Literature Review

Chapter 3
• it is process of reviewing research studies so
that all the past studies, their conclusions
and deficiencies are known and further research
can be conducted.
Concept of literature Review
• A careful review of journals,
books, dissertations, and theses
on concerned problem helps
researcher familiarize with the
methodologies used by others
• to find answers to research questions
• to find what theories have been put
forward and
• what gaps exist in the relevant body
of knowledge.

• It also helps the researches to

understand how the findings of his
study fit into the existing body
Lit. Review accomplishes the following

• It takes the stock of available literatures

(examining of existing stock of knowledge)
• It establishes a point of departure for future
research.
• It avoids needless duplication of costly research
effort.
• It reveals areas of needed research.
Definition
• A literature review is the process of
locating, obtaining, reading and
evaluating the research literature in
the area of your interest. Haywood
and Wagg (1996)

• “A literature review is a summary and

analysis of current knowledge about a
particular topic or area of enquiry”-
N. Williman (2005)
Need / Purpose of Reviewing the Literature

• What research has been done in the subject?

• What theories have been advanced?
• What are the approaches taken by other
researchers?
• What are the areas of agreement or disagreement
in the result?
• Whether there are gaps that can be filled
through the proposed research?
• What are the theories, models, formulas etc
developed by other in the concerned topic?
Need / Purpose of Reviewing the
Literature
• It enables the researcher to define the limits of
his field.
• It brings the researcher up to date on the work,
which others have done.
• The researcher can avoid unfruitful and useless
problem areas.
• The researcher can avoid unintentional duplication
of well-established findings.
Need / Purpose of Reviewing the
Literature
• It gives the researcher an understanding of the
research methodology.
• It helps the researcher to know about the tools and
instruments, statistical methods used in the
previous studies.
• It helps the researcher to know about the
recommendations of previous researchers for further
research.
Benefits of a good literature
survey
• Important variables likely to influence the problem
situation are not left out of the study
• A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be
most important to consider.
• Testability and replicability of the findings of
current research are enhanced.
• The problem statement can be made with greater
precision and clarity
Benefits of a good literature survey

• One does not run the risk of reinventing the wheel,

that is wasting efforts on trying to rediscover
something that is already known and;
• The problem investigated is perceived by the
scientific community as relevant and of significance
Steps of Lit. review
• Encyclopedias
Locating • Card/computer catalogue,
Journal index
• International bibliographies
• Libraries, Online sources,
Obtaining CD-ROM sources
• Other sources

• Efficient and selective reading

Reading • Keeping track of references,
annotate your references ,
Developing a structure
• Content analysis
Evaluating • Critical review, Meta analysis
Step 1 locating materials and composing
bibliography
• Make a list of topic relevant to subject (it
can be deduced from statement of problem)
• Look in encyclopedias under possible headings
to obtain background information
• Go the card or computer catalogue and check it
for available literature
• Check journal index for pertinent articles
• Search internet for matching materials
• Make bibliography card for each sources, (and
they are alphabetically arranged in a
bibliography at the end of thesis format)
Example of 3” by 5”
bibliography card for a book

Lucy, T. (1988). Cost Accounting,

new Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Co.
Note: TUCL Call 250.12F234s
Chapter Three is Useful for review
For a Journal article
Hubbard, R.G.(1998).Capital Market Imperfections and
Investment. Journal of Economic literature, (36),193-225.
Some reference sources
• Encyclopedias
• Encyclopedias Britannica
• Encyclopedias of social sciences
• International encyclopedia of social science
• Encyclopedias of education
• Mc Graw Hill Encyclopedias of science and technology
• Business Encyclopedias and legal advisor
• Annual bibliographies
• International bibliography of political science
• International bibliography of social and cultural
anthropology
• International bibliography of economics
• International bibliography of sociology
• Subject literature guides
• Hoselitze, Bert. A readers guide to the social
sciences-guides available to literature in
sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics and
geography
• Harvey, J.M. (Ed.) Source of Statistics. Guide to
important sources in demography, social education,
labor, production, finance, tourism etc.
• CEDA documentation center-a number of monographs,
reports and documents concerning Nepal’s political,
economic, social development.
• Business literatures indexes
• Business periodical index- a cumulative
subject index covering 270 business
periodicals
• Management information guide- offers
bibliographic references in many
business areas
• Topicator –a classified guide to article
in marketing periodicals
• Personnel management abstracts- an index
of articles that deal with the
management of people and organizational
behavior.
• CD-ROM technology-
• Index CD-ROMs-electronic bibliographies
of thousands of article titles.
• Full-text CD-ROMs- access the
researchers to read the original
articles
Online databases

Predicast
Dialog, SSRN
s

Disclosur ABI/INFOR
ERIC
e ii M
Literature search through
internet

Google Yahoo Lycos Altavista

Alltheweb.
Hotbot Go.com excite.co
com
Reading and reviewing the
literature
• Reading involves
• Scanning the materials
• Gaining some quick impression of what the material
is about
• Identifying new ideas, issues, methods,
• Note taking the relevant points in Note cards
Types of note taking
Direct quotations- it must be taken with care so
that the authors word or punctuation is not
changed
Paraphrasing-the author’s basic structure is
retained, but the information is condensed

Summarizing-appropriate when one wishes to

collect the authors main concept but is not
interested in keeping the author’s style
Generalization- when the idea of several authors
is combined and presented in review it is
generalization
Specimen format for note
taking cards
Title of the study
Authors
Publication year
Objectives of the study
Problem statement/
hypothesis
Research methods used
Research findings
conclusions
Evaluating the literature
• Accuracy and dependability
• Suitable to topic.
• Consider the arrangement of materials how it is
prepared.
• Material should be up-to date.
• Authority to use.
• Illustrations, table, diagrams must be useful.
• Who is Author??
• Who is Publisher? etc..
Evaluation of literature
• Initial part (Author, date of publication, title of
journal report etc.)
• Evaluate the introduction part (Background of the
study, problem of the study, objectives, hypothesis
etc.)
• Evaluate the methodology used to prepare report or
article.
• Evaluate the result selection (Conclusion / finding
with analysis)
Organizing library findings
• After a large collection of note
cards with a topic heading, content
analysis is conducted to present the
findings in a format.
• Content analysis is the process of
developing a special format of
presenting the literature into
different mutually exclusive
headings.
• Presenting the headings of each note
card in a logical order should be
the basis of organization of library
findings.
For example;
• If your research topic is Tourism in Nepal
• The following outline may be developed for
review presentation
1. Conceptual background
2. Historical perspectives
3. Current situation of tourism
4. Governments initials
5. Private sectors in tourism development
6. Problems and prospects
7. conclusion
• Hence organization and presentation of
literature review, has the following main
points;
• Introduction
• Problem statement
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• conclusion
The Thought Process: Reasoning
Ways to Communicate
• Exposition
• descriptive statements that merely
state and do not give reason
• Argument
• allows us to explain, interpret,
defend, challenge, and explore
meaning

Two types of argument of great

importance to research are deduction
and induction.
Important Arguments in Research
• Deduction is a form of inference
that purports to be conclusive –
the conclusion must necessarily
follow from the reasons given.
• Induction draws conclusions from
one or more particular facts or
pieces of evidence. The conclusion
explains the facts, and the facts
support the conclusions.
Important Arguments in Research
• Deduction is the process by which we
arrive at a reasoned conclusion by
logically generalizing from a known
fact.
• Induction is a process where we
observe certain phenomena and on this
basis arrive at conclusions. In
other words, in induction we
logically establish a general
proposition based on observed facts.

“The nature of induction, however, is

that the conclusion is only a
Deduction
• (P1) All regular employees can be
trusted not to steal.
• (P2) John is a regular employee.
• (C) John can be trusted not to
steal.
Induction
• To induce is to draw a conclusion
from one or more particular facts
or pieces of evidence.
• The conclusion explains the facts,
and the facts support the
conclusion.
• The nature of induction, however,
is that the conclusion is only a
hypothesis.
• It is one explanation, but there
are others that fit the facts just
as well.
Induction
• Fact: “Sales did not increase
during or after the promotional
campaign.”
• Ask: “Why didn’t sales increase ?”
• One likely conclusion (by
experience): “The promotional
campaign was poorly executed.”
• Others: “Regional retailers did
not have sufficient stock”, “A
strike by the employees of our
trucking firm”, “Hurricane (or
typhoon)”.
Induction
• The inductive conclusion is an inferential jump
beyond the evidence presented.
• One conclusion explains the fact, other
conclusions also can explain the fact.
• It may even be that none of the conclusions we
advanced correctly explain the fact.
Reflective Thought and the
Scientific Method
• Induction and deduction,
observation, and hypothesis
testing can be combined in a
systematic way to illustrate the
scientific method.
• They are particularly appropriate
for researchers whose conclusions
depend on empirical data.
Understanding Theory: Components and Connections
The Building Blocks of Theory

• Concepts & Constructs

• Operational Definitions & Variables
• Propositions and Hypotheses
• Theories
• Models
Concepts-??????
• A concept is a bundle of meanings
or characteristics associated with
certain events, objects, behaviors
and phenomena.
• It is a property of an object.
• It is general idea about an object
that has been given a name.
• Concepts have been developed over
time through shared usage
Fir example; leadership,
personality, motivation, etc.
• Generally concepts have accepted
collection of meaning. They are coined
What is a Construct?
• Abstract concepts are often called
constructs.
• A construct is an image or idea
specifically invented for a given
research and/or theory-building
purpose.
• A construct can be built by
combining similar concepts
Operational Definition
• A definition for a variable stated
in terms of specific testing
criteria or operations, specifying
what must be counted and measured.
Concept Operational Variables
Definition
Prosperity Income, wealth, Salary,
Health apartment, real
state etc.
Achievemen Educational degree, Masters,
t Job, Bachelors, job
satisfaction
 • Anything that can vary can be considered as a
variable.

• A variable is anything that can take on differing or

varying values.

VARIABLES • For example; Age, Production units,

Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height,
Weight etc.

• Note: The values can differ at various times for the

same object or person (or) at the same time for
different objects or persons.
Variable / •

Attribute

•
•

•
 Types of Variables
 Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable
The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory
variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

 Dependant vs Independent Variable

The variable that changes in relationship to changes in
another variable(s) is called dependant variable.
The variable whose change results in the change in another
variable is called an independent variable.
OR
An independent variable is the one that influences the
dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.
 HYPOTHESIS

 Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that

relates an independent variable to a dependant
variable.
Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent
variable and one dependant variable.
 HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the

solution of the problem.
 Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It
describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen
in the study.
 Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of
the study.
 It delimits the area of research and keeps the
researcher on the right track.
 PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and

can be proved to be right or wrong.

 A problem is a broad question which cannot be

directly tested. A problem can be scientifically
investigated after converting it into a form of
hypothesis.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

 Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.

 Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.

 Consistency - It should be consistent with the

objectives of research.

 Testability - It should be capable of being tested.

 Expectancy - It should state the expected relationships

between variables.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

• Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible

in simple terms.

• Objectivity - It should not include value

judgments, relative terms or any moral preaching.

• Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent

with a substantial body of established or known
facts or existing theory.

• Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods

should be available for testing the proposed
Types of Variables

Independent
Dependent
Moderating
Extraneous
Intervening
Independent
and Dependent
•Variables
Researchers are most
interested in
relationships among
variables.
• Does a participative
leadership style
influence job
satisfaction ?
• Researchers hypothesize
relationships of
independence and
dependence: They invent
them, and then they try
by reality testing to
see if the relationships
actually work out that
way.
 Independent and Dependent
Variables

New Product Stock Market

Success Price
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
 Independent and Dependent
Variables

Age =Moderating
Variable

Employee training Productivity

Independent variable Dependent variable

Moderating Variables

• A second independent variable, believed to have a

significant contributory or contingent effect on
the originally stated IV-DV relationship; notation:
MV.
• For example,
• The introduction of the four-day workweek (IV)
will lead to higher productivity (DV),
especially among younger workers (MV).
• Training (IV) improves employee productivity
(DV) specially among the younger workers (IV).
Moderating Variable

Number of books available Children’s Reading abilities

Independent variable Dependent variable

Parents’ literacy

Moderating variable
Extraneous Variables

• The variables to assume (because

they have little affect, or their
impact is randomized) or exclude
from a research study.
• In routine office work (EV), job
training (IV) will lead to
higher productivity (DV),
especially among younger workers
(MV).
Intervening Variables

• A variable that affects the observed

phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured,
or manipulated, thus its effect must be
inferred from the effects of the
independent and moderating variables on
the dependent variable.
• For example; The introduction of the four-
day workweek (IV) will lead to higher
productivity (DV) by increasing job
satisfaction (EV).
Intervening Variables

Time: t1 t2 t3

Workforce Creative Organizational

diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent Intervening Dependent

variable variable variable
Intervening Variables

t1 t2 t3

Workforce Creative Organizational

diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent Intervening Dependent

variable variable variable

Managerial
expertise

Moderating
variable
 Theoretical Framework

• Having examined the different kinds of variables

that could operate in a situation and how the
relationships among these can be established, it is
64 now possible to see how we can develop the
conceptual model or the theoretical framework for
our research.
Theory

• a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions

and propositions that are advanced to explain or predict
phenomena (facts); the generalizations we make about
variables and the relationships among variables.
The Value of a Theory
• Narrows the range of facts we need to study
• Suggests which research approaches will yield
the greatest meaning
• Suggests a data classification system
• Summarizes what is known about an object of
study
• Predicts further facts that should be found
Theoretical Framework
• A theoretical framework represents your beliefs
on how certain phenomena (or variables or
concepts) are related to each other (a model)
and an explanation on why you believe that
these variables are associated to each other (a
theory).

67
Theoretical Framework

• Basic steps:
• Identify and label the variables
correctly
• State the relationships among the
variables: formulate hypotheses
• Explain how or why you expect these
relationships

68
 Theoretical Framework

• The theoretical framework is the foundation on

which the entire research project is based.
• It is a logically developed, described, and
69
elaborated network of associations among the
variables deemed relevant to the problem situation.
The components of the
theoretical framework

The variables considered A conceptual model that A clear explanation of why we

relevant to the study should describes the relationships expect these relationships to
be clearly defined. between the variables in the exist.
model should be given.

70
The Relationship Between the Literature
Survey and the Theoretical Framework
• The literature survey provides a solid
foundation for developing the theoretical
framework.
• The literature survey identifies the variables
that might be important, as determined by
previous research findings.

71
The Relationship Between the Literature
Survey and the Theoretical Framework
• The theoretical framework elaborates the
relationships among the variables, explains the
theory underlying these relations, and
describes the nature and direction of the
relationships.
• The theoretical framework provides the logical
base for developing testable hypotheses.

72
Theoretical Framework (1)

Communication among
cockpit members

Communication between
ground control and Air-safety
cockpit violations
Decentralization
Dependent
variable
Training of cockpit crew

Independent
variable
Theoretical Framework (2)

Communication among
cockpit members

Communication between
ground control and Air-safety
cockpit violations
Decentralization
Dependent
variable
Nervousness
Training of cockpit crew and
diffidence

Independent Intervening
variable variable
Theoretical Framework (3)

Communication among
cockpit members

Communication between
Air-safety
ground control and
violations
cockpit

Decentralization
Dependent
variable

Training
Independent
variable

Moderating
variable
Propositions and Hypotheses
• Proposition are statements about concepts that
may be judged as true or false if it refers to
observable phenomena.
• Proposition are expressed as a
relationship of between concepts
• Example;
• leadership should be visionary
• Higher recognition to their job leads
employee motivation
• When a proposition is formulated for
empirical testing, we call it a
hypothesis
Descriptive Hypotheses
• These are propositions that
typically state the existence, size,
form, or distribution of some
variable.
• Examples;
• Middle class families are experiencing
financial difficulties in Kathmandu.
• Q: “Are Middle class families
experiencing budget difficulties in
Kathmandu ?”
• Q: “What is the unemployment rate in
Kathmandu ?”
Relational Hypotheses
• Describe a relationship between
two variable with respect to some
cases.
• Correlational hypotheses
People in southern Taiwan give
President Chen a more favorable
rating than do people in northern
Taiwan.
• Explanatory (causal) hypotheses
An increase in family income leads
to an increase in the percentage
of income saved. (direction should
Theoretical Framework Among
Variables
From Paper Reading Assignment 1

MANAGEMENT STYLE

People- H3
Oriented
H2

USER H1 SYSTEM
PARTICIPATION SUCESS
H2
H3
Task-Oriented
The Role of the Hypothesis
• Guides the direction of the study
• Identifies facts that are relevant
• Suggests which form of research design is
appropriate
• Provides a framework for organizing the
conclusions that result
What is a Good Hypothesis?
• A good hypothesis should fulfill three
conditions:
• Must be adequate for its purpose
• Must be testable
• Must be better than its rivals
Models
• a representation of a system that is
constructed to study some aspect of that system
or the system as a whole.
• Models differ from theories in that a theory’s
role is explanation whereas a model’s role is
representation.
Different Types of Models
• Descriptive models
Describe the behavior of elements in a system
where theory is inadequate or nonexistent
• Explicative models
Extend the application of well-developed
theories or improve our understanding of their
key concepts
• Simulation models
Clarify the structural relations of concepts
and attempt to reveal the process relations
among them
Variables
• Any concept or construct that varies or
changes in value

• Main types of variables:

• Dependent variable
• Independent variable
• Moderating variable
• Mediating variable (or intervening)

84
(In)dependent Variables
• Dependent variable (DV)
• Is of primary interest to the researcher. The goal
of the research project is to understand, predict or
explain the variability of this variable.

• Independent variable (IV)

• Influences the DV in either positive or negative
way. The variance in the DV is accounted for by the
IV.

85
Examples
• List the variables, and label them as
dependent or independent, explaining why they
are so labeled.
Example 1
An applied researcher wants to increase the
performance of organizational members in
particular bank.

86
Answer to Example 1

• The dependent variable is organizational

performance because it is the primary variable
of interest to the applied researcher, who
wants to increase the commitment of the members
in the bank.

87
Example 2

• A marketing manager wonders why the recent

advertisement strategy does not work. What
would be the dependent variable here?
• Answer: The dependent variable is advertisement
strategy because the marketing manager is
interested in knowing why the recent strategy
does not work.

88
 Example 3

• Research studies indicate that successful new

product development has an influence on the
stock market price of the company. That is, the
more successful the new product turns out to
be, the higher will be the stock market price
of the firm.

89
Answer to the Example 3

• Independent Variable is the success of the new

product.
• Dependent Variable is the stock market price.

90
91
Hypotheses Development
• Definition of Hypotheses: Is a logical
relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a testable statement.

92
Statement of Hypotheses: Formats
• If-Then Statements
Can be used to test whether there are
differences between two groups. It takes two
forms:
(1) Employees who are more healthy will
take sick leave less frequently.
(2) If employees are more healthy, then they
will take sick leave less frequently.

93
Directional and Nondirectional
Hypotheses
• Directional hypotheses: the direction of the
relationship between the variables
(positive/negative) is indicated.

94
Example 12
• The greater the stress experienced in the job,
the lower the job satisfaction of employees.
Or
• Women are more motivated than men are.

95
Nondirectional hypotheses
• Nondirectional hypotheses: there are no
indication of the direction of the
relationships between variables.

96
Example 13
• There is a relationship between age and Job
satisfaction.
Or
• There is a differences between the work ethic
values of American and Arabian employees.

97
Null and Alternate Hypotheses

• The null hypotheses is a proposition that

states a definitive, exact relationship between
two variables.
• It states that the population correlation
between two variables is equal to zero (or some
definite number).
• In general, the null statement is expressed as
no (significant) difference between two groups.

98
The Alternate Hypotheses
• The alternate hypotheses is the opposite of the
null hypotheses, is a statement expressing a
relationship between two variables or
indicating differences between groups.

99
Examples for the Directional
Relationships
• The null hypotheses: In past example were we state
that: Women are more motivated than men are. Then,
• H0: µM = µw
Or
• H0: µM - µw = 0
Where H0 represents the null hypotheses,
µM is the mean motivational level of the
men,
µw is the mean motivational level of
women.

100
• The alternate hypotheses for the above
• H A : µM > µ w
Where HA represents the alternate hypotheses.

101
Examples for the nondirectional
relationship
• There is a difference between the work ethic of
American and Arabian employees.
• The null hypotheses would be:
Ho: µAM = µAR
Or
Ho: µAM - µAR = 0
Where µAM is the mean work ethic value of
Americans and µAR is the mean work ethic value
of Arabs.

102
Examples for the nondirectional
relationship
• The alternate hypotheses for the above example
would statistically be set as:
HA: µAM ≠ µAR
where HA represents the alternate hypotheses.

103
Examples for the nondirectional
relationship
• For the example: The greater the stress experienced in
the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employees.
• The null hypotheses would be:
Ho: There is no relationship between stress
experienced on the job and the job satisfaction of
employees.
This would be statistically expressed by:
Ho: P = 0
where P represents the correlation between
stress and job satisfaction, which in this case is
equal to 0 ( no correlation).

104
Example 14

• A production manager is concerned about the low

output levels of his employees. The articles
that he read of job performance mentioned four
variables as important to job performance:
skill required for the job, rewards,
motivation, and satisfaction. In several
articles it was also indicated that only if the
rewards were (attractive) did motivation,
satisfaction, and job performance increase, not
otherwise.

105
Example 14 (cont.)

• Given the above situation, do the following:

1. Define the problem.
2. Evolve a theoretical framework.
3. Develop at least six hypotheses.

106
Example 14 (cont.)

• Problem Statement
How can the job performance (output) of the
employees be increased through enriched jobs
and rewards?

107
Schematic Diagram for the Theoretical
Framework

Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran/RESEARCH 4E SOLUTION TO EXERCISE 5.13 108
Hypotheses for Example 14

• HA1: If the job is enriched and utilizes all the

skills possessed by the employee, then employee
satisfaction will be high.
• HA2: If the job is enriched and utilizes all the
skills possessed by the employee, then employee
motivation will be high.
• HA3: There will be a positive correlation
between satisfaction and motivation.

109
Hypotheses for Example 14

• HA4: Greater rewards will influence motivation

and satisfaction only for those employees who
find the rewards attractive, not for the
others.
• HA5: Satisfaction and motivation will positively
influence performance.
• HA6: The more enriched the job and the greater
the skills utilized by the job, the higher the
level of employee performance.

110
Example of Literature Review, Theoretical
Framework, and Hypotheses Development
• Introduction
Despite the dramatic increase in the number
of managerial women during the current decade,
the number of women in top management positions
continues to be very small, suggesting a glass
ceiling effect that women currently face
(Morrison, W. & Vura, 1999; Van Velsor,2000).

111
Introduction (Cont.)

Given the projected demographics of the

workplace, which forecasts that for every six
or seven women entering the workforce in the
future, there will be about only three males
joining the labor market, it becomes important
to examine the organizational factors that
would facilitate the early advancement of women
to top executive positions.

112
Introduction (Cont.)

This study is an effort to identify the

factors that currently impede women’s
advancement to the top in organizations.

113
A Brief Literature Survey &
Theoretical Framework
• Read the paragraphs about the literature survey
and theoretical framework for the above example
on page 93 from the textbook.

114
The Hypotheses

1. The greater the extent of gender stereotyping

in organizations, the fewer will be the number
of women at the top.
2. Male managers have more access to critical
information than women managers in the same
rank.
3. There will be a significant positive
correlation between access to information and
chances for promotion to top-level positions.

115
The Hypotheses

4. The more the gender-role stereotype, the less

the access to critical information for women.
5. gender-role stereotyping and access to
critical information will both significantly
explain the variance in promotional
opportunities for women to top-level positions.
(See next Figure)

116
Figure: schematic diagram of the
example

Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran/RESEARCH 4E FIGURE 5.11 117
Exercises on Theoretical Framework

• Develop a theoretical framework for the

following situation and state one testable
hypothesis in the null and the alternate.
• A school administrator is interested in
finding how the threatened teachers’ strike can
be averted. He knows that pay demands and the
classroom’s physical environment are the two
main issues in the situation. He, however,
feels that these two are not major concerns for
the teachers who are extremely dedicated to
teaching.

118
Exercises on Theoretical Framework
(Cont.)
Theoretical Framework
• Since the administrator’s main concern is about
the strike, teachers’ strike is the dependent
variable. Pay and the physical environment of
the classroom are the two independent
variables, which influence the strike
situation.

119
Exercises on Theoretical Framework
(Cont.)
The grater the pay demands made by the
teachers, the greater the possibility of a
strike, since the school administration refuse
the idea of higher wages. The more
uncomfortable the classroom physical
environment, the more difficult it will be for
teachers to do an effective job in the
classroom, and hence the greater the
possibility of teachers going on strike.

120
Exercises on Theoretical Framework
(Cont.)
However, this relationship between the
independent variables and the dependent
variable will be true only for those teachers
who are not dedicated to teaching. The truly
dedicated teachers would be more concerned
about doing a good job despite the hardships
faced by them, and hence the pay demands and
the classroom environment will not be factors
influencing their decision to join the strike.
(See Schematic Diagram).

121
Schematic Diagram

Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran/RESEARCH 4E THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ANSWERS TO EXERCISES (PAGES 113-120 OF MANUAL) 5A
122
Hypothesis:
• H01: Dedication to teaching will not alter the
relationship between the independent variables
of pay and classroom environment and the
dependent variable of teachers’ decision to go
on strike.

123
Hypothesis:
• HA1: only for those teachers who are not truly
dedicated to teaching, will pay considerations
and classroom environment be factors that would
influence their decision to go on strike.

124
Exercise
• Here are eight variables:
1) Understanding student needs (by teacher);
2) Developing appropriate teaching strategies (by
teacher);
3) In-class examples and exercises;
4) Student entry level skills;
5) Student understanding;
6) Student exam performance;
7) Difficulty of exam;
8) Stress.
125
Exercise
a. With these eight variables, develop a
theoretical framework, treating #4 (Student
entry level skills) as a moderator, and
variable #5 (Student understanding) as an
intervening variable.
b. Develop four hypotheses.

126
ANSWERS

a. The variance in the performance of students

in the exam can be accounted for by the four
independent variables – teacher’s understanding
of the needs of the students, the different
teaching strategies developed by the teacher,
the number of in-class examples and exercises
that the teacher gives, and how difficult the
exam itself happens to be.

127
ANSWERS (Cont.)
When the teacher understands students’
difficulties and needs, he tries to develop
appropriate teaching strategies in order to
meet the needs of the students to understand
what is being taught, students understanding
will increase.

128
ANSWERS (Cont.)
In addition, if the teacher uses several examples to
put across the points and gives exercises in class to
test the extent to which students have understood ,
then, the students’ level of understanding of what is
being taught will increase. However, the entry- level
skills of the students should be sufficiently adequate
to enable them to understand what is being taught. If
the student entry level skills and comprehension are
very low, then the teachers’ efforts will not work.

129
ANSWERS (Cont.)
• The level of difficulty of the exam is also
another factor that would account for the
variance in student performance. The more
difficult the exam, the more stressed the
students will feel while answering the exam,
and the lower will be their performance level
in the exam. Thus, stress is the intervening
variable here.
( see next Figure).

130
Figure: Schematic Diagram on
student performance

131
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran/RESEARCH 4E THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ANSWERS TO EXERCISES (PAGES 113-120 OF MANUAL) 5E
Hypotheses

• HA1: Only for those who have the

requisite entry level skills, will
more in-class exercises and
examples help increase the
students’ level of understanding of
the subject taught.
• HA2: The more difficult the exams,
the greater the stress experienced
by the students.
132
Hypotheses
• HA3: The higher the level of stress experienced
by the students, the lower their level of
performance in the exam.
• HA4: When students understand the subject
better, they will perform better in the exam.

133
Developing a theoretical
framework