
store electric charge.

C=q/V=Aε/d where

C is capacitance of capacitor
q is charge on the capacitor plate

107
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

V is potential difference between plates

A is area of capacitor plate
ε is permittivity of medium
d is distance between capacitor plates

Units: Farad .

Polarizability (α ) : When the strength of the electric field E is increased the strength of the
induced dipole μ also increases . Thus the induced dipole moment is proportional to the
intensity of the electric field.

μ=αE where α the constant of proportionality is called polarizability

.It can be defined as induced dipole moment per unit electric field.

α= μ/E

Units: Farad – meter2

Polarization Vector ( P ) : The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is
called polarization vector P .if μ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the
number of molecules per unit volume then polarization vector

P=Nμ

The dipole moment per unit volume of the solid is the sum of all the individual dipole
moments within that volume and is called the polarization of the solid.

Electric Flux Density or Electric Displacement (D): The Electric Flux Density or Electric
Displacement at a point in the material is given by

D = ε r ε 0 E -------------(1) where

E is electric field strength

ε r is relative permittivity of material
ε 0 is permittivity of free space

As polarization measures additional flux density arising from the presence of the material as
compared to free space, it has same units as D.

Hence D = ε 0 E + P -----------(2)

Since D = ε 0 ε r E

ε 0ε r E=ε 0 E +P

P =ε 0ε r E-ε 0 E

P = ε 0 (ε r - 1 ) E.

108
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Electric Susceptibility ( χ e ) : The polarization P is proportional to the total electronic flux

density E and is in the same direction of E . Therefore, the polarization vector can be written
as

P = ε 0 χe E

Therefore χ e = P / ε 0 E = ε 0 (ε r - 1 ) E / ε 0 E

χ e = (ε r - 1 )

Dielectric Strength: It can be defined as the minimum voltage required for producing
dielectric breakdown. Dielectric strength decreases with raising the temperature, humidity
and age of the material.

Various polarization Process: polarization occurs due to several atomic mechanisms.

When a specimen is placed in a d.c. electric field, polarization is due to four types of
processes. They are

(1) electronic polarization

(2) ionic polarization
(3) orientation polarization and
(4) space charge polarization

Electronic Polarization: the process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along
the field direction is called polarization in dielectrics

Consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The centre of positive

charge is displaced along the applied field direction while the centre of negative charge is
displaced in the opposite direction .thus a dipole is produced.
The displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the negative electrons of an atom in
opposite directions, on application of an electric field, result in electronic polarization.

Induced dipole moment

μ α E or μ = α e E where α e is electronic polarizability

Electronic polarizability is independent of temperature.

Derivation: Consider the nucleus of charge Ze is surrounded by an electron cloud of charge

-Ze distributed in a sphere of radius R.

109
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Charge density ρ is given by

ρ = -Ze / ( 4/ 3 ΠR3 ) = - (3/4) (Ze / ΠR3 ) ----------(1)

When an external field of intensity E is applied, the nucleus and electrons experiences Lorentz
forces in opposite direction. Hence the nucleus and electron cloud are pulled apart.

Then Coulomb force develops between them, which tends to oppose the
displacement. When Lorentz and coulomb forces are equal and opposite, equilibrium is reached.

Let x be the displacement

Lorentz force = -Ze E ( since = charge x applied field )

Coulomb force = Ze x [ charge enclosed in sphere of radius ‘x’ / 4 Π ε 0 x2 ]

Charge enclosed = ( 4 / 3 ) Π x3 ρ

= ( 4 / 3 ) Π x3 [( - 3 / 4 ) ( Z e / Π R3 ) ]

= - Z e x3 / R3

Therefore Coulomb force = ( Ze )( - Z e x3 / R3 ) / 4 Π ε 0 x2 = - Z2 e2 x / 4 Π ε 0 R3

At equilibrium, Lorentz force = Coulomb force


-Ze E = - Z2 e2 x / 4 Π ε 0 R3

 E = -Ze x / 4 Π ε 0 R3

 or x = 4 Π ε 0 R3 E / Ze

Thus displacement of electron cloud is proportional to applied field.

The two charges +Ze and -Ze are separated by a distance ‘x‘ under applied field constituting
induced electric dipoles .

Induced dipole moment μ e = Ze x

Therefore μ e = Ze (4 Π ε 0 R3 E / Ze ) = 4 Π ε 0 R3 E

Therefore μ e α E , μ e = α e E where α e = 4 Π ε 0 R3 is electronic polarizability

The dipole moment per unit volume is called electronic polarization. It is independent of
temperature.

P = N μ e = N α e E where

N is Number of atoms / m3

P e = N (4 Π ε 0 R3 E ) = 4 Π ε 0 R3 N E where

R is radius of atom

110
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Electric Susceptibility χ = P / ε 0 E

Therefore P = ε 0 E χ

P = ( 4 Π R3 N ) ε 0 E where χ = 4 Π R3 N

Also P e = ε 0 E (ε r - 1 ) = N α e E

Or ε r - 1 = N α e / ε 0

Hence α e = ε 0 (ε r - 1 ) / N .

Ionic Polarization: It is due to the displacement of cat ions and anions in opposite directions and
occurs in an ionic solid .

Consider a NaCl molecule. Suppose an electric field is applied in the positive direction . The
positive ion moves by x 1 and the negative ion moves by x 2

Let M is mass of positive ion

M is mass of negative ion

x 1 is displacement of positive ion

x 2 is displacement of negative ion

Total displacement x = x 1 + x 2 --------------(1)

Lorentz force on positive ion = + e E ----------(2)

Lorentz force on negative ion = - e E ----------(3)

Restoring force on positive ion = -k 1 x 1 ----------(2 a)

Restoring force on negative ion = +k 2 x 2 ----------(3 a) where k 1 , k 2 Restoring force constants

At equilibrium, Lorentz force and restoring force are equal and opposite

For positive ion, e E = k 1 x 1

For negative ion, e E = k 2 x2 ] ---------- (4)
Where k1 = M ω02 & k 2 = m ω 0 2 where ω 0 is angular velocity of ions

Therefore x = x 1 + x 2 = ( e E / ω 0 2 ) [ 1/M + 1/m ] ------------(5)

From definition of dipole moment

μ = charge x distance of separation

μ = e x = ( e2 E / ω 0 2 ) [ 1/M + 1/m ] ------------(6)

111
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

But μαE or μ = αi E

Therefore αi = (e2 / ω 0 2 ) [1/M + 1/m ]

This is ionic polarizability.

Orientational Polarization:

In methane molecule, the centre of negative and positive charges coincides, so that there is no
permanent dipole moment. On the other hand, in certain molecules such as Ch3Cl, the
positive and negative charges do not coincide .Even in the absence of an electric field, this
molecule carries a dipole moment, they tend to align themselves in the direction of applied
field. The polarization due to such alignment is called orientation polarization. It is dependent
on temperature. With increase of temperature the thermal energy tends to randomize the
alignment.

Orientational polarization Po = Nµ = Nµ2E / 3kT

= N α0 E

Therefore Orientational polarizability α0 = Po / NE = µ2 / 3kT

Thus orintational polarizability α 0 is inversely proportional t absolute temperature of

material.

Internal field or Local field or Lorentz field: Internal field is the total electric field at atomic
site.

Internal field A = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 + E 4 ------- (I) where

E 1 is field intensity due to charge density on plates

E 2 is charge density induced on two sides of dielectric

E 3 is field intensity due to other atoms in cavity and

E 4 is field intensity due to polarization charges on surface of cavity

112
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Field E 1 : E 1 is field intensity due to charge density on plates

From the field theory

E1 = D / ε 0

D=P+ε 0E

Therefore E1 = P + ε 0 E / ε 0 = E + P/ε 0 ----------(1)

Field E 2 : E 2 is the field intensity at A due to charge density induced on two sides of dielectric

Therefore E 2 = - P/ε 0 -----------(2)

Field E 3 : E 3 is field intensity at A due to other atoms contained in the cavity and for a cubic
structure,

E3 = 0 because of symmetry. ----------- (3)

Field E 4: E 4 is field intensity due to polarization charges on surface of cavity and was calculated
by Lorentz in the following way:

If dA is the surface area of the sphere of radius r lying between θ and θ + dθ, where θ is the
direction with reference to the direction of applied force.

Then dA = 2 Π (PQ) (QR)

But sin θ = PQ / r => PQ = r sin θ

And dθ = QR / r => QR = r dθ

113
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Hence dA = 2 Π (r sin θ) (r dθ) = 2 Π r2 sin θ dθ

Charge on surface dA is dq = P cos θ dA (cos θ is normal component)

dq = P cos θ (2 Π r2 sin θ dθ) = P (2 Π r2 sin θ cos θ dθ )

The field due to the charge dq at A, is denoted by dE 4 in direction θ = 0

dE 4 = dq cos θ / 4 Π ε 0 r2 = P (2 Π r2 sin θ cos θ dθ) cos θ

dE 4 = P sin θ cos2 θ dθ / 2 ε 0
∫ dE 4 = P / 2 ε 0 ∫ 0 Π sin θ cos2 θ dθ = P / 2 ε 0 ∫ 0 Π cos2 θ d (- cos θ)

Let cos θ = x

∫ dE 4 = - P / 2 ε 0 ∫ 0 Π x2 dx

Therefore E 4= - P / 2 ε 0 [x3 / 3] 0 Π

=-P/2ε 0 [cos3 θ/ 3] 0 Π = - P / 6 ε 0 [-1 – 1] = P / 3 ε 0 ------- (4)

Local field Ei = E1 + E 2 + E 3 + E 4

=E+P/ε0 -P/ε 0 +0+P/3ε0

=E+P/3ε0

Clausius – Mosotti Relation:

Let us consider the elemental dielectric having cubic structure. Since there are no ions and
perment dipoles in these materials, them ionic polarizability α i and orientational
polarizability α 0 are zero.

i.e. αi = α0 = 0

Hence polarization P = N α e E i

= N α e ( E + P / 3ε 0 )

i.e. P [ 1 - N α e / 3 ε 0 ] = N α e E

P = N α e E / P [ 1 - N α e / 3 ε 0 ] ------------- 1

D = P + ε0E

114
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

P = D - ε0E

Dividing on both sides by E

P / E = D / E - ε0 = ε - ε0 = ε0 εr - ε0

P = E ε 0 (ε r - 1) ---------------------------- 2

From eqn 1 and 2 , we get

P = E ε 0 (ε r - 1) = N α e E / [ 1 - N α e / 3 ε 0 ]

[ 1 - N α e / 3 ε 0 ] = N α e / ε 0 (ε r - 1)

1 = N α e / 3 ε 0 + N α e / ε 0 (ε r - 1)

1 = (N α e / 3 ε 0 ) ( 1 + 3 / (ε r - 1))

1 = (N α e / 3 ε 0 )[ (ε r - 1 + 3) / (ε r - 1) ]

1 = (N α e / 3 ε 0 )[ (ε r + 2) / (ε r - 1) ]

(ε r + 2) / (ε r - 1) = N α e / 3 ε 0 Where N – no of molecules per unit volume

This is Clausius – Mosotti Relation.

Dielectric Breakdown : The dielectric breakdown is the sudden change in state of a dielectric
material subjected to a very high electric field , under the influence of which , the electrons are
lifted into the conduction band causing a surge of current , and the ability of the material to resist
the current flow suffers a breakdown .

Or

When a dielectric material loses its resistivity and permits very large current to flow through it,
then the phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.

There are many factors for dielectric breakdown which are (1) Intrinsic breakdown (2) Thermal
breakdown (3) Discharge breakdown (4) Electro Chemical breakdown (5) Defect breakdown.

(1) Intrinsic breakdown: The dielectric strength is defined as the breakdown voltage per unit
thickness of the material. When the applied electric field is large, some of the electrons in the
valence band cross over to the conduction band across the large forbidden energy gap giving
rise to large conduction currents. The liberation or movement of electrons from valence band is
called field emission of electrons and the breakdown is called the intrinsic breakdown or zener
breakdown.

The number of covalent bonds broken and the number of charge

carriers released increases enormously with time and finally dielectric breakdown occurs. This type
of breakdown is called Avalanche breakdown.

115
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

(2) Thermal breakdown: It occurs in a dielectric when the rate of heat generation is greater than
the rate of dissipation. Energy due to the dielectric loss appears as heat. If the rate of generation
of heat is larger than the heat dissipated to the surrounding, the temperature of the dielectric
increases which eventually results in local melting .once melting starts, that particular region
becomes highly conductive, enormous current flows through the material and dielectric
breakdown occurs.

Thus thermal breakdown occurs at very high temperatures. Since the

dielectric loss is directly proportional to the frequency, for a.c fields, breakdown occurs at
relatively lower field strengths.

(3) Discharge breakdown: Discharge breakdown is classified as external or internal. External

breakdown is generally caused by a glow or corona discharge .Such discharges are normally
observed at sharp edges of electrodes. It causes deterioration of the adjacent dielectric medium.
It is accompanied by the formation of carbon so that the damaged areas become conducting
leading to power arc and complete failure of the dielectric. Dust or moisture on the surface of
the dielectric may also cause external discharge breakdown. Internal breakdown occurs when
the insulator contains blocked gas bubbles .If large number of gas bubbles is present, this can
occur even at low voltages.

(4) Electro Chemical breakdown: Chemical and electro chemical breakdown are related to
thermal breakdown. When temperature rises, mobility of ions increases and hence
electrochemical reaction takes place. When ionic mobility increases leakage current also
increases and this may lead to dielectric breakdown. Field induced chemical reaction gradually
decreases the insulation resistance and finally results in breakdown.

(5) Defect breakdown: if the surface of the dielectric material has defects such as cracks and
porosity, then impurities such as dust or moisture collect at these discontinuities leading to
breakdown. Also if it has defect in the form of strain in the material, that region will also break
on application of electric field.

Frequency dependence of polarizability:

On application of an electric field, polarization process occurs as a function
of time. The polarization P(t) as a function of time. The polarization P(t) as a function of time
t is given by

P(t) = P[ 1- exp ( - t / t r )]

Where P – max. Polarization attained on prolonged application of static field.

t r - relaxation time for particular polarization process

The relaxation time t r is a measure of the time scale of polarization process. It is the time
taken for a polarization process to reach 0.63 of the max. value.

Electronic polarization is extremely rapid. Even when the frequency of the applied voltage
is very high in the optical range (≈1015 Hz), electronic polarization occurs during every cycle
of the applied voltage.

116
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Ionic polarization is due to displacement of ions over a small distance due to the applied
field. Since ions are heavier than electron cloud, the time taken for displacement is larger.
The frequency with which ions are displaced is of the same order as the lattice vibration
frequency (≈1013Hz). Hence, at optical frequencies, there is no ionic polarization. If the
frequency of the applied voltage is less than 1013 Hz, the ions respond.

Orientation polarization is even slower than ionic polarization. The relaxation time for
orientation polarization in a liquid is less than that in a solid. Orientation polarization occurs,
when the frequency of applied voltage is in audio range (1010 Hz).

Space charge polarization is the slowest process, as it involves the diffusion of ions over
several interatomic distances. The relaxation time for this process is related to frequency of
ions under the influence of applied field. Space charge polarization occurs at power
frequencies (50-60 Hz).

Piezo – Electricity: These materials have the property of becoming electrically polarized when
mechanical stress is applied. This property is known as Piezo – electric effect has an inverse
.According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric stress or voltage is applied, the
material becomes strained. The strain is directly proportional to the applied field E.

When piezo electric crystals are subjected to compression or tension,

opposite kinds of charges are developed at the opposite faces perpendicular to the direction of
applied force. The charges produced are proportional to the applied force.

Piezo – Electric Materials and Their Applications: Single crystal of quartz is used for filter,
resonator and delay line applications. Natural quartz is now being replaced by synthetic material.

117
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Rochelle salt is used as transducer in gramophone pickups, ear phones,

hearing aids, microphones etc. the commercial ceramic materials are based on barium titanate, lead
zirconate and lead titanate. They are used for high voltage generation (gas lighters),
accelerometers, transducers etc.

Piezo electric semiconductors such as GaS, ZnO & CdS are used as amplifiers
of ultrasonic waves.

Ferro electricity: Ferro electric materials are an important group not only because of intrinsic
Ferro electric property, but because many possess useful piezo electric, birefringent and electro
optical properties.

The intrinsic Ferro electric property is the possibility of reversal or

change of orientation of the polarization direction by an electric field. This leads to hysteresis
in the polarization P, electric field E relation , similar to magnetic hysteresis. Above a critical
temperature, the Curie point T c , the spontaneous polarization is destroyed by thermal disorder. The
permittivity shows a characteristic peak at T c.

Pyroelectricity: It is the change in spontaneous polarization when the temperature of

specimen is changed.

Pyroelectric coefficient ‘λ’ is defined as the change in polarization per unit temperature change
of specimen.

λ= dP / dT

change in polarization results in change in external field and also changes the surface.

Required Qualities of Good Insulating Materials: The required qualities can be classified as
under electrical, mechanical, thermal and chemical applications.

118
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

i) Electrical: 1. electrically the insulating material should have high electrical resistivity and high
dielectric strength to withstand high voltage.
2 .The dielectric losses must be minimum.
3. Liquid and gaseous insulators are used as coolants. For example transformer oil, hydrogen and
helium are used both as insulators and coolant.
ii) Mechanical: 1. insulating materials should have certain mechanical properties depending on the
use to which they are put.
2. When used for electric machine insulation, the insulator should have sufficient mechanical
strength to withstand vibration.
iii) Thermal: Good heat conducting property is also desirable in such cases. The insulators should
have small thermal expansion and it should be non-ignitable.
iv) Chemical: 1. chemically, the insulators should be resistant to oils, liquids, gas fumes, acids and
alkali’s.
2. The insulators should be water proof since water lowers the insulation resistance and the
dielectric strength.

119
www.jntuworld.com
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF 14: LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) 1

Technology Brief 14: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

LCDs are used in digital clocks, cellular phones, desktop and laptop computers, and some televisions and other
electronic systems. They offer a decided advantage over former display technologies, such as cathode ray tubes, in
that they are much lighter and thinner and consume a lot less power to operate. LCD technology relies on special
electrical and optical properties of a class of materials known as liquid crystals, first discovered in the 1880s by botanist
Friedrich Reinitzer.

Physical Principle

Liquid crystals are neither a pure solid nor a pure liquid, but rather a hybrid of both. One particular variety of interest
is the twisted nematic liquid crystal whose rod-shaped molecules have a natural tendency to assume a twisted spiral
structure when the material is sandwiched between finely grooved glass substrates with orthogonal orientations (Fig. T14-
1). Note that the molecules in contact with the grooved surfaces align themselves in parallel along the grooves, from
a y-orientation at the entrance substrate into an x-orientation at the exit substrate. The molecular spiral causes the
crystal to behave like a wave polarizer; unpolarized light incident upon the entrance substrate follows the orientation of
the spiral, emerging through the exit substrate with its polarization (direction of electric field) parallel to the groove’s
direction, which in Fig. T14-1 is along the x-direction. Thus, of the x- and y-components of the incident light, only the
y-component is allowed to pass through the y-polarized filter, but as a consequence of the spiral action facilitated by
the liquid crystal’s molecules, the light that emerges from the LCD structure is x-polarized.

LCD Structure

A single-pixel LCD structure is shown in Fig. T14-2 for the OFF and ON states, with OFF corresponding to a bright-
looking pixel and ON to a dark-looking pixel. The sandwiched liquid-crystal layer (typically on the order of 5 microns in
thickness, or 1/20 of the width of a human hair) is straddled by a pair of optical filters with orthogonal polarizations. When
no voltage is applied across the crystal layer [Fig. T14-2(a)], incoming unpolarized light gets polarized as it passes
through the entrance polarizer, then rotates by 90◦ as it follows the molecular spiral, and finally emerges from the exit
polarizer, giving the exited surface a bright appearance. A useful feature of nematic liquid crystals is that their spiral
untwists [Fig. T14-2(b)] under the influence of an electric field (induced by a voltage difference across the layer). The
degree of untwisting depends on the strength of the electric field. With no spiral to rotate the wave polarization as the
light travels through the crystal, the light polarization will be orthogonal to that of the exit polarizer, allowing no light to
pass through it. Hence, the pixel will exhibit a dark appearance.
2 TECHNOLOGY BRIEF 14: LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

x-polarized light

x
x-oriented
polarizing filter

x-oriented
exit substrate
Rod-shaped
molecules

Orthogonal
groove
orientations y-oriented
entrance substrate

y-oriented
polarizing filter

x-polarized Only y-polarized

component of component can pass
incident light through polarizing
x y filter
Unpolarized light

Figure TF14-1: The rod-shaped molecules of a liquid

crystal sandwiched between grooved substrates with
orthogonal orientations causes the electric field of the light
passing through it to rotate by 90◦ .

Two-Dimensional Array
By extending the concept to a two-dimensional array of pixels and devising a scheme to control the voltage across each
pixel individually (usually by using a thin-film transistor), a complete image can be displayed as illustrated in Fig. T14-3.
For color displays, each pixel is made up of three subpixels with complementary color filters (red, green, and blue).
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF 14: LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) 3

Bright pixel Dark pixel

+ Liquid crystal + 5 μm
V _ V _
Molecule of
liquid crystal

Polarizing filter

(a) ON state (switch open) (b) OFF state (switch closed)

Figure TF14-2: Single-pixel LCD.

2-D pixel array


Liquid crystal

Unpolarized light

Exit polarizer

Entrance polarizer Molecular spiral

LCD display

Figure TF14-3: 2-D LCD array.

 Magneto resistor
Magneto resistor definition
Magneto resistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes when an external magnetic
field is applied. In other words, the flow of electric current through the magneto resistor
changes when an external magnetic field is applied to it.

Magnetic field is the region present around a magnetic object within which other objects
experience an attractive or repulsive force.

How magneto resistors work?

The magneto resistors that are placed in the magnetic field will experience a change in
resistance. When the strength of the magnetic field is increased, the resistance of magneto
resistors also increases. On the other hand, when the strength of magnetic field is reduced, the
resistance of magneto resistors decreases. This change in resistance is caused by the magneto
resistive effect.

In the absence of magnetic field, the charges carriers in the material move in a straight path.
Therefore, electric current flows in a straight path. When the magnetic field is applied to the
material, the magnetic forces cause the mobile charge carriers (free electrons) to change their
direction from direct path to indirect path. This increases the length of electric current path.

Hence, large number of free electrons collides with the atoms and loses their energy in the
form of heat and only a small number of free electrons flow through the conductive path. The
small number of free electrons moving from one place to another place carries the electric
current. Therefore, the resistance of the material increases with increasing magnetic field.
 Bubble Memory
Bubble memory is also known as Magnetic Bubble Memory. The inventor Andrew Bobeck
invented bubble memory in the 1970s at Bell Labs. Bubble memory comes under the
category of non-volatile computer memory. The representation of data is in the form of
magnetic bubbles (tiny circular areas) as it uses a thin film of magnetic material. Each
bubble stores 1 bit of data. As it is non-volatile, data is retained in magnetic bubbles when
power is turned off.
The arrangement of magnetic material is made in such a way that a series of parallel tracks
is formed for moving the bubbles whenever the external magnetic field is applied. It was
only a few square inches in size, which included a thin film magnetic recording layer in
which bubbles (bits) were electromagnetically created in circular strings.
The rotation of bubbles corresponds to the equivalent of a read/write head for their reading
or writing. The bubbles are read by bringing them to the material’s edge, where they may
be read by a normal magnetic pickup, and then rewritten on the far side to keep the memory
cycling.

Advantages:
• The power usage is less in bubble memory.
• The functional packing density is high in bubble memory.
• It is more durable than disc memory since it has no moving parts.
• The most vital feature was its ruggedness, which made the military employ the
technology even after it failed in the market. Hence, many people concluded that
it can be thought of as a “universal memory” that could be utilized for all kinds
of storage. Bubble memory is resistant to extreme temperatures, dust, humidity,
and radiation while also being removable.
Disadvantages:
• It has limited application because it is to be used where these features prove to
be useful. However, the technology’s initial promise (pioneered by Bell
Telephone Laboratories) has not been fully fulfilled because production prices
have exceeded expectations.
• Bubble memory was never widely employed since other non-volatile memory
formats, such as EEPROM, are faster and less expensive.
• It was widely used for some time in the 1970s. But due to the massive loops
required by a large bubble memory, accessing a bit requires cycling through a
large number of other bits first leading to slow speed. So, in the 1980s, with the
advancement in technology, it was replaced by hard drives and semiconductor
memories.

Multiferroics
Multiferroic materials are a special class of solid-state compounds, in which at least two
order states such as magnetic, electric or piezo-elastic phases coexist. Therefore, well-known
materials such as ferromagnets displaying strong piezo-magnetic properties, as well as piezo-
ferroelectrics are arguably a special class of magneto-elastic or electro-elastic coupled
multiferroics. In both cases, these materials are extremely important for technological
applications because the coupling between the ferro-phases and the piezo-elastic properties
facilitates a direct control of ferromagnetic and ferroelectric properties via externally applied
mechanical stress. In addition, converse effects, in which externally applied magnetic and
electric fields can modify the shape of the material by inducing a mechanical strain, exist.
This complex coupling between electric polarization - electric field - strain, magnetization -
magnetic field - strain and stress - strain - electric polarization - magnetization is graphically
illustrated in figure 1. While the coexistence of ferro-order and piezo-elastic properties can
give rise to interesting piezo-electric and piezo-magnetic couplings, there are two additional
multiferroic possible states, each displaying cross couplings between the order states. These
additional types of multiferroics are the subject of this review article and they are: i)
magneto-electric multiferroic, in which the electric and magnetic order states coexist; ii)
elasto-magneto-electric multiferroic, in which all three order states are present. It is important
to mention that by electric and magnetic order state it is understood any type of ferroic
ordering including ferromagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic, ferri-magnetic, paramagnetic, super-
paramagnetic and their electrical equivalents, if applicable. However, what makes
multiferroic materials scientifically and technologically fascinating is not only their ability to
display multiple order states but, most importantly, the cross coupling effects that can occur
between the order states

Figure. Possible cross-couplings in multiferroics. E – electric field; P – electric polarization;  -

applied mechanical stress;  - strain; H – magnetic field; M - magnetization
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

11. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Introduction : The basic aim in the study of the subject of magnetic materials is to understand the
effect of an external magnetic field on a bulk material ,and also to account for its specific
behavior. A dipole is an object that a magnetic pole is on one end and a equal and opposite second
magnetic dipole is on the other end.

A bar magnet can be considered as a dipole with a north pole at one end and
South Pole at the other. If a magnet is cut into two, two magnets or dipoles are created out of one.
This sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to the atomic level. Therefore, the source of
magnetism lies in the basic building block of all the matter i.e. the atom.

Consider electric current flowing through a conductor. When the electrons are
flowing through the conductor, a magnetic field is forms around the conductor. A magnetic field is
produced whenever an electric charge is in motion. The strength of the field is called the magnetic
moment.

Magnetic materials are those which can be easily magnetized as they have
permanent magnetic moment in the presence of applied magnetic field. Magnetism arises from the
magnetic dipole moments. It is responsible for producing magnetic influence of attraction or
repulsion.

Magnetic dipole : it is a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a
small distance of ‘2l’metre.

Magnetic Moment ( μ m ) :It is defined as the product of the pole strength (m) and the distance
between the two poles (2l) of the magnet.

i . e . . μ m = (2l ) m

Units: Ampere – metre2

Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Induction (B): It is defined as the number of magnetic lines
of force passing perpendicularly through unit area.

i . e . . B = magnetic flux / area = Φ / A

Units: Weber / metre2 or Tesla.

Permeability:
Magnetic Field Intensity (H): The magnetic field intensity at any point in the magnetic field is the
force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point.

Units: Ampere / meter

The magnetic induction B due to magnetic field intensity H applied in vacuum is related by

120
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

B = μ0 H where μ 0 is permeability of free space = 4 Π x 10-7 H / m

If the field is applied in a medium, the magnetic induction in the solid is given by

B=μH where μ is permeability of the material in the medium

μ=B/H

Hence magnetic Permeability μ of any material is the ratio of the magnetic induction to the applied
magnetic field intensity. The ratio of μ / μ 0 is called the relative permeability (μ r ).

μr = μ / μ0

Therefore B = μ0 μr H

Magnetization: It is the process of converting a non – magnetic material into a magnetic material.
The intensity of magnetization (M) of a material is the magnetic moment per unit volume. The
intensity of magnetization is directly related to the applied field H through the susceptibility of the
medium (χ) by

χ = M / H ------------(1)

The magnetic susceptibility of a material is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization produced to
the magnetic field intensity which produces the magnetization. It has no units.

We know

B=μH

= μ0 μr H

i.e B = μ0 μr H + μ0 H - μ0 H

= μ0 H + μ0 H ( μr – 1 )

= μ0 H + μ0 M where M is magnetization = H ( μ r – 1 )
i.e B = μ 0 ( H + M ) ----------(2)

The first term on the right side of eqn (2) is due to external field. The second term is due to the
magnetization.

Hence μ0 = B / H + M

Relative Permeability ,

μr = μ / μ0 = ( B / H ) / ( B / H + M ) = H + M / H = 1 + M / H

μ r = 1 + χ ---------(3)

121
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

The magnetic properties of all substances are associated with the orbital and spin motions of the
electrons in their atoms. Due to this motion, the electrons become elementary magnets of the
substance. In few materials these elementary magnets are able to strengthen the applied magnetic
field , while in few others , they orient themselves such that the applied magnetic field is
weakened.

Origin of Magnetic Moment : In atoms , the permanent magnetic moments can arise due to the
following :

1. the orbital magnetic moment of the electrons

2. the spin magnetic moment of the electrons
3. the spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.

Orbital magnetic moment of the electrons: In an atom, electrons revolve round the nucleus in
different circular orbits.

Let m be the mass of the electron and r be the radius of the orbit in which it moves with angular
velocity ω.

The electric current due to the moving electron I = - ( number of electrons flowing per second x
charge of an electron )

Therefore I = - e ω / 2 Π --------------(1)

The current flowing through a circular coil produces a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular
to the area of coil and it is identical to the magnetic dipole. the magnitude of the magnetic moment
produced by such a dipole is

μ m = I .A

= ( - e ω / 2 Π ) ( Π r2 )
= - e ω r2 / 2 = ( - e / 2 m ) ( m ω r2 ) = - ( e / 2 m ) L -----------(2)

where L = m ω r2 is the orbital angular momentum of electron. The minus sign indicates
that the magnetic moment is anti – parallel to the angular momentum L. A substance therefore
possesses permanent magnetic dipoles if the electrons of its constituent atom have a net non-
vanishing angular momentum. The ratio of the magnetic dipole moment of the electron due to its
orbital motion and the angular momentum of the orbital motion is called orbital gyro magnetic
ratio , represented by γ.

Therefore γ = magnetic moment / angular momentum = e / 2m

The angular momentum of an electron is determined by the orbital quantum number ‘l’ given by l
= 0 , 1 , 2 , ……( n – 1 ) where n is principal quantum number n = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , ……
……corresponding to K , L , M , N……shells .
The angular momentum of the electrons associated with a particular value of l is given by l( h / 2 Π
)

The strength of the permanent magnetic dipole is given by

μ el = - ( e / 2 m ) ( l h / 2 Π )

122
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

i.e μ el = - ( e h l / 4 Π m ) = - μ B l ---------------(3)

The quantity μ B = e h / 4 Π m is an atomic unit called Bohr Magneton and has a value 9.27 x 10
-24
ampere metre2

In an atom having many electrons, the total orbital magnetic moment is determined by taking the
algebraic sum of the magnetic moments of individual electrons. The moment of a completely filled
shell is zero. An atom with partially filled shells will have non zero orbital magnetic moment.

Magnetic Moment Due to Electron Spin : The magnetic moment associated with spinning of the
electron is called spin magnetic moment μ es .Magnetic moment due to the rotation of the
electronic charge about one of the diameters of the electron is similar to the earth’s spinning
motion around it’s north – south axis.

An electronic charge being spread over a spherical volume ,the electron spin would cause different
charge elements of this sphere to form closed currents, resulting in a net spin magnetic moment.
This net magnetic moment would depend upon the structure of the electron and its charge
distribution.

μ es = γ ( e / 2 m ) S -------------------(1)where S= h / 4 Π is spin angular momentum

therefore μ es ≈ 9.4 x 10 -24 ampere metre2

Thus, the magnetic moments due to the spin and the orbital motions of an electron are of the same
order of magnitude. The spin and electron spin magnetic moment are intrinsic properties of an
electron and exist even for a stationary electron. Since the magnitude of spin magnetic moment is
always same, the external field can only influence its direction. If the electron spin moments are
free to orient themselves in the direction of the applied field B. In a varying field ,it experiences a
force in the direction of the increasing magnetic field due to spin magnetic moments of its various
electrons.

Magnetic Moment due to Nuclear Spin : Another contribution may arise from the nuclear magnetic
moment. By analogy with Bohr Magneton, the nuclear magneton arises due to spin of the nucleus.
It is given by

μ ps = e h / 4 Π M p

μ ps = 5.05 x 10 -27 ampere metre2 where M p is mass of proton.

The nuclear magnetic moments are smaller than those associated with electrons.

Classification Of Magnetic Materials :All matter respond in one way or the other when subjected
to the influence of a magnetic field. The response could be strong or weak, but there is none with
zero response ie, there is no matter which is non magnetic in the absolute sense. Depending upon
the magnitude and sign of response to the applied field , and also on the basis of effect of
temperature on the magnetic properties, all materials are classified broadly under 3 categories.

1. Diamagnetic materials 2. Paramagnetic materials, 3. Ferromagnetic materials

123
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

two more classes of materials have structure very close to ferromagnetic materials
but possess quite different magnetic effects. They are i. Anti ferromagnetic materials and ii .
Ferri magnetic materials

1. Diamagnetic materials: Diamagnetic materials are those which experience a repelling force
when brought near the pole of a strong magnet. In a non uniform magnetic field they are
repelled away from stronger parts of the field.

In the absence of an external magnetic field , the net magnetic dipole

moment over each atom or molecule of a diamagnetic material is zero.

Ex: Cu, Bi , Pb .Zn and rare gases.

Paramagnetic materials: Paramagnetic materials are those which experience a feeble

attractive force when brought near the pole of a magnet. They are attracted towards the
stronger parts of magnetic field. Due to the spin and orbital motion of the electrons, the atoms
of paramagnetic material posses a net intrinsic permanent moment.

Susceptibility χ is positive and small for these materials. The susceptibility is inversely
proportional to the temperature T.

χ α 1/T

χ = C/T where C is Curie’s temperature.

124
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Below superconducting transition temperatures, these materials exhibit the Para magnetism.

Examples: Al, Mn, Pt, CuCl 2 .

Ferromagnetic Materials: Ferromagnetic materials are those which experience a very

strong attractive force when brought near the pole of a magnet. These materials, apart from
getting magnetized parallel to the direction of the applied field, will continue to retain the
magnetic property even after the magnetizing field removed. The atoms of ferromagnetic
materials also have a net intrinsic magnetic dipole moment which is due to the spin of the
electrons.

Susceptibility is always positive and large and it depends upon temperature.

χ = C / (T- θ) ( only in paramagnetic region i.e., T > θ)

θ is Curie’s temperature.
When the temperature of the material is greater than its Curie temperature then it converts
into paramagnetic material.

Examples: Fe, Ni, Co, MnO.

Antiferromagnetic matériels : These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal no of

opposite spins with same magnitude such that the orientation of neighbouring spins is in
antiparallel manner are present.
Susceptibility is small and positive and it is inversely proportional to the temperature.

χ=C /(T+θ)
the temperature at which anti ferromagnetic material converts into paramagnetic material is
known as Neel’s temperature.

Examples: FeO, Cr 2 O 3 .

Ferrimagnetic materials: These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal no of

opposite spins with different magnitudes such that the orientation of neighbouring spins is in
antiparallel manner are present.
Susceptibility positive and large, it is inversely proportional to temperature

χ=C /(T ± θ) T> T N ( Neel’s temperature)

Examples : ZnFe 2 O 4 , CuFe 2 O 4

125
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Domain theory of ferromagnetism: According to Weiss, a virgin specimen of

ferromagnetic material consists of a no of regions or domains (≈ 10-6 m or larger) which are
spontaneously magnetized. In each domain spontaneous magnetization is due to parallel
alignment of all magnetic dipoles. The direction of spontaneous magnetization varies from
domain to domain. The resultant magnetization may hence be zero or nearly zero. When an
external field is applied there are two possible ways of alignment fo a random domain.

i). By motion of domain walls: The volume of the domains that are favourably oriented with
respect to the magnetizing field increases at the cost of those that are unfavourably oriented

ii) By rotation of domains: When the applied magnetic field is strong, rotation of the
direction of magnetization occurs in the direction of the field.

Hysteresis curve (study of B-H curve): The hysteresis of ferromagnetic materials

refers to the lag of magnetization behind the magnetization field. when the temperature of the
ferromagnetic substance is less than the ferromagnetic Curie temperature ,the substance
exhibits hysteresis. The domain concept is well suited to explain the phenomenon of
hysteresis. The increase in the value of the resultant magnetic moment of the specimen by the
application of the applied field , it attributes to the 1. motion of the domain walls and 2.
rotation of domains.

126
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

When a weak magnetic field is applied, the domains that are aligned
parallel to the field and in the easy direction of magnetization , grow in size at the expense of
less favorably oriented ones. This results in Bloch wall movement and when the weak field is
removed, the domains reverse back to their original state. This reverse wall displacement is
indicated by OA of the magnetization curve. When the field becomes stronger ,the Bloch wall
movement continues and it is mostly irreversible movement. This is indicated by the path AB
of the graph. The phenomenon of hysteresis is due to this irreversibility.

At the point B all domains have got magnetized along their easy directions. Application of
still higher fields rotates the domains into the field direction which may be away from the
easy direction. Once the domain rotation is complete the specimen is saturated denoted by C.
on removal of the field the specimen tends to attain the original configuration by the
movement of Bloch walls. But this movement is hampered by the impurities, lattice
imperfections etc, and so more energy must be supplied to overcome the opposing forces.
This means that a coercive field is required to reduce the magnetization of the specimen to
zero. The amount of energy spent in this regard is a loss. Hysteresis loss is the loss of energy
in taking a ferromagnetic body through a complete cycle of magnetization and this loss is
represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop.

A hysteresis curve shows the relationship between the magnetic

flux density B and applied magnetic field H. It is also referred to as the B-H curve(loop).

Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials:

127
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Hysteresis loop of the ferromagnetic materials vary in size and shape. This variation in
hysteresis loops leads to a broad classification of all the magnetic materials into hard type and
soft type.

Hard Magnetic Materials:

Hard magnetic materials are those which are characterized by large

hysteresis loop because of which they retain a considerable amount of their magnetic energy
after the external magnetic field is switched off. These materials are subjected to a magnetic
field of increasing intensity, the domain walls movements are impeded due to certain factors.
The cause for such a nature is attributed to the presence of impurities or non-magnetic
materials, or the lattice imperfections. Such defects attract the domain walls thereby reducing
the wall energy. It results in a stable state for the domain walls and gives mechanical
hardness to the material which increases the electrical resistivity. The increase in electrical
resisitivity brings down the eddy current loss if used in a.c conditions. The hard magnetic
materials can neither be easily magnetized nor easily demagnetized.

Properties:

1. High remanent magnetization

2. High coercivity
3. High saturation flux density
4. Low initial permeability
5. High hysteresis energy loss
6. High permeability
7. The eddy current loss is low for ceramic type and large for metallic type.

Examples of hard magnetic materials are, i) Iron- nickel- aluminum alloys with certain
amount of cobalt called Alnico alloy. ii) Copper nickel iron alloys. iii) Platinum cobalt alloy.

Applications of hard magnetic materials: For production of permanent magnets, used in

magnetic detectors, microphones, flux meters, voltage regulators, damping devices and
magnetic separators.

Soft Magnetic Materials:

Soft magnetic materials are those for which the hysteresis loops enclose very small area.
They are the magnetic materials which cannot be permanently magnetized. In these materials
,the domain walls motion occurs easily. Consequently, the coercive force assumes a small
value and makes the hysteresis loop a narrow one because of which, the hysteresis loss

128
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

becomes very small. For the sane reasons, the materials can be easily magnetized and
demagnetized.

Properties:

1. Low remanent magnetization

2. Low coercivity
3. Low hysteresis energy loss
4. Low eddy current loss
5. High permeability
6. High susceptibility

Examples of soft magnetic materials are

i) Permalloys ( alloys of Fe and Ni)
ii) Si – Fe alloy
iii) Amorphous ferrous alloys ( alloys of Fe, Si, and B)
iv) Pure Iron (BCC structure)

Applications of soft magnetic materials: Mainly used in electro- magnetic machinery and
transformer cores. They are also used in switching circuits, microwave isolators and matrix
storage of computers.

129
www.jntuworld.com
 NANOTECHNOLOGY

Introduction

• Nanotechnology is the study of the control of matter on an atomic scale. Generally,

Nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller, and
involves developing materials or devices within that size. These are known as
Nanostructures.
• Nanotechnology deals with the design, manufacturing and applications of
nanostructures in useful nanoscale devices such as electronic circuits and mechanical
devices at the molecular level.
• In Nanotechnology, the fundamental properties of materials and machines depend on
their size.
• Nanotechnology deals with the fabrication of devices or materials which lie in the
sizes of 1 to 100nm. Nanotechnology produces materials that are built up atom-by-
atom.
Ex: With carbon atoms, tubular molecules called Carbon nanotubes are made.
Spherical molecules with 60 carbon atoms having a diameter slightly less than 1nm,
called Bucky balls or Fullerenes are also made with carbon.

Nano scale
• Nano scale means 10-9. A nanometer (nm) is one thousand millionth of a meter (10-9).
• The diameter of a single atom can vary from 0.1 to 0.5nm, depending on the type of
the element.
• For example, one carbon atom is approximately 0.15nm in diameter. A red blood cell
is approximately 7000nm wide and a water molecule is almost 0.3nm across. The
diameter of a human hair is about 60,000 to 80,000 nms. 1nm would approximately
be equal to the length of ten hydrogen atoms in a line.
• A material is called a nanomaterial if the size of the material is below 100nm. This is
because, many physical and chemical properties of a material start changing
significantly when the size of the grains is below 100nm. The length that is of interest
in nanoscience is from 100nm down to the atom scale i.e., 0.2nm.

Origin of Nanotechnology

• The existence of nanostructures and nanodevices is not new, while the word
nanotechnology is relatively new.
• Richard Feynman, in 1960, presented a visionary lecture at a meeting of the American
physical society entitled “There is plenty of room at the bottom.” In his lecture, he
speculated on the potential and possibility of nanosized materials.
• He envisioned etching lines of few atoms wide with beams of electrons-today’s
electron beam lithography, used for making silicon chips. He envisioned building
circuits of nanometer scale for use in computer-today’s nanoelectronics. He
recognized the existence of nanostructures in biological systems- biological
nanoparticles.
• He proposed manipulating individual atoms to make new small structures having very
different properties.
• Ralph landaner, from IBM, proposed nanoscale electronics in 1957. Magnetic fluids
consisting of nanosized magnetic particles were developed in 1960s. In the early
1970s, Bell laboratories and IBM fabricated the first 2 dimensional quantum wells.
Laser vapour deposition method resulted in development of metal nanoclusters in
1981. Later, this method was used to synthesize the fullerene.
• The inventions of Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) in 1981 and Atomic Force
Microscope (AFM) in 1986 provided new important tools for viewing, characterizing
and atomic manipulation of new structures.
• Ijima made Carbon nanotubes in 1991. Super conductivity and Ferro magnetism were
found in C60 structures.
• In 1994, stable gold nanoparticles were made in solution.
• In 1996, scientists at IBM succeeded in moving and precisely positioning individual
molecules at room temperature. In 1999, molecular logic gates were created.
• From 2000, quite a lot of research and development activities are in progress.

Nanomaterials
• All materials are composed of grains, which in turn comprise of many atoms.
Conventional materials have grains of size varying from hundreds of microns to
centimeters.
• Nanomaterials could be defined as those materials which have structural components with
size less than 100nm at least in one dimension.
• Materials that are Nano scale in one dimension (and are extended in the other two
dimensions) are layers, such as thin films or surface coatings.
• Materials that are Nano scale in two dimensions (and are extended in one dimension)
include nanowires and nanotubes.
• Materials that are nanoscale in three dimensions are particles, for example,
precipitates, colloids and quantum dots (tiny particles of semi conductor devices)

Factors that differentiate Nano materials from Bulk materials

• The factors that differentiate Nano materials from bulk materials are the increase in
surface area to volume ratio and quantum confinement effects.

(i) Surface area to Volume ratio

 • This value is very large for nanomaterials. Consider a spherical material of radius ‘r.’
Then,
2
Surface area of the sphere 4𝜋𝑟 12𝜋𝑟 2 3
= 4 = =
Volume of the sphere (3)𝜋𝑟 3 4𝜋𝑟 3 𝑟

• As the size of the sphere decreases, the above ratio increases. Alternatively, if the
material is cubic, as it is divided into small cubes, then also, the surface to volume
ratio increases. Hence, the nanomaterials possess large value of surface area to
volume ratio as compared to the bulk materials.

(ii) Quantum Confinement Effects

• According to band theory, solid materials have energy bands and isolated atoms
possess discrete energy levels. Nanomaterials are in intermediate to the above two
cases.
• For nanomaterials, if the dimensions of potential wells or potential boxes are of the
order of the de Broglie wavelength of electrons (mean free path of electrons), then the
energy levels of electrons change, and the electron will remain confined to a small
region of the material. This is called quantum confinement. Energy is discrete, not
continuous in a quantum system.
• The electronic properties of solids are altered with the reductions in the particle size.
This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions.
However, it becomes dominant when the nanometer size range is reached.
• Materials reduced to nanoscale can suddenly show very different properties
compared to what they exhibit on a macro scale.
Ex: Opaque substances become transparent (Copper)
Inert materials become catalysts (Platinum)
Stable materials become combustible (Aluminium)
Solids turn into liquids at room temperature (Gold)
Insulators become conductors (Si)

Classification of Nanomaterials
Materials referred to as nanomaterials generally fall into two categories.
1) Fullerenes
2) Nanoparticles

1) Fullerene: A Fullerene is a molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a

hollow sphere, ellipsoid or tube. Spherical fullerenes are also called Bucky balls and
cylindrical ones are called as Carbon nanotubes or Bucky tubes. The first Fullerene
discovered was Buckminster fullerene C60 in 1985.
 Fig. 10.1 Fullerene

(ii)Carbon nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a

cylindrical nanostructure. Nanotubes are categorized as Single Walled Carbon
Nanotubes (SWCNTs) and Multi Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs)

Fig. 10.2 Single Walled and Multi Walled Carbon nanotubes

2) Nanoparticles: Nanoparticles are available in different forms such as clusters, metal

nanoparticles, colloids, nanoshells, quantum dot etc. Nanoparticles have a very high surface
area to volume ratio resulting in a high reactivity. Because of their smaller size,
nanoparticles have the tendency to merge into one another.
• Hence, such particles are to be stabilized during synthesis. Nanoparticles can be
stabilized by ligands in solution, in two basic ways, sterically and electro statically.

Ex: Gold nanoparticles are stabilized sterically by coating with a layer of polymer or
protein. By attaching ligands with a negatively charged end group, a repulsive force between
the particles can be created, thus avoiding the particles to merge.

Fig. 10.3 Stabilized Gold nanoparticles

Properties of Nanomaterials

1 Physical Properties

At the macro scale, the physical and chemical properties are not dependent on the size of the
material, but at the nanoscale, everything, including colour, melting point and chemical
properties will change, compared to what they exhibit on a macro scale. The various physical
properties are explained below.

(i)Geometric structure

• Large nanoparticles have the same crystal structure as that of the bulk material, but
different lattice parameters.
• In nanomaterials, the surface area to volume ratio increases. Similarly, the
interatomic distance decreases by reducing the size of nanoparticles.

(ii) Optical properties

• Different sized nanoparticles scatter different wavelengths of light incident on it and

hence, they appear with different colours.

For ex., nanoscale gold particles can be orange, purple, red or greenish in colour,
depending on their grain size. The bulk copper is opaque whereas nanoparticle copper is
transparent. Porous silicon exhibits red photoluminescence, but bulk silicon does not
show this effect.

(iii)Thermal properties

• The melting point of nanogold decreases from 1200k to 800k as the size of the
particles decreases from 300Ao to 200Ao.
• The Debye temperature and ferro electric phase transition temperature are lower for
Nano materials.
• Super plasticity of nanomaterial occurs at lower temperatures by reducing the grain
size.
• Stable Aluminium becomes combustible in nano phase. Solid Gold changes to liquid
as it goes from bulk to nanomaterial at room temperature.

(iv) Magnetic properties

The magnetic properties of nanomaterials are different from that of bulk materials.
• In nanomaterials single domains are used, unlike large no of domains in bulk
materials. The co-ercivity of single domain is very large.
• Fe, Co, Ni and Gd are ferro magnetic in bulk but they exhibit super paramagnetism in
the nanophase. Na, K and Rh are Paramagnetic in bulk but in nanophase, they are
ferromagnetic.
 • Small clusters (containing less than 80 atoms) of non-magnetic substances show
spontaneous magnetic moment where as in the case of magnetic nanoparticles, the
magnetic moment is reduced.
• Clusters of non-magnetic element, supported on metal substrates also show
magnetism. This shows that small particles possess more magnetism than the bulk
material. Nanoparticles of even non-magnetic solids are found to be magnetic.

(v)Electronic properties

• The electrical conductivity and energy band width of some materials change when
they pass from bulk phase to nanoparticle phase. For Ex., bulk silicon is an insulator;
it becomes a conductor in the nano phase. Nanomaterial semi-conductors such as Ge
and Si do not show semi-conducting property.
• In nanoceramics and in nanomagnetic composites, electrical conductivity increases
with reducing particle size. In metals, electrical conductivity decreases with reducing
particle size.
• By reducing the size of metal particles from bulk top nano, the energy bands become
narrower and hence the ionization potential energy increases.

(vi)Mechanical properties

• Mechanical properties such as hardness, toughness, elastic modulus, scratch

resistance, fatigue strength, crack initiation and propagation are significantly
different for nanostructures than bulk materials.
• In metals and alloys, the hardness and toughness are increased by reducing the size
of nanoparticles. In ceramics, the ductility and super plasticity are increased on
reducing particle size. Hardness increases 4 to 6 times as one goes from coarse grain
Cu to nanocrystalline Cu and it is 7 to 8 times for Ni. The hardness increases 2 to 7
times by decreasing the size of nanocrystalline metals from 1𝜇m to 10 𝜇m.
• Materials with smaller grain size are stronger because crack propagation can be
delayed or reduced in nanostructures than in bulk materials. Brittle materials
(ceramics, inter metallic) can become ductile by reducing their grain size.
• The transition from bulk to nano phase reduces elastic strength and increases plastic
behavior. Creep involves atomic transport along grain boundaries. This leads to
super plasticity. The creep rate can be increased by 6 to 8 times by reducing the grain
size from microns to nanometers.

2 Chemical Properties

• The nanostructures in chemistry are colloids and these are formed in a condensed
phase having sizes in the range of 1-100nm.
• The ionization potential increases as the cluster size drops below the bulk limit and it
has limited applicability.
 • Clusters of Platinum, Iridium or Osmium reduced to the size of 1nm, and supported
on Aluminium or silica exhibits electronic properties similar to those found for large
crystallites of the metal.
• The reactivity of a cluster depends on the cluster size. This is useful in preparation of
catalytic agents.
• Some chemically inert bulk materials become good chemical catalysts in the nano
phase.
Ex: Gold, Platinum.

Hydrogen storage in metals

• Most of the metals do not absorb hydrogen; those that absorb have a metal to
hydrogen atom ratio of 1. The small positively charged clusters of Ni, Pd and Pt,
containing atoms in between 2 to 60, can absorb hydrogen atoms up to 8 per metal
atom.
• The hydrogen absorption increases with the decrease in the cluster size. Thus, small
particles may be very useful in hydrogen storage in metals.

Production of Nanomaterials

• Nanomaterials can be produced by a number of ways. Nanomaterials can be

synthesized by “top down” techniques, producing very small structures from large
pieces of the material. One way of doing this is, mechanically crushing of the solid
into fine nanopowder (ball milling).
• Nanomaterials may also be synthesized by “bottom up” techniques, atom by atom or
molecule by molecule. One way of doing this is to allow the atoms or molecules,
arrange themselves into a structure, due to their natural properties. Ex: crystal
growth.
• There are many known methods to produce nanomaterials. They are:

Plasma Arcing

• Plasma is an ionized gas. To produce plasma, potential difference is applied across

two electrodes. Plasma can be produced by the discharge of the gas between the two
electrodes so that the gas dissociates into electrons and positive ions (i.e., the gas is
ionized)
• Using plasma arcing, very thin films of the order of atomic dimensions can be
deposited on the surface of an electrode (cathode).
• The deposition is carried in vacuum or in an inert gas. An arc passes from one
electrode to the other.
• The first electrode (anode) vaporizes. So, positively charged ions are produced. These
ions deposit on the cathode.
 • By using carbon electrodes, carbon nanotubes can be formed on the surface of the
cathode. A mixture of conducting and non-conducting materials is also used in the
electrodes to form thin layers of the materials on the cathode.

Fig. 10.4 Schematic of Arc-Discharge method

Sol-Gel method
• In solutions, nanosized molecules are dispersed randomly whereas in colloids, the
molecules have diameters in the range of 20µm-100µm and are suspended in the
solvent. So, the colloid appears cloudy.
• A colloid that is suspended in a liquid is called a Sol. The gelation of the sol in the
liquid to form a network is called gel. Gel is the suspension that keeps its shape.
• Sol-gel formation occurs in different stages.
(a) Hydrolysis
(b) Condensation and polymerization of monomers to form particles.
(c) Agglomeration of particles.
This is followed by the formation of networks which extends throughout the liquid
medium and forms a gel.
• Using sol-gel method, silica gels, zirconia and yttrium gels and aluminosilicate gels
are formed. Nanostructured surfaces are formed using the sol-gel method.

Fig. 10.5 Schematic of Sol-Gel method

Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)

• In this method, the material is heated to gaseous phase and allowed to condense on a
solid surface in vacuum.
• Nanomaterials of metallic oxides or metallic carbides can be formed by heating metal
and carbon or metal and oxygen, in a vacuum chamber to gaseous phase, and
allowed to deposit on the surface of a solid.
• Pure metal powders (nanoparticles) are formed by this method. The metal is melted,
excited with microwave frequency and vaporized to produce plasma at 1500oc. By
cooling this plasma with water in a reaction column, nanoparticles are produced.
• The grain size of the nanoparticles depends on the concentration of the metal vapour,
its rate of flow in the reaction column and temperature. This method can also be used
to grow surfaces.

Fig.10.6 Schematic of Chemical Vapour Deposition

Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)

PVD describes a variety of methods of depositing thin films by condensation of a

vaporized form of the material onto various surfaces under high vacuum condition.

Fig. 10.7 Schematic of Physical vapour deposition

Various methods of PVD

(a) Evaporative deposition: The material to be deposited on the mounted substrate

within the vacuum chamber is heated and vaporized by electrically resistive heating.
Condensation of the vaporized material takes place and by proper control, atomic
layer deposition can be obtained.
(b) Electron beam physical vapour deposition: The material to be deposited is heated to
a high vapour pressure by electron bombardment in high vacuum.
(c) Sputter deposition: The material to be deposited is vaporized by bombarding the
material with a glow plasma discharge. The plasma is usually confined and localized
around the target, by a magnet.

Fig. 10.8 Schematic of Sputter Deposition

(d) Cathodic arc deposition: In this a high power arc is directed at the target material,
that blasts away some of the material into vapour.
(e) Pulsed laser deposition: In this high power pulsed laser ablates the material from the
target into a vapour.
In all these methods, the material is converted into vapour phase, for further
deposition on the substrate.

Fig. 10.9 Schematic of Pulsed Laser Deposition

 Ball Milling

• This is a top-down technique, producing very small structures from larger pieces of
the material.
• In this method, small balls of the material are made to rotate inside a drum and drop
under the influence of gravity, onto a solid present in the drum. The solid is broken
into nanocrystallites.
• This is also known as mechanical crushing. This method is used for a large number of
elements and nano oxides. For example, Iron nanoparticles of 13-30 nm can be
formed.

Fig. 10.10 Schematic of Ball milling

Electro deposition

• Electro deposition technique is used to electroplate a material. When current is

passed through two electrodes immersed inside the electrolyte, certain mass of the
substance liberated at one electrode gets deposited on the surface of the other. By
controlling the current and the other parameters, it is possible to deposit even a
single layer of atoms.
• Nanostructured films of Au, Cu, Pt, Ni, polymers, oxides and semi-conductors can be
deposited. These films are robust, flat, uniform and shiny.
• The deposited plates are used in batteries, solar cells, fuel cells, sensors, photonic
devices, field emitters, magnetic read heads etc.
•
 Fig. 10.11 Schematic of Electro deposition of Nanostructured film of Cu.

Characterization of Nanomaterials
The characterization technique that is employed for the characterization of Nanomaterial
depends on the type and application of the nanomaterial. For all Nanomaterials, particle size
determination is essential and this can be done using X-ray diffraction and Electron
microscopy.

X-ray Diffraction Method

• Phase identification using X-ray diffraction lies mainly on the position of the peaks in
the diffraction profile and to some extent on the relative intensities of these peaks.
• The shape, particularly the width of the peak is a measure of the amplitude of thermal
vibrations of the atoms at their regular lattice sites.
• It can also be a measure of any deviations from the normal structure.
Ex: Plastic deformation, impurity doping, second phase addition to the host phase.
When X-ray powder pattern is taken on poly crystalline powders, the crystallite size
causes peak broadening. The crystallite size is easily calculated as a function of peak
width, specified as Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM), peak position and
wavelength. The average crystallite size ‘L’ is given by,
𝑲𝝀
〈𝑳〉Vol =
𝑩𝟏/𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝑩
Where, θB is the Bragg’s angle B1/2 is FWHM of the diffraction peak; K is a constant
and λ is the wavelength of X-rays used.
 Fig. 10.12 X-ray diffraction of Ag nanoparticles

Electron Microscopy
Electron microscopes are a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a
very fine scale. The examination gives information about,
a) Topography: The surface features of the object or “how it looks,” its texture, relation
between them and the material properties (hardness, reflectivity etc.,)
b) Morphology: The shape and size of the particles making up the object, direct relation
between these structures and material properties (ductility, strength, reactivity etc.,)
c) Composition: The elements and compounds that the object is composed of, direct
relation between composition and material properties (melting point, reactivity,
hardness etc.,)
d) Crystallographic information: Atomic arrangement in the object, relation between
them and the material properties (conductivity, electrical properties, strength etc.,)

Fig.10.13 Electron Microscope

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The image in scanning electron microscope is produced by scanning the sample with a
focused electron beam and detecting the secondary and back scattered electrons. Electrons
and photons are emitted at each beam location and subsequently detected.

Fig. 10.14 Specimen interactions in SEM

Schematic representation of SEM

1) The electron gun produces a stream of monochromatic electrons.

2) The electron stream is condensed by the first condenser lens. It works in conjunction
with the condenser aperture to eliminate the high angle electrons from the beam.
3) The second condenser lens forms the electrons into a thin, light coherent beam.
4) Objective aperture further eliminates high angle electrons from the beam.
5) A set of coils acting as electrostatic lens scans and sweeps the beam in a grid fashion
(as in television)
6) The objective lens focuses the scanning beam onto the part of the specimen.
7) When the beam strikes the sample, interaction occurs. The intensity of display is
determined by the interaction number. More interactions give a brighter pixel.
8) This process is repeated until the grid scan is finished and then repeated. The entire
pattern can be scanned 30 times per second.

Fig. 10.15 Schematic representation of SEM

SEM gives useful information on

1) Topography: The surface features of an object or “how it looks,” its texture,

detectable features, limited to a few nanometers.
2) Morphology: The shape, size and arrangement of particles making up the object that
are lying on the surface of the sample or have been exposed by grinding or chemical
etching, detectable features limited to a few nanometers.
3) Composition: The elements and compounds the sample is composed of and their
relative ratios, in areas approximately 1 micrometer in diameter.
4) Crystallographic Information: The arrangement of atoms in the specimen and their
degree of order, only useful on single-crystal particles >20 µms.

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

• When transmitted electrons are utilized for imaging, it results in Transmission

Electron Microscopy (TEM).
• In the TEM analysis, a thin or diluted sample is bombarded under high vacuum with a
focused beam of electrons. Electrons that are transmitted through the material, form
contrast patterns that reproduce the image of the sample. This pattern arises from the
scattering of the electrons. In addition, diffracted electrons give information about the
lattice structure of the material. The shape of the sample can also be determined from
the image.

Schematic representation of TEM

1. The electron gun produces a stream of monochromatic electrons.

2. This stream is focused to a small coherent beam by the first and second condenser
lenses.
3. The condenser aperture knocks off high angle electrons.
4. The beam strikes the specimen.
5. The transmitted portion is focused by the objective lens into an image.
6. Objective aperture enhances the contract by blocking out high angle diffracted
electrons.
7. Selected area aperture enables to examine the periodic diffraction of electrons by an
ordered arrangement of atoms in the sample.
8. Intermediate and projector lenses enlarge the image.

The beam strikes the phosphor screen and image is formed on the screen. The darker areas of
the image represent thicker sample areas since these areas transmit lesser electrons. The
brighter areas of the image represent thinner sample areas since these areas transmit more
electrons.
TEM gives the information about

1) Morphology: The size, Shape and arrangement of particles as well as their relationship to
one another on the scale of atomic diameters.
2) Crystallographic information: The arrangement of atoms in the specimen and their
degree of order, detection of atomic scale defects, a few nanometers in diameter.
3) Compositional information: The elements and compounds, the sample is composed of and
their relative ratios.

Fig. 10.16 Schematic representation of TEM.

Applications of Nanotechnology

1) Electronics industry
• Reduction in size of electronic components leads to faster switching times.
• Nanotechnology includes fabrication of nanowires used in semiconductors.
• Porous silicon emits visible light. So, it finds application in optoelectronics.
• Quantum dot laser emits good quality laser beam compared to semiconductor laser
diodes. They are cheaper and the emitted wavelength depends on the diameter of the
dot.
• Materials like nanocrystalline selenide, zinc sulphide, lead telluride and cadmium
sulphide synthesized by sol-gel method improve the resolution of the image in
television or in a monitor. The resolution depends on the size of the pixel made of
phosphors. The resolution increases as the size of the pixel reduces.
• Batteries made of nanocrystalline nickel and metal hydrides are long lasting and
require minimal recharging.

2) Industry
• Nanocrystalline materials such as tungsten carbide, titanium carbide are harder than
conventional materials. They are more wear resistant and erosion resistant. So, they
can be used in cutting tools and drilling bits.
• Nanocrystalline silicon nitride and silicon carbide are used in the manufacturing of
high strength springs, ball bearings and valve lifters.
• Nanocrystalline ceramics such as zirconia are easily pressed and sintered into
various shapes at lower temperatures, because they are softer than conventional
materials.

3) High power magnets

• The magnetic strength of a material is directly proportional to the surface area per
unit volume.
• The magnetic nanocrystalline yttrium-samarium-cobalt possesses very high magnetic
properties due to large surface area.
• The high power rare earth magnets are used in submarines, generators, electric
motors, automobile alternators, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) instruments and
in ultrasensitive analytical instruments.

4) Motor vehicles and air craft

The wastage of thermal energy generated in engines is reduced by coating the
cylinders with nanocrystalline ceramics such as zirconia and alumina.
• In air craft, by decreasing the grain size of the materials, the fatigue strength
increases as much as 300 %. The components made of nanomaterials are stronger
and operate at higher temperatures. So, air craft can fly faster using the same amount
of aviation fuel.

5) Aero gels
• Aero gels are nanocrystalline and porous. Hence, air is trapped at the interstices.
These materials can be used in offices and homes to reduce cooling and heating bills
by saving power. These are also used for smart windows so that the materials become
darkened when the sun is too bright and lightened when the sun is not shining
brightly.

6) Energy efficiency
• Energy consumption can be greatly reduced by using quantum edged atoms or LEDs
instead of ordinary filament bulbs.
• Nanostructures have increased solar energy conversion efficiency as compared to
ordinary semiconductor solar cells.
• In hydrogen fuel cells, nanostructured catalyst material is used on carbon supported
noble metal particles, with diameters between 1 & 5nm.
• For hydrogen storage, CNTs, zeolites etc., are used.
7) Medical field
• Nanomaterials are used in the development of diagnostic devices, drug delivery
vehicles, and analytical tools and in physical therapy applications.
• The genetic sequence of a sample can be detected by tagging gold nanoparticles with
short segments of DNA.
• Magnetic nanoparticles are used to label molecules, structures or micro organisms of
an antibody.
• Iron nanoparticles are used in cancer treatment. Nanotechnology is used to repair or
to reproduce damaged tissue.

8) Textile industry
Clothes made of nanofibers are water and stain repellent and wrinkle free. They can
be washed less frequently at low temperatures.

9) Information technology
Nanoscale fabricated magnetic materials are used in data storage. Quantum
computers use fast quantum algorithms and have quantum bit memory space (qubit).
So, it involves several computations at the same time.

10) Cosmetics
• Sunscreens based on mineral nanoparticles such as titanium-di-oxide offer several
advantages. They have high UV protection compared to the bulk material. In addition
to these, there are quantum dots, suntan lotion, nanotubes, and protective coatings.
• Fullerenes (C60) are used as lubricants (molecular ball bearings), diamond seeding,
diamond protection, xerographic materials, photo chronic goggles etc.
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

UNIT – VII

12. LASERS

Introduction:

It is a device to produce a powerful monochromatic narrow beam of light in which the waves
are convergent. Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation.
Maser is an acronym of microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The light emitted from the conventional light source (eg: sodium lamp, candle) is said to be
incoherent. Because the radiation emitted from different atom do not have any definite phase
relationship with each other. Lasers are much important because the light sources having high
monochromaticity, high intensity, high directionality and high coherence.
In the laser the principal of maser is employed in the frequency range of 1014to 1015Hz
and it is termed as optical maser. Laser principle now a day is extended up to γ-rays hence
Gamma ray lasers are called Grazers. The first two successful lasers developed during 1960
were Ruby laser and He- Ne lasers. Some lasers emit light is pulses while others emit as a
continuous wave.

Characteristics of laser radiation:

The four characteristics of a laser radiation over conventional light sources are
(1) Laser is highly monochromatic
(2) Laser is highly directional
(3) Laser is highly coherent
(4) The intensity of laser is very high

HIGHLY MONOCHROMATIC:

The band width of ordinary light is about 1000A0 . The band width of laser light is about
10A0 . The narrow band width of a laser light is called on high monochromacity.

BAND WIDTH:- The spread of the wavelength (frequency ) about the wavelength of
maximum intensity is band width.

141
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Laser light is more monochromatic than that of a conventional light source. Because of this
monochromaticity large energy can be concentrated in to an extremely. Small band width.

For good laser dv=50Hz v=5×1014 Hz. The degree of non-monochromaticity

for a conventional sodium light.

HIGH DIREATIONALITY:

The conventional light sources like lamp, torch light, sodium lamp emits light in all
directions. This is called divergence. Laser in the other hand emits light only in one direction.
This is called directionality of laser light.
Light from ordinary light spreads in about few kilometers.

Light from laser spreads to a diameter less than 1 cm for many kilometers.

The directionality of laser beam is given by (or) expressed in divergence.

The divergence ∆θ = (r2 –r1) /d2-d1

Where r 2, r 1 are the radius of laser beam spots

d 2 , d 1 are distances respectively from the laser source. Hence for getting a high directionality
then should be low divergence.

HIGHLY COHERENT:

When two light rays are having same phase difference then they are said to be coherent.
It is expressed in terms of ordering of light field

Laser has high degree of ordering than other common sources. Due to its coherence only it is
possible to create high power(1012 watts) in space with laser beam of 1µm diameter.
There are two independent concepts of coherence.

1) Spatial coherence (2) Temporal coherence

142
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

SPATIAL COHERENCE: The two light fields at different point in space maintain a
constant phase difference over any time (t) they are said to be spatial coherence.

In He- Ne gas laser the coherence length( l c ) is about 600km.It means over the distance
the phase difference is maintained over any time .For sodium light it is about 3cm.
The coherence & monochoremacity is related by

ξ = (∆υ / υ) α 1/ l c

For the higher coherence length ξ is small hence it has high monochromacity

TEMPORAL COHERENCE: The correlation of phase between the light fields at a

point over a period of time. For He- Ne laser it is a about 10-3 second , for sodium it is about
10-10 second only.

ξ = (∆υ / υ) α 1/ t c

Higher is the t c higher is the monochromacity.

HIGH INTENSITY:

Intensity of a wave is the energy per unit time flowing through a unit area.
The light from an ordinary source spreads out uniformly in all directions and from spherical
wave fronts around it.
Ex:- If you look a 100W bulb from a distance of 30cm the power entering the eye is
1 / 1000 of watt.

But in case of a laser light, energy is in small region of space and in a small wavelength and
hence is said to be of great intensity.
The power range of laser about 10-3W for gas laser and 109W for solid state laser
The number of photons coming out from a laser per second per unit area is given by

N 1 = p / hυЛr2 ≈ 1022 to 1034 photons/ m2 – sec.

SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED (INDUCED) EMISSION:

Light is emitted or absorbed by particles during their transitions from one energy state to
another .the process of transferring a particle from ground state to higher energy state is
called excitation. Then the particle is said to be excited.

143
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

The particle in the excited state can remain for a short interval of time known as life time.
The life time is of the order of 10-8 sec, in the excited states in which the life time is much
greater than 10-8 sec are called meta stable states. The life time of the particle in the Meta
stable state is of the order 10-3 sec

The probability of transition to the ground state with emission of radiation is made up of
two factors one is constant and the other variable.

The constant factor of probability is known as spontaneous emission and the variable factor is
known as stimulated emission.

SPONTANEOUS EMISSION: The emission of particles from higher energy state to lower
energy state spontaneously by emitting a photon of energy hυ is known as “spontaneous
emission”

STIMULATED EMISSION: The emission of a particle from higher state to lower state by
stimulating it with another photon having energy equal to the energy difference between
transition energy levels called stimulated emission.

SPONTANEOUS EMISSION STIMULATED EMISSION

1) Incoherent radiation 1) coherent radiation
2) Less Intensity 2) high intensity
3) Poly chromatic 3) mono chromatic
4) One photon released 4) two photons released
5) Less directionality 5) high directionality
6) More angular spread during propagation 6) less angular spread during
Propagation

Ex:-Light from sodium ex: - light from a laser source

Mercury vapour lamp ruby laser, He-He gas laser gas
Laser

EINSTEINS EQUATIONS (OR) EINSTAINS CO- EFFICIENTS:

144
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Based on Einstein’s theory of radiation one can get the expression for probability for
stimulated emission of radiation to the probability for spontaneous emission of radiation
under thermal equilibrium.

E 1 , E 2 be the energy states

N 1 , N 2 be the no of atoms per unit volume

ABSORPTION: If ρ(υ)dυ is the radiation energy per unit volume between the frequency
range of υ and υ+dυ

The number of atoms under going absorption per unit volume per second from level

E 1 to E 2 = N 1 ρ(υ )B 12 ------ 1

B 12 represents probability of absorption per unit time

STIMILATED EMISSION: When an atom makes transition E 2 toE 1 in the presence of

external photon whose energy equal to (E 2 -E 1 ) stimulated emission takes place thus the
number of stimulated emission per unit volume per second from levels.

E 2 to E 1 = N2 ρ(υ) B 21 ------ 2

B 21 is represents probability of stimulated emission per unit time.

SPONSTANEOUS EMISSION: An atom in the level E 2 can also make a spontaneous

emission by jumping in to lower energy level E 1 .

E 2 to E 1 =N 2 A 21 --- 3

A 21 represents probability of spontaneous emission per unit time.

Under steady state

(dN / dt) = 0

No of atoms under going absorption per second = no of atoms under going emission per
second

1 =2+3

N 1 ρ(υ )B 12 = N 2 ρ(υ )B 21 + N 2 A 21

N 2 A 21 = N 1 ρ(υ )B 12 - N 2 ρ(υ )B 21

= ρ(υ )(N 1 B 12 - N 2 B 21 )

ρ (υ) = N 2 A 21 / (N 1 B 12 - N 2 B 21 )

= A 21 / [(N 1 / N 2 )B 12 - B 21 )] -------- 4

From distribution law we know that

145
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

(E - E ) / k T
N1 / N2 =e 2 1 B

= ehυ / k B T -------------- 5

Substituting N 1 / N 2 in eqn (4) we get

ρ (υ) = A 21 / B 21 (e
hυ / k T
B - 1)--------- 6

From Planck’s radiation

ρ (υ) = 8Πhn3 / λ3 x [ 1 / (e
hυ / k T
B - 1)] ------- 7

n – refractive index of the medium

λ - wave length of the light in air.
λ m = λ / n wavelength of light in medium -------- 8

ρ (υ) = 8Πh / λ m 3 x [ 1 / (e
hυ / k T
B - 1)] ------ 9

Comparing eqn 6 and 9

A 21 / B 21 = 8Π h / λ m 3
Where A 21 , B 21 are Einstein’s co-efficient of spontaneous emission probability per unit time
and stimulated emission probability per unit time respectively.

For stimulated emission to be predominant, we have

A 21 / B 21 << 1

POPULATION INVERSION:
The no of atoms in higher energy level is less than the no of atoms in lowest energy
level. The process of making of higher population in higher energy level than the population
in lower energy level is known as population inversion.

Population inversion is achieved by pumping the atoms from the ground level to the
higher energy level through optical (or) electrical pumping. It is easily achieved at the
matastable state, where the life time of the atoms is higher than that in other higher energy
levels.

The states of system, in which the population of higher energy state is more in comparision
with the population of lower energy state, are called “Negative temperature state”.

A system in which population inversion is achieved is called as an active system. The

method of raising the particles from lower energy state to higher energy state is called
”Pumping”.

DIFFERENMT TYPES OF LASES:

146
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

1. Solid state laser - Ruby laser, Nd-YAG laser

2. Gas laser - He-Ne laser, CO2 laser
3. Semi conductor laser - GaAs laser

RUBY LASER:

Ruby laser is a three level solid state laser having very high power of hundreds of mega
watt in a single pulse it is a pulsed laser.

The system consists of mainly two parts

1) ACTIVE MATERIAL: Ruby crystal in the form of rod.

2) RESONANT CAVITY: A fully reflecting plate at the left end of the ruby crystal and
partially reflecting end at the right side of the ruby crystal both the surfaces are
optically flat and exactly parallel to each other.

3) EXCITING SYSTEM: A helical xenon flash tube with power supply source.

CONSTRUCTION: In ruby laser, ruby rod is a mixture of Al 2 O 3 +Cr 2 O 3 . It is a mixture

of Aluminum oxide in which some of ions Al+3 ions concentration doping of Cr+3 is about
0.05% , then the colour of rod becomes pink. The active medium in ruby rod is Cr+3 ions.
The length of the ruby rod is 4cm and diameter 5mm and both the ends of the ruby rod are
silvered such that one end is fully reflecting and the other end is partially reflecting. The ruby
rod is surrounded by helical xenon flash lamp tube which provides the optical pumping to
raise Cr+3 ions to upper energy level.

The chromium atom has been excited to an upper energy level by absorbing photons of wave
length 5600A0 from the flash lamp. Initially the chromium ions (Cr+3) are excited to the
energy levels E 1 to E 3 , the population in E 3 increases. Since the life time of E 3 level is very
less (10_8Sec). The Cr+3 ions drop to the level E 2 which is matastable of life time 10-3Sec.
The transition from E 3 to E 2 is non-radiative.

147
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

Since the life time of metastable state is much longer, the no of ions in this state goes on
increasing hence population inversion achieved between the excited metastable state E 2 and
the ground state E 1 .

When an excited ion passes spontaneously from the metastable state E 2 to the ground state
E 1. It emit a photon of wave length 6993A0 this photon travel through the ruby rod and if it is
moving parallel to the axis of the crystal and it is reflected back and forth by the silver ends
until it stimulates an excited ion in E 2 . The emitted photon and stimulated photon are in
phase the process is repeated again and again finally the photon beam becomes intense; it
emerges out through partially silvered ends.
Since the emitted photon and stimulating photon in phase, and have same frequency and are
traveling in the same direction, the laser beam has directionality along with spatial and
temporal coherence.

IMPORTANCE OF RESONATOR CAVITY: To make the beams parallel to each other

curved mirrors are used in the resonator cavity. Resonator mirrors are coated with multi layer
dielectric materials to reduce the absorption loss in the mirrors. Resonators act as frequency
selectors and also give rise to directionality to the out put beam. The resonator mirror
provides partial feedback to the protons.

He- Ne Laser
CONSTRUTION:
He - Ne gas laser consists of a gas discharge tube of length 80cm and
diameter of 1cm. The tube is made up of quartz and is filled with a mixture of Neon under a
pressure of 0.1mm of Hg. The Helium under the pressure of 1mm of Hg the ratio of He-Ne
mixture of about 10:1, hence the no of helium atoms are greater than neon atoms. The
mixtures is enclosed between a set of parallel mirrors forming a resonating

148
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

cavity, one of the mirrors is completely reflecting and the other partially reflecting in order to
amplify the output laser beam.

WORKING:
When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture electrons are accelerated
down the tube these accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to
higher energy levels since the levels are meta stable energy levels he atoms spend
sufficiently long time and collide with neon atoms in the ground level E 1 . Then neon atoms
are excited to the higher energy levels E 4 & E 6 and helium atoms are de excited to the ground
state E 1

Since E 6 & E 4 are meta stable states, population inversion takes place at there levels. The
stimulated emission takes place between E 6 to E 3 gives a laser light of wave length 6328A0
and the stimulated emission between E 6 and E 5 gives a laser light wave length of 3.39µm.
Another stimulated emission between E 4 to E 3 gives a laser light wave length of 1.15µm. The
neon atoms undergo spontaneous emission from E 3 toE 2 and E 5 to E 2. Finally the neon atoms
are returned to the ground state E 1 from E 2 by non-radeative diffusion and collision process.

After arriving the ground state, once again the neon atoms are raised to E 6 & E 4 by excited
helium atoms thus we can get continuous out put from He-Ne laser.

149
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

But some optical elements placed insides the laser system are used to absorb the infrared
laser wave lengths 3.39µm and1.15µm. hence the output of He-Ne laser contains only a
single wave length of 6328A0 and the output power is about few milliwatts .

CO 2 LASER

Construction and working:

We know that a molecule is made up of two or more atoms bound together. In molecule in
addition to electronic motion, the constituent atoms in a molecule can vibrate in relation to
each other and the molecule as a whole can rotate. Thus the molecule is not only
characterized by electronic levels but also by vibration and rotational levels. The fundamental
modes of vibrations of CO 2 molecule shown I fig.

CO 2 Laser is a gas discharge, which is air cooled. The filling gas within the discharge tube
consists primarily of, CO 2 gas with 10 – 20%, Nitrogen around 10 – 20 %
H 2 or Xenon ( Xe ) a few percent usually only in a sealed tube.

The specific proportions may vary according to the particular application. The population
inversion in the laser is achieved by following sequence:

1. Electron impact excites vibration motion of the N 2. Because N 2 is a homo nuclear

molecule, it cannot lose this energy by photon emission and it is excited vibration
levels are therefore metestable and live for long time.
2. Collision energy transfer between the N 2 and the CO 2 molecule causes vibration
excitation of the CO 2 , with sufficient efficiency to lead to the desired population
inversion necessary for laser operation.

Because CO 2 lasers operate in the infrared, special materials are necessary for their
construction. Typically the mirrors are made of coated silicon, molybdenum or gold, while
windows and lenses are made of either germanium or zinc sulenide. For high power
application gold mirrors and zinc selenide windows and lenses are preferred. Usually lenses
and windows are made out of salt NaCl or KCl ). While the material is inexpensive, the
lenses windows degraded slowly with exposure to atmosphere moisture.

The most basic form of a CO 2 laser consist of a gas discharge ( with a mix close to that
specified above) with a total reflector at one end and an output coupler ( usually a semi
reflective coated zinc selendine mirror ) at the output end. The reflectivity of the out put

150
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

coupler is typically around 5 – 15 %. The laser output may be edge coupled in higher power
systems to reduce optical heating problems.

CO 2 lasers output power is very high compared to Ruby laser or He – Ne lasers. All CO 2
lasers are rated in Watts or kilowatts where the output power of Ruby laser or He – Ne laser
is rated in mill watts. The CO 2 laser can be constructed to have CW powers between mill
watts and hundreds of kilowatts.

SEMICONDIRCTOR LASER (Gallium Arsenide Diode Laser or Homojunction

Laser):

Semiconductor laser is also known as diode laser

PRINCIPLE:
In the case direct band gap semiconductors there is a large possibility for direct
recombination of hole and electron emitting a photon. GaAs is a direct band gap
semiconductor and hence it is used to make lasers and light emitting diodes. The wave
lengths of the emitted light depend on the band hap of the material.

CONSTRUCTIONS: The P-region and N-region in the diode are obtained by heavily
doping germanium and tellurium respectively in GaAs. The thickness of the P-N junction
layer is very narrow at the junction, the sides are well polished and parallel to each other.
Since the refractive index of GaAs is high the reflectance at the material air interface is
sufficiently large so that the external mirror are not necessary to produce multiple

151
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

reflections. The P-N junction is forward biased by connection positive terminal to P-type and
negative terminal to N type.

WORKING: When the junction is forward biased a large current of order104 amp/cm2
is passed through the narrow junction to provide excitation. Thus the electrons and holes
injected from N side and P side respectively. The continuous injection of charge carries the
population inversion of minority carriers in N and P sides respectively.

The excess minority electrons in the conduction band of P – layers recombine with the
majority holes in the valence band of P-layer emitting light photons similarly the excess
minority holes in the valence band of N- layers recombine with the majority electrons in the
conduction band of N- layer emitting light photons.

The emitted photons increase the rate of recombination of injected electrons from the N-
region and holes in P- region. Thus more no of photons are produced hence the stimulated
emission take place, light is amplified.

The wave length of emitted radiation depends upon the concentration of donor and acceptor
atoms in GaAs the efficiency of laser emission increases, when we cool the GaAs diode.

DRAWBACKS:-
1. Only pulsed laser output is obtained
2. Laser output has large divergence
3. Poor coherence

APPLICATION OF LASERS:

Lasers in scientific research

1) Lasers are used to clean delicate pieces of art, develop hidden finger prints
2) Laser are used in the fields of 3D photography called holography
3) Using lasers the internal structure of micro organisms and cells are studied very
accurately
4) Lasers are used to produce certain chemical reactions.

Laser in Medicine:

1) The heating action of a laser bean used to remove diseased body tissue
2) Lasers are used for elimination of moles and tumours, which are developing in the skin
tissue.

152
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com www.jwjobs.net

3) Argon and CO 2 lasers are used in the treatment liver and lungs
4) Laser beam is used to correct the retinal detachment by eye specialist

Lasers in Communication:

1) More amount of data can be sent due to the large band with of semiconductor lasers
2) More channels can be simultaneously transmitted
3) Signals cannot tapped
4) Atmospheric pollutants concentration, ozone concentration and water vapour
concentration can be measured

Lasers in Industry: Lasers are used

1) To blast holes in diamonds and hard steel
2) To cut, drill, welding and remove metal from surfaces
3) To measure distance to making maps by surveyors
4) For cutting and drilling of metals and non metals such a ceramics plastics glass

Questions:
1. Explain the terms i) Absorption, ii) spontaneous emission, iii) Stimulated emission,
iv) pumping mechanism , v) Population inversion, vi) Optical cavity
2. What is population inversion? How it is achieved?.
3. Explain the characteristics of a laser beam.
4. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission.
5. Derive the Einstein’s coefficients.
6. With neat diagrams, describe the construction and action of ruby laser.
7. Explain the working of He – Ne laser
8. Describe the CO 2 laser
9. Explain the semiconductor laser.
10. Mentions some applications of laser in different fields.

153
www.jntuworld.com