1.

In linguistics, a distinctive feature is the most basic unit of phonological structure that may be analyzed in phonological theory.

Distinctive features are grouped into categories according to the natural classes of segments they describe: major class
features, manner features, place features etc. These feature categories in turn are further specified on the basis of
the phonetic properties of the segments in question.
Plosives are made by making a complete closure between some point and the vocal tract. Pressure builds up behind the closure
which is released to create sound. This group includes the sounds of b, p, k, g, t & d.
The making and duration of the closure is called the closing stage. This stage is accompanied by
The stage of compression of the air under pressure,
The compressed air is released, escaping abruptly as soon as the closure is released in the release (explosion stage) and
accompanied by a sight explosion = plosives
Nasal sounds are made by making a complete closure in the mouth and allowing the air to escape through the nose. This group
includes the sounds /n/ /ng/ /m/

Affricatives are made by making a complete closure at some point in the mouth, similar to plosives. However, affricatives differ
as the air is released slower than a plosive.  

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English has two affricate phonemes, /tʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/, often spelled ch and j
semi-vowels is determined by the place of the tongue in the oral cavity:

Low: æ (cat), ʌ (fun), ɑ: (car),  ɒ (top), eɪ (wait), eə(hair), aɪ (like), aʊ(mouth), ɔɪ (coin)
High: /i:/ (need) /u:/ (boot), j, w, r, ɪə, ʊə, aɪ, ɔɪ, eɪ, aʊ, əʊ
High to mid: /ɪ/ (ship), /ʊ/ (book)
Mid: e (send), ə (again), ɜ: (heard )ɔ: (talk), eɪ, eə, əʊ, ɪə, eə, ʊə
For the consonants, the part of the tongue is the decisive factor that defines them phonetically. When the tip of the tongue is
involved those sounds are called apical consonants (t,d,θ,ð,n,l)
When the blade of the tongue is involved, coronal or laminal consonants are produced (s, z)
When the back of the tongue is involved dorsals are produced: k, g, ŋ.
Apicocoronofrontal (the tip, blade and the front part of the tongue are activated at the same time) (ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ)
Labials make use of the lower lip (p, b, f, v, m)
According to the distinctive degree of length or quantity (duration), the vowels can be divided into two groups:
a) short vowels
b) long vowels
Vowels in English usually come in pairs consisting of long and short sounds i.e. contrasting short vowels i, e, æ, ʌ, ɒ, υ, ə with
long vowels i: , ɑ: , ɔ: , ɜ: , u:.
The distinctive composition
This feature is about the composition of the phonemes i.e. whether it consists of one or two sounds. Some compound
consonants in English are called affricates and they consist of a plosive and fricative. When speaking about vowels, the
compound sounds are called diphthongs and they are described as two vowel symbols. However, short vowels are always
monophtongs, while long vowels are monophtongs or diphthongs depending on their composition.

Finally, a cluster of three vowel elements is called a triphtong and is seen as a sequence of two phonemes.
2. 1. The non-distinctive type of articulation
According to the type of articulation, sounds are generally divided into two main groups: vowels and consonants.
Vowels are also called vocoids, whereas consonants are also called contoids.
Vocoids are sounds pronounced when there aren’t any closures in the vocal tract.
Contoids are sounds made with a closure in the vocal tract, so that the airstream cannot flow freely.
Vocoids and contoids phonologically follow the language rules and exceptions.
The closure of a contoid can be:
Complete, when typical contoids are realized (e.g. when plosives are pronounced)
Partial/Incomplete, when the contoidal nature of the sound is less noticeable.
1.2. The non-distinctive type of articulation
Certain consonants have contoid allophones and vocoid allophones.
These are the sounds /j/, /w/, and /r/, and they are named semi-vowels.
They are usually non-syllabic.
However, the phoneme /r/ is sometimes syllabic, which is why it is considered as an untypical vocoid.
The semi-vowels are considered as contoids when they are preceded by a strong consonant.
They are also considered as contoids when they are followed by very similar vowels (e.g. yeast /jiːst/ and woozy /ˈwuːzi/).
The phoneme /r/ is also considered as a contoid when it is preceded by the typical consonant /d/
2. The non-distinctive manner of articulation
Liquids are consonants produced when there is a partial closure in the mouth, resulting in a vowel-like consonant.
They are produced when the air passes freely through the mouth (like vocoids), but simultaneously, a contoidal closure is made
at another place in the oral cavity.
The phonemes /l/ and /r/ are considered as liquids.
The phoneme /r/ can be flapped or tapped, which is quite untypical and symbolized as a fish hook [ɾ]
It occurs when the phoneme /r/ is articulated by a single quick contact of the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge or the
upper teeth. It occurs between vowels (e.g. hurry /ˈhʌɾi/), following thetha and eth (e.g. three /θɾiː/), or after other consonants,
especially /b, g/ (e.g. great /gɾeɪt/
3. The non-distinctive height of the tongue
The non-distinctive height of the tongue concerns /ə/, /ɪ/, and /uː/
The schwa vowel /ə/ usually appears in a low position.
4. The non-distinctive articulator
Sometimes, the articulator of certain sounds can be
a non-distinctive parameter.
This is why we can say that there is a non-distinctive articulator as a non-distinctive articulatory feature.
The nasal sound /n/ can have a labial instead of an apical articulation, while the point of articulation is dental.
This is due to the influence of the following /f/ or /v/, and the closeness of the tip of the tongue and the lower lip (e.g.
convey /kəɱˈveɪ/)
Thus, the allophone [ɱ] is realized, which is identical to the labio-dental allophone of the phoneme /m/.
4.1. The non-distinctive articulator
The following implementation of the non-distinctive articulator is specific to colloquial speech in certain parts of England.
It refers to the glottal stop /ʔ/.
Some speakers of certain English dialects produce the glottal stop by holding the vocal cords tightly closed with the lung air
pent up behind them, and then the closure is suddenly released by widening the cords.

In RP, this sound can occur in the following cases:

Replacing /p/, /k/, and especially /t/ at the end of a syllable when there is no vowel to follow (e.g. hate /heɪʔ/, football
/ˈfʊʔbɔːl/, that table /ðæʔ ˈteɪbl/. This is called glottaling and is informal. Because this refers most often to the phoneme /t/ it is
known as t-glottalization.

Reinforcing an accented /p/, /t/, /k/, /ʧ/ at the end of a syllable (e.g. leap /liːʔp/, teaching /ˈtiːʔʧɪŋ/). Here, the closure in the
mouth occurs simultaneously with the glottal closure, which is called glottalization.
4.2. The non-distinctive articulator
When unaccented, /ɪ/ is a little fronted, so that it resembles /iː/
Depending on the speaker, the first element of /aʊ/ covers the whole range from front-to-central to back.
In the pronunciation of the conservative variant of RP, /ʌ/ is realized as back to central, since it has historically developed
from /ʊ/
In the pronunciation of the advanced variant of RP, /ɑː/ is realized as retracted, as if to fill in the gap left by the raised /ɒ/

5. The non-distinctive force of articulation

The non-distinctive force of articulation refers to the phenomenon called aspiration.

Aspiration occurs when a strong plosive (p,t,k) is followed by a vowel and at the beginning of an accented syllable.
For a plosive to be aspirated, all these conditions must be fulfilled.
E.g. time [tʰaɪm], pull [pʰʊl].
In articulatory terms, laterals and nasals are always weak, whereas /h/ is strong.

6. The non-distinctive degree of length

The non-distinctive degree of length refers to duration, i.e. how long a sound lasts.
The duration of vowels changes and is generally reduced when a vowel is followed by a strong consonant.
The duration of a vowel is lengthened when it is followed by a weak consonant.
This happens regardless of whether the vowel is long or short.
This produces allophonic variations in length.
E.g. bit /bɪt/, bid /bɪd/, beat /biːt/, bead /biːd/.

The phoneme /ɪ/ is slightly shorter in the word bit /bɪt/ than the same phoneme in the word bid /bɪd/.
The phoneme /iː/ is slightly shorter in the word beat /biːt/ than the same phoneme in the word bead /biːd/.
7. The non-distinctive composition
The non-distinctive composition refers to vowels.
Since vowels can be simple and compound, the non-distinctive composition refers to diphthongs and triphthongs.

7.1. The non-distinctive composition

Diphthongs can be divided into closing and centering.
A closing diphthong is a diphthong that provides a certain closure which appears for the second element,
i.e. when the second element of a diphthong is closer than the first, an impression of closing is created.
Closing diphthongs are: /eɪ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/, /əʊ/, and /aʊ/

Centering diphthongs are: /ɪə/, /eə/, and /ʊə/.

Centering diphthongs are classified into falling and rising.
Falling diphthongs are /ɪə/and /ʊə/.

English diphthongs are usually realized with the first element more prominent than the second.
The impression of prominence is achieved by means of the length, stress, and openness of the first element. Such diphthongs
are termed falling.

When /ɪə/and /ʊə/ occur in a stressed syllable, the force of the stress falls on the first element, which is more prominent owing
to the strong stress, and the diphthong is falling.

7.4. The non-distinctive composition

When /ɪə/ and /ʊə/ occur in an unstressed syllable, their first element is left without the support from stress and it becomes
less prominent than the second, more open element. This is symbolized as [ĭə] and [ŭə].
Such diphthongs are called rising diphthongs.
The first element of a rising diphthong may be replaced by a semi-vowel /j/ or /w/, thus reducing its prominence even more.
E.g. glorious [ˈglɔːrɪəs] or [ˈglɔːrjəs], influence [ˈɪnflʊəns] or [ˈɪnflwəns], associate [əˈsəʊʃɪət] or [əˈsəʊʃjət].

When /ə/ within a triphthong does not constitute a separate morpheme, i.e. is devoid of meaning, the second element of the
diphthong can be omitted.
This phenomenon is called levelling.

Levelling occurs when the second element of a triphthong is omitted and the first and third element remain active.

E.g. tower /ˈtaʊə / [ˈtaə] [tɑː],

fire /ˈfaɪə/ [ˈfaə] [ˈfɑː],
shower /ˈʃaʊə/ [ˈʃaə] [ˈʃɑː]

Thus, the pronunciation of some different words may be almost completely equalized, as in the case of shire, shower and Sha,
or tower and tar, or fire and far.
Levelling is not possible in a triphthong when /ə/ constitutes a distinct morpheme.

E.g. slower /ˈsləʊə/, higher /ˈhaɪər/, and employer /ɪmˈplɔɪə/.

Triphthongs can be reduced to monophthongs in rapid colloquial speech. However, foreign students are not advised to imitate
such speech.

8. The non-distinctive tongue position

The tongue position as a non-articulatory feature refers to the consonants.
Palatalized (or clear) sounds are produced when the middle of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate.
Velarized (or dark) sounds are produced when the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate.
The phoneme /l/ is palatalized when immediately followed by a vowel or /j/, e.g. lily /ˈlɪli/, love /lʌv/, lord /lɔːd/ etc.
The phoneme /l/ is velarized when followed by a consonant, e.g. killed /kɪɫd/, billed /bɪɫd/ etc.

Sounds made when the tip of the tongue is curled back towards the hard palate are termed retroflex, as in the case of the
typical allophone of /r/.
9. The non-distinctive degree of voicing
The non-distinctive degree of voicing refers to consonants.
All strong consonants are voiceless.
All weak consonants are voiced.
Untypically, all weak consonants are devoiced, i.e. partially voiced or voiceless when immediately preceded or followed by a
pause or a strong consonant.
E.g. devoiced allophones of the phoneme /g/ may be found in the articulation of good /gʊd/ [#ġʊd], not good /nɒt gʊd/ [nɒt
‘ġʊd], etc.
There are consonants which are
partially voiced – those are the weak consonants which are unaspirated,
and fully voiced – those are the strong consonants which are aspirated.

9.1. The non-distinctive degree of voicing

The lateral /l/ and the semi-vowels are voiceless when accented and at the same time preceded by a strong syllable-initial
plosive consonant or /h/, e.g. supply /səˈplaɪ/, try /traɪ/, tune /tjuːn/.
The nasals, the semi-vowels and /l/ are devoiced when preceded by a strong consonant.
When preceded by a strong consonant in other positions, the nasals, /l/ and the semi-vowels are realized as partially voiced,
e.g. smart /smɑːt/, deafness /ˈdefnɪs/.
With some speakers, the phoneme /h/, which is typically voiceless, becomes voiced between two vowels, as in the word ahead
[əˈɦed].

10. The non-distinctive lip position

The non-distinctive lip position refers to vowel sounds, which can be:
Rounded, e.g. /uː/
Unrounded/Spread, e.g. /iː/
Neutral, e.g. /ɑː/ or /e/
11. The non-distinctive type of explosion
The non-distinctive type of explosion refers to the sudden release of air, therefore to plosives.
The release of air can differ in different situations..
A lateral explosion occurs when a plosive is immediately followed by /l/; the closure for the latter sound is made simultaneously
with the closure for the plosive, so that the compressed air has no possibility of escaping directly through the mouth and is used
for the articulation of /l/, e.g. gamble, battle, eagle, etc.
12. The non-distinctive point of articulation
The non-distinctive point of articulation refers to the consonants.
Labials are contoids which are produced with the upper lip as a point of articulation.
The sounds /b, p, m/ are labials typically.
The sounds /f/ and /v/ may be labial when preceded by /b, p, m/ as in camphoreˈ/kæmfə/ and triumvirate /traɪˈʌmvɪrɪt/.
For the semi-vowel /w/ the upper lip is brought near the lower lip in all positions. When this becomes conspicuous and bilabial
friction issues, /w/ is considered as a labial.
Dentals are sounds which are produced with the teeth as a point of articulation.
The phonemes /θ/ and /ð/ are always dental, whereas the phonemes /f/ and /v/ are typically dental.
The phonemes /p, b, m, m/ and /t, d, n, l/ can be untypically dental.

12.1. The non-distinctive point of articulation

Alveolars are sounds which are produced when the alveolar ridge is the point of articulation. This central zone is fully exploited
for articulation. Thus, most English contoids are aveolars, e.g. /t, d, s, z, n, l/.
Postalveolars are sounds which are produced by using a part of the tongue at the back of the alveolar ridge, as in the case of
the most common contoid variant of /r/.
All typical alveolars become postalveolars when immediately followed by /r/, e.g. already.
Palatoalveolars are sounds which are produced when a part of the tongue is in contact with the alveolar ridge, while at the
same time another part is raised toward the hard palate. This is in the articulation of /ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ/.
Palatals are sounds which are produced when the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. The only palatal is /j/ in its contoid
variant.
Velars are sounds which are produced when the soft palate is used.
These are /k, g, ŋ/ in all positions.