Useful definitions

IPA stands for two terms, the International Phonetics Association and The International
Phonetics Alphabet.
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds and sound production in general.
Phonology is the study of how speech sounds are produced, used and distinguished in a
specific language. (Underhill, A.)
An Introduction to Phonetics
Each symbol in the ordinary orthography (alphabet) of a language is called a letter. Each
symbol in the phonetic alphabet is called a sound segment or phoneme. As such, the word
truth is composed of five letters (t, r, u, t, h) but four phonemes /t/, /r/, /u:/, /θ/. The
ordinary writing in a language (i.e., use of letters) is called orthography or writing, while
phonetic writing (i.e., use of phonemes) is usually called transcription. (Mohammad Ali
Salmani-Nodoushan)
Phoneticians divide sounds into two basic categories: segments and supra-segmentals.
(Rogers, H.)
Segmental features of pronunciation are individual sounds, consonant and vowel sounds,
known as phonemes. Syllables and one-syllable words are considered as segmental aspect
of accent and pronunciation, as well. (Underhill, A.)
Supra-segmental features refer to how speech sounds function and are affected at the
sentence and discourse level, that is to say over multiple sound segments that combine to
make phrases, clauses and sentences.
Supra-segmental features of pronunciation are intonation, stress, tone, linking and
connecting, speed, reduction, assimilation, deletion, weak forms of function words, and
standard contractions. (Underhill, A.)
Accents of English
English is spoken as a native language by over 377 million people around the world. Like
other languages, English shows a considerable amount of geographic and social variations.
Such variation forms different dialects. When we speak of accents, we mean only the
features of the dialect regarding pronunciation. The two more important accents are the
British BBC and the General American (GA). (Rogers, R.)
Transcription
The ordinary orthography, or spelling, of English is often quite different from the phonetic
transcription. Clearly, for phonetic purposes, we want a way of writing things down that
avoids this sort of ambiguity. Transcription is the use of phonetic symbols to write the

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way an utterance (a stretch of speech) is produced. One of the goals in phonetics is to be
able to transcribe accurately any utterance in any language. (Rogers, R.)
Phoneme is the smallest sound unit that can make a difference in meaning.
E.g. cat /kæt/; cut /kʌt/
Homophones are two words with the same pronunciation but different meaning and/or
spelling.
E.g. two /tu:/ too /tu:/
add (verb) /æd/ ad (noun) /æd/
Know (verb) /nəʊ/ no /nəʊ/
See (verb) /si:/ Sea /si:/
But not homophones
lose (verb)/lu:z/ Loose adjective /lu:s/
This /ðɪs/ these /ði:z/
Homograph is a word that is spelled the same as another, but is different in meaning,
origin, grammar, or pronunciation.
There (pronoun) /ðə/ there (adverb) /ðeə/
Can (auxiliary verb) /kən/ can (noun) /kæn/
Use (verb) /ju:z/ use (noun) /ju:s/
That (determiner) /ðæt/ that (conjunction) /ðət/
Have (auxiliary verb) /həv/ have (main verb) /hæv/
Record (verb) /rɪˈkɔ:d/ record (noun) /ˈrekəd/
Allophones are the different variants of the same phoneme.
Allophonic variants of plosive sounds: aspiration of plosive sounds, nasal release, lateral
release, incomplete plosion and clear and dark /l/.
E.g. put /pʰʊt/, plot /plɒt/
The aspirated /p/ in “put” and the unaspirated /p/ in “plot” are allophones of the
phoneme /p/.

 Aspiration of plosive sounds

Voiceless plosives are /p, t, k/

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Aspiration is an interval of air heard between the end of the plosive and the following
vowel. It is represented by the symbol [ʰ]
Only voiceless plosives may be aspirated.
Strong aspiration: voiceless plosives are strongly aspirated in initial stressed position.
Example: pen, potato; [pʰen], [pə'tʰeɪtəʊ]
There're some exceptions we must consider:
(1) When /p, t, k/ are preceded by /s/. For example: pain vs Spain; [pʰəɪn], [spəɪn].
(2) When they are followed by /l, r, w, j/. In this case, /l, r, w, j/ are devoiced. For example:
play, cry, tune.
Weak aspiration: voiceless plosives are weakly aspirated in unstressed syllables and in
final position. For example: pot, tomorrow; [pʰɒt], [tə'mɒrəʊ]

 Incomplete plosion: when a plosive (/p, t, k, b, d, g/) is followed by another plosive

or an affricate (/ʧ, ʤ/) the first plosive is unreleased.
This means that you don't hear the release of the first plosive.
Ticket to ride take place learned to
 Nasal release is given when any plosive sound is followed by any nasal sound /m/,
n/, ŋ/ there is a nasal release of the plosive. The air goes out through the nose or
nasally.
Pardon nightmare pick me up

 Lateral release is produced when any plosive sound is followed by the lateral
sound /l/. the air goes out through the sides of the mouth or laterally.
Little get up late

Strong and weak forms

Lexical and grammatical words
Lexical words (also called content words) are those which carry the main part of the
meaning in an utterance. They are usually nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
Grammar words (also called function words) may have less meaning by themselves, their
function is to connect content words together in grammatical relationships. They are
usually the weak forms of articles, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns and auxiliary
verbs. In general, it is the lexical words of an utterance that are given prominence and
grammatical word are not. When we need to give more prominence to any grammar word
for emphasis, we use the strong form. (adapted from A. Underhill)

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Stress is an umbrella term for accent or word stress (regardless the speaker) and
prominence or sentence stress is because of the speaker. (A. Underhill)
Word stress is the term used to describe the accent or emphasis given to a particular
syllable of a word. Words of more than one syllable contain both stressed and unstressed
syllables. E.g. one /wʌn/, specific / spe’sɪfɪk/
A stressed syllable is articulated with relatively more force than unstressed syllables.
Primary and secondary stress
Longer words, especially when spoken in isolation, have more than one stressed syllable.
E.g. popularity, in which case one of the stresses is given more force than the other. The
strongest is referred to as primary stress and the less strong as secondary stress.
E.g. imagination /ɪˌmædʒɪˈneɪʃn̩/
Reputation / /
Negotiation / /
Contradiction / /
Economical / /
Disobedient / /
Syllable: any of the units into which a word is divided, containing a vowel sound and
usually one or more consonants. (Oxford Dictionary)
Syllable: a word or part of a word which contains a single vowel sound. (Longman
Dictionary)
Connected speech
Connected speech consists of a flow of sounds which are modified by a system of
simplifications through which phonemes are connected, grouped and modified.
Careful colloquial speech contains all types of simplification to a moderate degree. Words
remain closer to their dictionary pronunciation than the rapid colloquial speech. This style
is likely to be used in more formal settings.
Rapid colloquial speech contains more extensive simplifications, and individual words
may be further from their dictionary pronunciation than with careful colloquial speech.
This style is used by native speakers when they are talking informally to one another.
The modification to dictionary pronunciation once isolated words are embedded in
connected speech are fairly systematic and include assimilation (the changing of sounds),

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elision (the omission of sounds), vowel reduction, liaison, linking, intrusive sounds, and
juncture. (Underhill, A.)
Another definition for Connected Speech

 When we speak naturally, we do not pronounce a word, stop, then say the next
word in the sentence. Fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into
each other. To make speech flow smoothly the way we pronounce the end and
beginning of some words can change depending on the sounds at the beginning
and end of those words. These changes are described as features of connected
speech.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/features/
connected.shtml
Features of connected speech
Features (characteristics) of connected speech are the articulatory adjustments sounds
suffer because of the influence of other sounds.
Assimilation is a common phonological process by which the sound of the ending of one
word, blends into the sound of the beginning of the following word. The first sound takes
the characteristics of the second. (a. Underhill)
Dentalization is produced when a word ending in any alveolar sound (/t/, /d/,
/n/, /s/, /z/) is followed by a dental sound, it takes the characteristic of the dental one.
e.g. In the At the And then
Coalescent assimilation is produced when a word finishes in /t/ or /d/ and the
following word begins in /j/ they change to /t∫/ and /dჳ/ respectively.

e.g. I caught you Would you like a cup of tea?

See you at your place! Many soldiers were injured.
How d´you do? /haʊ djʊ duː// or /haʊ dʒʊ du://
Other rules for assimilation
1. /t/+/p/ /b/ /m/= /p/ That plan /ðæp plæn// That Monday /ðæp mʌndeɪ//
Hot bottle /hɒp bɒtɫ//

2. /t/+/k/ /g/= /k/ That cat /ðæk kæt// That girl /ðæg gɜːɫ//

3. /t/+/j/= /tʃ/ Didn´t you /dɪntʃʊ//

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 4. /d/+/b/ /p/ /m/= /b/ Good boy /gʊb bɔɪ// Good person /gub pɜːsn̩//
Sad mother /sæb mʌðə//

5. /d/+/k/ /g/=/g/ Good concert /gʊg kɒnsət// Good girl /gʊg gɜːɫ//

6. /d/+/j/= /dʒ/ Behind you. /bɪˈhaɪndʒə/

7. /m/+/b//p/ /m/= /m/ Ten men /tem men// Ten pens /tem penz/
In bed /ɪm bed//
Elision occurs when a sound which would be present in a word spoken in isolation is
omitted in connected speech. It is mainly /t/ and /d/ that are elided in English, when they
are between other consonants and the centralized weak vowels /ə/ /ɪ/ /ʊ/ when they are
followed by the consonants /n/ /m/ /l/ or /r/.
Omission of /t/
Next please / / I don’t know / / post the letter / /
Omission of /d/
Old man / / you and me / / sandwich / /
Stand there / /
Omission of the centralised vowels, especially when the following consonant is a
nasal /n/, /m/ or a liquid / l /, / r /.
Sudden /sʌdn̩/ gracefully / / modern / / lottery / /
Madam / / central / / listen / / little / /
Liaison or linkage refers to the smooth linking or joining together of words in
connected speech. The main example of liaison is catenation that is how you join the
words together when a word finishes in a consonant sound and is followed by a vowel
sound. We pronounce them as one word.
e.g. Speak in English! /spiːk͜ ɪn͜ ɪŋglɪʃ//Steve answer it. / //
Linking /r/
In RP the letter “r” in the spelling of a word is not pronounced unless it is followed by a
vowel sound. But in connected speech the final “r” of a word may be pronounced or not,
depending on whether the first sound of the next word is a consonant or a vowel. G.A.E is
a rhotic language, this means that “r” is pronounced.
Intrusive /j/ and intrusive /w/

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 These are also used to link certain vowel-vowel combinations at word junctions. Say these
phrases and notice how you join the words together:
you are go off Sue always wants to eat
/jʊ͜ʷɑː/ / / / /
he is they are she always takes my arm
/hɪ͜ʲɪz/ / / / /

When a word finishes in /ɪ/ or /iː/ and is followed by any vowel sound these words are
joined by /j/ and when a word finishes in the sounds /ʊ/ or /uː/ these words are joined
by a sound /w/.
Other aspects to be taken into account when speaking

a- Homorganic consonants

Consonants are “homorganic” when they have the same place of articulation. Examples:

A big cottage / / She’s Susan. / / I love football /

b- Gemination

It occurs when the same consonant appears at the end of a word and at the beginning of the
following one. Examples:

a big girl / / white table / / loose sweater / /

c- Devoicing

“Devoicing” means “to lose voice,” and it occurs when a voiced consonant (at the end of a word)
is followed by a voiceless one (at the beginning of the following word) which takes out part of its
“voice”. Examples: a good team / / all people / /