Module1

1.1 What is an Algorithm?

An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous instructions for solving a

problem, i.e., for obtaining a required output for any legitimate input in a
finite amount of time.

Characteristics of an algorithm
 Input: Zero / more quantities are externally supplied.
 Output: At least one quantity is produced.
 Definiteness: Each instruction is clear and unambiguous.
 Finiteness: The algorithm must terminates after a finite number of steps.
 Efficiency: Every instruction must be very basic and runs in short time.

1.2 Fundamentals of Algorithmic Problem Solving

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 Understanding the Problem:
Read the problem’s description carefully and ask questions if you have
any doubts about the problem, do a few small examples by hand, think about
special cases, and ask questions again if needed.

An input to an algorithm specifies an instance of the problem the

algorithm solves. If you fail to do this step, your algorithm may work correctly
for a majority of inputs but crash on some “boundary” value. Remember a
correct algorithm is not one that works most of the time, but one that works
correctly for all legitimate inputs.

Ascertaining the Capabilities of the Computational Device:

RAM (random-access machine): instructions are executed one after
another, one operation at a time, use sequential algorithms.New computers:
execute operations concurrently, use parallel algorithms.

Also, consider the speed and amount of memory the algorithm would take
for different situations.

Choosing between Exact and Approximate Problem Solving

An algorithm that can solve the problem exactly is called an exact
algorithm.
The algorithm that can solve the problem approximately is called an
approximation algorithm.
Ex:extracting square roots, solving nonlinear equations, and evaluating
definite integrals etc

Algorithm Design Techniques

Provides guidance for designing algorithms for new problems

or problems for which there is no satisfactory algorithm.

Designing an Algorithm and Data Structures

Data structures are important for both design and analysis of

algorithms.
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 Methods of Specifying an Algorithm:

1. Pseudo code 2.Flowcharts

Proving an Algorithm’s

Correctness:

The algorithm yields a required result for every legitimate input in a finite
amount of time.A common technique for proving correctness is to use
mathematical induction because an algorithm’s iterations provide a natural
sequence of steps needed for such proofs.For an approximation algorithm, we
usually would like to show that the error produced by the algorithm does not
exceed a predefined limit.

Analysing an Algorithm:

Time and space efficiency, simplicity, generality.

Coding an algorithm

As a rule, a good algorithm is a result of repeated effort and rework.

2. Fundamentals of the Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency

2.1 The Analysis Framework
The research experience has shown that for most problems, we can achieve
much more spectacular progress in speed than in space.
 Measuring an Input’s Size
When measuring input size for algorithms solving problems such as checking
primality of a positive integer n. Here, the input is just one number, and it is this
number’s magnitude that determines the input size. In such situations, it is
preferable to measure size by the number b of bits in the n’s binary
representation:
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 b=⌊log2n⌋+1

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  Units for Measuring Running Time
Identify the most important operation of the algorithm, called the basic
operation, the operation contributing the most to the total running time, and
compute the number of times the basic operation is executed.
The established framework for the analysis of an algorithm’s time
efficiency suggests measuring it by counting the number of times the
algorithm’s basic operation is executed on inputs of size n.
 Orders of Growth

logan = logab * logbn

Algorithms that require an exponential number of operations are practical

for solving only problems of very small sizes.

 Worst-Case, Best-Case, and Average-Case Efficiencies

If the best-case efficiency of an algorithm is unsatisfactory, we can

immediately discard it without further analysis.

The direct approach for investigating average-case efficiency involves

dividing all instances of size n into several classes so that for each instance of
the class the number of times the algorithm’s basic operation is executed is the
same. Then a probability distribution of inputs is obtained or assumed so that the
expected value of the basic operation’s count can be found.
Space efficiency is measured by counting the number of extra memory
units consumed by the algorithm.

The efficiencies of some algorithms may differ significantly for inputs of

the same size. For such algorithms, we need to distinguish between the worst-
case, average-case, and best-case efficiencies.

2.2 Asymptotic Notations and Basic Efficiency

Classes O-notation
Definition: A function t(n) is said to be in O(g(n)), denoted t(n) ∈ O(g(n)),
if t(n) is bounded above by some constant multiple of g(n) for all large n,
i.e., if there exist some positive constant c and some nonnegative integer
n0 such that t(n) ≤ cg(n) for all n ≥ n0

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 Ω-notation
Definition: A function t(n) is said to be in Ω(g(n)), denoted t(n) ∈ Ω(g(n)),
if t(n) is bounded below by some constant multiple of g(n) for all large n,
i.e., if there exist some positive constant c and some nonnegative integer
n0 such that t(n) ≥ cg(n) for all n ≥ n0
Θ-notation
Definition: A function t(n) is said to be in Θ(g(n)), denoted t(n) ∈ Θ(g(n)),
if t(n) is bounded both above and below by some constant multiples of
g(n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive constant c1 and c2 and
some nonnegative integer n0 such that c2g(n) ≤ t(n) ≤ c1g(n) for all n ≥
n0.

Useful Property Involving the Asymptotic Notations

 If t1(n) ∈ O(g1(n)) and t2(n) ∈ O(g2(n)), then t1(n) + t2(n) ∈

O(max{g1(n), g2(n)}) (also true for other two notations).

 L’Hôpital’s rule:

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 2 Basic efficiency classes

3. Brute Force and Exhaustive Search

Brute force is a straightforward approach to solving a problem, usually
directly based on the problem statement and definitions of the concepts
involved.

Selection Sort
We start selection sort by scanning the entire given list to find its smallest
element and exchange it with the first element, putting the smallest
element in its final position in the sorted list. Then we scan the list,
starting with the second element, to find the smallest among the last n − 1
elements and exchange it with thesecond element, putting the second
smallest element in its final position. After n − 1 passes, the list is sorted.

ALGORITHM Selection Sort(A[0..n − 1])

//Sorts a given array by selection sort
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 //Input: An array A[0..n − 1] of orderable elements
//Output: Array A[0..n − 1] sorted in nondecreasing order
fori ← 0 to n − 2 do
min ← i
for j ← i + 1 to n − 1 do
if A[j] < A[min]
min ← j
swap A[i] and A[min]

The basic operation is the key comparison A [ j ] < A [ m i n ] A[j] <

A[min]A[j]<A[min]. The number of times it is executed depends only on
the array size n nn and is given by the following sum:

Selection sort is a Θ ( n2)algorithm on all inputs.

Bubble Sort
Another brute-force application to the sorting problem is to compare
adjacent elements of the list and exchange them if they are out of order.
By doing it repeatedly, we end up “bubbling up” the largest element to the
last position
on the list. The next pass bubbles up the second largest element, and so
on,
until after n − 1 passes the list is sorted.

ALGORITHM Bubble Sort(A[0..n − 1])

//Sorts a given array by bubble sort
//Input: An array A[0..n − 1] of orderable elements
//Output: Array A[0..n − 1] sorted in non decreasing order
fori ← 0 to n − 2 do
for j ← 0 to n − 2 − i do
if A[j + 1] < A[j]
swap A[j] and A[j + 1]

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 The number of key comparisons:

Sequential search
ALGORITHM SequentialSearch2(A[0..n], K)
//Implements sequential search with a search key as a sentinel
//Input: An array A of n elements and a search key K
//Output: The index of the first element in A[0..n − 1] whose value is
equal to K or −1 if no such element is found
A[n] ← K
i←0
while A[i] not equal to K do
i←i+1
ifi< n return i
else return −1

Exhaustive Search
Exhaustive search is simply a brute-force approach to
combinatorial problems.

Travelling Salesman Problem

Find the shortest tour through a given set of n nn cities that visits
each city exactly once before returning to the city where it started.

Weighted graph -> finding the shortest Hamiltonian circuit of the

graph: a cycle that passes through all the vertices of the graph exactly
once.
Knapsack Problem
Given n items of known weights w 1 , w 2 , … , w n
and values v 1 , v 2 , … , v n and a knapsack of capacity W, find the most
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 valuable subset of the items that fit into the knapsack.

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 Generate all the subsets of the set of n items given, computing
the total weight of each subset in order to identify feasible
subsets.

Assignment Problem

There are n people who need to be assigned to execute n

jobs, one person per job. (That is, each person is assigned to
exactly one job and each job is assigned to exactly one person.)
The cost that would accrue if the i th person is assigned to the jth
job is a known quantity C[i, j] for each pair i , j = 1 , 2 , … , n.
The problem is to find an assignment with the minimum total
cost.

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