HSC CORE 1: Health priorities in Australia

Measuring health status:

Role of epidemiology:
Epidemiology is the study of patterns and causes of disease through the collection of data which is
collected and analysed to provide a picture of Australia’s health status. Researchers, health department
officials and the government use epidemiological data to tell them about the basic health status of
Australia in terms of quantifiable measures of health. It provides trends in disease incidence and
prevalence along with info about ethnic, socioeconomic and gender groups. In this way they can help
identify priority health issues and possible causes of disease or illness.

Limitations of epidemiology:
- Do not account for health determinants (socioeconomic, environmental and cultural).
- Fail to explain why health inequities persist.
- At a basic level, statistics and data like epidemiology can be manipulated by the interpreters and
are open to bias.

Measures of epidemiology-
Mortality:
- Is the number of deaths in a group or from a disease over a specific time period, usually one
year.

Infant mortality:
- Refers to the number of infant deaths. This is the most important measure of epidemiology and
can be used to predict adult life expectancy.

Morbidity:
- Refers to the rates for the prevalence and incidence of disease, illness, injury and disability.

Life expectancy:
- Refers to the number of years a person is expected to live. High life expectancy can be linked to
low infant mortality. Developments and improvements to medical knowledge and technology
can increase life expectancy, which contributes to Australia's ageing population.

Identifying priority health issues:

Identifying priority health issues allows the government to provide sufficient funding for the healthcare
industry to develop and implement treatment and prevention strategies.
Social justice principles:
Recognition of social justice principle aims towards eliminating inequity, promoting inclusiveness and
diversity, and creating supporting environments.

Equity:
Means the allocation of resources in accordance with the needs of a population with the desired goal of
equality in outcomes. This means allocating more resources and funding to groups who suffer from
poorer health outcomes and are identified as being priority groups compared to other Australians such
as ATSI.

Diversity:
Refers to the variety of and differences between groups in Australian society. Australia is multicultural
and requires a number of measures to ensure all population groups have equal access to health care
and achieve better health outcomes. Being inclusive of diversity could be through providing brochures
in multiple languages or interpreters in hospitals.

Supportive environments:
Are environments which protect people from threats to their health and encourage healthier life choices.
It is a priority of governments to create supportive environments for all, but in particular for those whose
environments might be reasons for poorer health.

Priority population groups:

Priority population groups are groups who experience the highest rates of or are at the greatest risk of a
particular disease, illness and injury. Epidemiology provides some statistics on these population groups
and allows the government to identify priority population groups that need extra resources in order to
remove the gap in health outcomes. They receive more funding and health programs get developed to
meet their needs. For example, the royal flying doctors service that functions in remote areas.

Prevalence of condition:
Is the number or proportion of cases in a population at a given time, it helps to determine the number of
people affected by the health issue. The higher the prevalence, the greater the health issue, which may
then be identified as a priority health issue in Australia.

Potential for prevention & early intervention:

As a priority issue is identified, it is vital that there is potential for prevention and early intervention that
will make treatment more successful. The easier it is to prevent a disease the more likely a health
promotion will have an impact on the burden of the disease and reduce its incidence, such as through
educating individuals on healthier life choices. If prevention cannot occur, then early intervention is
preferable, with higher rates of survival for those diagnosed and treated early for the condition. The
more potential for prevention and early intervention, the more likely the health issue will be made a
priority. Especially if it has both.
Cost to the individual and community:

Individual-
Direct: The cost of medication and treatment, and loss of income.
Indirect: The emotional stress, depression, burdens on others (i.e., family and friends), and a reduced
quality of life.

Community-
Direct: The cost of hospitalisation, Medicare, prevention programs, pharmaceuticals, education, and
screening.
Indirect: The cost of forgone earning, retraining replacement workers, and absenteeism.

Why is it important to prioritise?

- It allows for fair allocation of resources and funding. This allows for the creation of supportive
environments for priority groups, ensuring they take ownership over their individual health.
- Ensure the optimal efficiency and effectiveness of limited money and resources, this is ensured
by allocating funding to the most prevalent and costly health issues.
- Through prioritising using the criteria, more equal health outcomes can be achieved.

Groups experiencing health inequities:

ATSI:
The nature and extent of health inequities:
- ATSI have significantly poorer health outcomes than other Australians.
- They have lower life expectancy (usually 10 years less than other Australians).
- Higher levels of cancer, diabetes, and CVD.
- 7 times more likely to have kidney disease, 1.5 times more obesity and cancer death rates.

Determinants:

Sociocultural: (related to family, peer, media, religious and cultural influence)

- Subjection to racism and discrimination results in many having low levels of self-esteem and
poorer mental health. Making them more susceptible to emotional and behavioural issues such
as risky behaviour including binge drinking and tobacco smoking.
- These behaviours are then reflected in younger generations who adopt such risky behaviours
from watching adults doing similar.

Socioeconomic: (related to education, employment, and income)

- Have low levels of education leading to poorer employment options, as a result lower income.
This cycle continues as income affects the level of education they attain.
- They also have lower levels of health education, making them unaware of how or when to
receive medical assistance. It also makes them more susceptible to engaging in risk taking
behaviours without realising.
Environmental: (related to location, access to health services, and technology)
- A large proportion of ATSI live in rural and remote areas, resulting in limited access to health
care services and facilities, as a result fewer opportunities for individuals to get treatment and
care.
- Many employment opportunities in rural and remote areas are also very labour intensive,
increasing risk of injury.
- There is also poorer housing infrastructure, with issues such as overcrowding being the norm,
inadequate water, waste disposal and electricity. Making it easier for disease to spread and
harder to get medical aid.

Role of individuals, communities, and governments in addressing health

inequities:
- Individuals have the responsibility to access information and practice in health promotion
activities that are available to them. Using this information they should engage in healthy life
choices, such as eating healthy and engaging in exercise. They should also pursue health care
careers to create a strong network of health workers and medical staff in the population.
- Communities must work together to promote healthier life choices. Community activities should
educate the community. Encourage members to participate. Provide support for members.
Create awareness for health issues (e.g., diseases, illnesses, injury, and risk factors). Cater for
community needs focusing on specific issues affecting the community. Work closely with health
professionals.
- Governments are responsible for creating health policies, as well as health initiatives
specifically designed to help ATSI people. For example, creating policies to create supportive
and healthy environments via improving housing, water, electricity, and sewage infrastructure.

Socio-economically disadvantaged people: (Low SE)

The nature and extent of health inequities:
- Experience higher levels of lifestyle diseases (e.g., CVD and diabetes).
- They have reduced life expectancy.
- More doctor visits but are less likely to access preventative health services such as breast
screening.
- Higher rates of premature mortality.
- 6 times more likely to develop lung cancer.

Determinants:
Sociocultural: Higher rates of substance abuse, domestic violence, discrimination, and conflict are
present in low SE areas, which is detrimental to the physical and mental health of people, especially
children and adolescents who are in their developmental years.

Socioeconomic:
Experience lower levels of education (including health literacy) resulting in poorer employment
opportunities and as a result have lower incomes. Health literacy means one's ability to seek and
understand when one requires medical assistance as well as knowing proper life choices. Low SE
people have poorer health literacy contributing to their poorer health. Low income means they are more
likely to save money wherever they can, including purchasing unhealthy and cheaper foods which can
lead to lifestyle diseases such as CVD.

Environmental:
Low SE individuals may be forced by their situation to live in poor housing with poor infrastructure. This
negatively impacts their health as they might not be able to get proper water and electricity. Low SE
areas are also usually more overcrowded making them more susceptible to communicable diseases.

Role of individuals, communities, and governments in addressing health inequities:

Individuals:
- Low socioeconomic areas have the responsibility to access health information and participate in
health promotion initiatives. This information should be implemented in their lives, such as
making healthier life choices such as eating more fruits and veg.

Communities:
- Create programs such as free sporting competitions to encourage community members,
especially children, to participate in physical activity and exercise.
- Support programs to improve physical, mental, and emotional health such as quitting smoking
seminars. Governments should fund healthcare services and develop programs to aid Low Se
individuals. High levels of preventable chronic disease, injury, and mental health.

Mental health problems and illnesses:

The nature of the problem:

Mental health is an important part of holistic health as mental health compromises an individual’s
overall wellbeing. When an individual suffers from a mental health problem most if not all aspects of
their life are affected including work, education, and relationships. 3 most prevalent mental health
issues include:
Depression: a condition where an individual has extreme feelings of sadness for long periods of time.
Anxiety: a condition in which feelings of stress or worry are present in an individual even after the
event has passed.
Suicide: when an individual takes their own life due to mental health problems or other issues.

Extent of problem:
- On Ave, 1 in 7 people will experience depression at some point in their life and 1 in 4 will
experience anxiety at some point in their life.
- More than 8 people die by suicide each day in AUS.
- 7 out of 9 suicides are male.

Risk factors:
- Poor social and emotional skills
 - Substance abuse
- Family history of mental issues
- Negative life events relating to loss, trauma and abuse.
- Family conflict including domestic abuse.
- Poor peer role models
- Poor student-teacher relationships
- Bullying or discrimination

Protective factors:
Aim to improve the mental health of individuals and communities.
1. School curriculums teach about mental health issues so that students can recognize them and know
where to get help. It also helps students learn important skills such as stress and resilience
management.
2. Many schools and workplaces have counsellors to help with individuals who suffer mental health
issues.
3. Having strong social networks including family, friends, and teachers.

Determinants:
Socio-cultural:
- People with family history are more at risk.
- People who have relationship breakdowns, have been exposed to bullying are more at risk.
- ATSI people ae more at risk of suicide and depression due to higher rates of substance abuse.

Socio-economic:
- People from a Low SES background or are unemployed have higher rates of mental health
problems, as these groups tend to engage more in substance abuse.

Environmental:
- Rural, young males are at a higher risk of suicide and mental health issues then urban, young
males due to the lack of support services and fewer job prospects.

Groups at risk:
- People who have recently experienced crisis or trauma
- People under stress
- People suffering chronic depression.
- Elderly people
- Males between ages of 16-24
- Low SES

High levels of preventable chronic disease, injury, and mental health:

CVD:
Nature of problem:
Coronary heart disease (Ischemic): caused by a reduced blood supply to the heart as coronary
arteries narrow. Can be the result of atherosclerosis.

Heart Attack: Lack of oxygenated blood supply to heart due to blocked coronary arteries leads to
damage in heart muscle and eventually heart attack.

Angina: Chest pain or tightness due to lack of oxygenated blood supply. Can be a result of coronary
heart disease.

Cerebrovascular disease (stroke): caused by lack of blood supplied to the brain.

Heart failure: occurs when heart is unable to meet the demands placed on it, can be the result of heart
attack or high blood pressure.

Peripheral vascular disease affects the blood vessels in the limbs, as the vessels become blocked or
damaged. Atherosclerosis (blocked): occurs when blood vessels become blocked by fat or cholesterol,
reducing, or preventing blood flow.

Arteriosclerosis (hard): occurs when blood vessels harden and lose their elasticity.
The extent of the problem:
- It was estimated that 1.2 million Australians were hospitalised due to CVD in 2017-18.
- One in four deaths in 2018 is due to CVD.
- Ischemic heart disease (aka coronary heart disease) was the leading cause of death in 2015-
16.
- Stroke is the next leading cause of death, accounting for 7% of all deaths in 2015.

Risk factors:

Modifiable:
- Smoking tobacco
- High blood pressure
- Low levels of physical activities
- Obesity or overweight

Non-Modifiable:
- Gender: males are more likely to develop CVD than females.
- Age: as the older people get, the greater the risk of developing CVD.
- Heredity: people with family history are at a greater risk of developing CVD.

Protective factors:
- Eating a healthy diet.
- Participating in vigorous or moderate exercise.
- Avoiding tobacco smoke and consuming alcohol
- Regularly visiting a doctor.
Determinants:

Socio-cultural:
- People with a family history of CVD are more at risk.
- Asian people are less prone to getting CVD due to a generally low-fat diet.
- Media exposure of the effects of smoking on health have led to a reduction in smoking rates and
therefore a declining trend for CVD rates.

Socio-economic:
- People with low SES or who are unemployed have higher death rates because income can limit
health choices, such as purchasing fruit and using exercise facilities.
- People with low education levels are more at risk as poor education is linked to poor health
choices and less knowledge about how to access and use health services.

Environmental:
- People living in rural or remote areas are more at risk due to the lack of health information and
facilities.

Groups at risk:
- Low SES
- ATSI
- Males
- People who smoke and drink

Cancer:
Nature of problem:
Cancer is a condition in which the body’s cells divide uncontrollably. This random multiplication forms
tumours and can interrupt the normal function of the organ where it is located (e.g., skin, breast, lung)
and can spread to other parts of the body. Cancer can be caused by carcinogens such as radiation,
alcohol, and tobacco smoke.

2 types of tumours:
1. Benign tumours: are non-cancerous and have no threat of spreading.
2. Malignant tumours: are cancerous and have the possibility to spread to other parts of the body. If
untreated, malignant cancer cells can invade other parts of the body through the bloodstream and the
lymphatic system. This process is called metastasis.

Four classifications of cancer:

- Carcinoma: where cancer affects epithelial cells. (e.g., skin, breast, and lungs)
- Sarcoma: where cancer affects bone, muscle, and other connective tissue.
- Leukaemia: cancer affects blood and bone marrow.
- Lymphoma: cancer affects blood in the lymphatic system.
Extent of problem:
- Leading cause of death in Australia
- One in two Australians will be diagnosed with cancer by the age of 85.
- Prostate, breast, bowel, melanoma, and lung cancer are the most common types of cancer in
Australia.

Risk factors:
1. Lung cancer:
- Tobacco smoking
- Occupational exposure to cancer-causing agents (such as Asbestos)
- Air pollution

2. Breast cancer:
- High fat diet
- Family history
- Late menopause
- Obesity

3. Skin cancer:
- Fair skin
- Prolonged exposure to sun and UV light

Protective factors:

1. Skin cancer:
- Sun protection (Sunscreen, wearing hats, sunglasses, and long-sleeved clothing)

2. Breast cancer:
- Self-examination
- Screening
- Maintaining healthy weight
- Avoid high-fat food and alcohol consumption.

3. Lung cancer:
- Avoid or quit smoking tobacco.
- Healthy and balanced diet

Determinants:
Socio-cultural:
- People with a family history of cancer are more at risk.
- If your family practises health-promoting behaviours, such as adopting healthy eating habits, the
risk of cancer is reduced.
Socio-economic:
- People in occupations involving repeated exposures to carcinogens increase risk of cancer.
- People with low education levels are more at risk as poor education is linked to poor health
choices and less knowledge about how to access and use health services.

Environmental:
- People living in rural and remote areas are more at risk, they tend to have less access to health
info and services such as breast screening.

Groups at risk:
- Blue collar workers
- Smokers and alcohol consumers
A growing and ageing population:
Australia’s population is growing and ageing, with people aged 70 years or older being about 13% of
the population.

Why is Australia’s population ageing?

- Better healthcare, better treatments due to technological advancements

- People are being educated to make better choices.

Healthy ageing:
Healthy ageing refers to the participation in a healthy lifestyle that promotes health and increases the
quality of life as one ages. This enhances one's physical, mental, and emotional health whilst reducing
the risk of early onset of disability and developing non-infectious diseases such as CVD and cancer.
A healthy population means that Australians can be more productive and contribute to the workforce for
longer, resulting in greater economic growth.
Various initiatives have been made by the government to reduce the burden a growing and ageing
population has on the healthcare system and government funding. Such as increasing superannuation,
allowing retirees to enjoy retirement without relying on the government.

Increased population living with chronic disease and disability:

An ageing population means more people living with chronic diseases or disabilities. This has occurred
due to several factors:
1. Ageing population: as the number of older people grows, so will the incidence of people living with
chronic disease and disability which are common in older ages such as cancer and dementia.
2. People's lifestyle: developments in technology have led to people becoming more sedentary, rather
than engaging in physical exercise they are more occupied with tech.
3. Increased awareness and developments in medical tech: the combination of increased awareness
and modern technology has led to the increase in the incidence of chronic diseases, such as cancer
due to increased screening rates. However, mortality had decreased due to early detection and
treatment.

How can future levels of chronic disease be reduced?

- Preventative approaches such as increasing health literacy.

- Increasing work safety practices.

Demand for health services and workforce shortages:

Because of an increase in the Australian population living with chronic disease or disability, the demand
for health and aged care services has risen. The government has implemented several initiatives to
cater for older Australians, including:

- The provision of more funding to cater for the demand in health departments and other high
demand areas.
- More incentives for nurses to join.
 - An increase in aged/health care, such as home help services and meals on wheels.
- To reduce the burden on the healthcare and PBS scheme, the government has encouraged
Australians to have a retirement plan. This includes the compulsory superannuation plan to
allow retires to enjoy retirement without relying on the government.

Institutional:

- Psychiatric hospital
- Public hospital
- Private hospital
- Nursing homes

Non-Institutional:

- Health-related services (such as dentistry, optometry, nursing, ambulance services &

physiotherapy)
- Pharmaceuticals
- Medical services (such as doctors, specialists, and other health professionals)

Responsibility for health facilities and services:

Commonwealth/federal government:

Forms national health policies and controls the health system through funding. Fund’s state/territory
governments and influences their health policy making and delivery. Contributes major funds to:

- High level residential care

- Medical services
- Health research and public health activities
- Pharmaceuticals

State/territory government:

Is responsible for funding healthcare facilities and services depending on the budget allocated by the
federal government. This includes funding public hospitals, dental health services, mental health
programs, home, and community care. Also involved in public health promotion and child, adolescent,
and family health services.

Local Government:

Concerned with environmental care, and a range of personal, preventative and home care services.
Monitor building standards, immunisation, antenatal clinics, and meals on wheels. In charge of
implementing services such as immunizations on behalf of the state government.
Private sector:

Includes a wide range of services such as private hospitals, dentists, and alternative health services
such as chiropractors. Privately owned by religious organisations, charity groups and NGOs. Approved
by the department of health.

Community groups:

Are responsible for promoting and providing health promotion initiatives and programs such as night
patrols that distribute food, clothing, and hygiene products for members of the community that may be
homeless or in financial difficulty. They are formed largely on a local needs basis and established to
address problems specific to an area or region.

Individuals:

Are responsible for accessing and utilising health services, such as GPs, that are available to them to
ensure they maintain their health. They should also access health info to ensure they are more aware
of risk factors and protective factors of certain diseases such as CVD. This empowers them to change
their lifestyle to reduce the risk of developing such illnesses/diseases.

Equity of access to health facilities and services:

The governments have recognized that the healthcare system needs to have equity of access, to
ensure it is easily accessible. However, many factors make equitable distribution of health facilities and
services difficult, examples include:

People living in low SES areas may not be able to afford quality healthcare, this is something Medicare
and PBS aim to address. However, not all services are covered such as physiotherapists which results
in inequitable access to these services. Low SES areas also have lower education levels, making
people unaware of health services and facilities available to them. This limits their option of health care
and means they cannot access adequate treatment, severely affecting their health in the long term.
People that speak little English may experience great difficulty in accessing and utilising healthcare
services and facilities if they do not have a translator. They may not understand their health and how to
maintain or improve it. People living in remote and rural areas may experience shortages of health
professionals, often needing to travel long distances to metropolitan areas to gain healthcare. To help
reduce this inequity services such as royal flying doctors have been implemented for people living in
rural areas to get emergency care.

Health care expenditure versus expenditure on early intervention and prevention:

Health expenditure refers to money spent on curative services for people that are already ill (e.g.,
medication). By contrast, expenditure on early intervention and prevention refers to money spent on
intervention during early stages of a disease or preventing it from occurring in the first place, usually
through health promotion.
Most government funds in the health sector are put towards curative services rather than early
intervention and prevention, even though prevention is better. Curative services are more expensive.
An increased focus on early intervention and prevention will reduce expenditure in Australia. More cost
efficient and save on the ongoing expenses. For example, rather than spending millions in researching
cures for diseases and distributing said cures, governments will be more benefited by spending a few
hundred thousand in health promotion. Increased quality of life allowing to live longer and healthier,
reducing burden on the healthcare system as less people will visit government funded healthcare. This
also increases healthy ageing, which means even more money saved as less money will be spent on
providing healthcare for elderly as they can look after themselves.

Impact of emerging treatments and technologies on healthcare:

High technology medicine is usually associated with better healthcare. Advances in technology have
led to the development of faster and more effective cures, better screening, and greater prevention of
disease. Examples include:

- Keyhole surgery: surgery which involves the use of machinery to create small cuts allowing
surgeons to perform. It is less invasive and has shorter recovery times, hence, shorter stays.
- PET scans: has allowed for better and more accurate diagnosis and enables the ability to
have early intervention and ultimately leading to reduced mortality.

However, such treatments are expensive due to the high costs of maintenance and production,
therefore, cannot be covered by Medicare making it unaffordable for Low SES individuals and hence
inequitable. Furthermore, due to these technologies people are living longer and as a result are
developing diseases such as cancer, which they may not have previously lived long enough to contract.

Health insurance: Medicare Vs Private:

Medicare:

Is Australia’s universal health care system, established to provide all Australians with affordable and
accessible healthcare.

Operates from taxes, which are paid according to income level and individual circumstances.

Advantages:

- Can be accessed by all Australians and provides Low SES access to healthcare.
- Free x-rays and pathology tests
- Free treatment in hospitals
- Free or subsidised treatment by medical practitioners such as GPs.

Disadvantages:

- Does not cover all services such as dental, meaning patients still need to pay full amount.
- Patients do not get to choose their doctor.
- Long waiting lists of elective surgeries
Private: This is an insurance that covers costs for private hospitals and ancillary expenses such as
dental and physio.

Advantages:

- Shorter waiting times

- Doctor or institution of choice
- Ancillary benefits such as dental cover
- Insurance cover whilst overseas.

Disadvantages:

- Cannot be accessed by all people and is expensive.

- Must pay premiums even if not using any health service.

Complementary and alternative health care approaches:

Complementary approaches are those that work in conjunction with western medicine, whilst alternative
approaches are those that are used instead of conventional medicine.

Reasons for growth of C&A approaches: There has been a rapid increase in the popularity of
CVA mainly due to the opportunity for individuals to have greater choice and control over health,
through empowerment. Additional reasons, include:

- WHO’s acceptance and recognition of CVA(s) usefulness and effectiveness in treating patients.
- The increase in movement away from synthetically produced products to more nature-based
products.
- An increase in migration with an increase in acceptance of values influenced by multiculturalism
by Australians.

Range of products and services available:

Acupuncture: traditional Chinese medicine that involves the insertion of fine needles into the skin at
specific points; it is used to restore balance and promote the body’s self-healing.

Chiropractic service: specialise in treating spinal, neck, and lower back pain, by realigning the
spine.

How to make informed consumer choices:

Before choosing a CVA such as acupuncture, consumers should put the credibility of the practitioner in
question. When investigating, specific questions about the service should be asked, including but not
limited to; How effective is the service being offered? What are the qualifications and experience of the
practitioner? This helps to ensure safety of the treatment and increases reliability of service. Asking
friends and community members about their experience can also be helpful.
Health promotion based on the 5 action areas of the Ottawa Charter:

Health promotion based on the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter (build healthy public policy,
create supportive environments for health, strengthen community action for health, develop personal
skills, and reorient health services). Health promotion is a combination of science, medicine, practical
skills, and beliefs aimed at maintaining and improving the health of all people. Health promotion based
on the 5 action areas are vital to the success of health promotion in Australia. It ensures health
promotion is done in partnership as the relevant sectors support each other in achieving better health
outcomes. It recognises the various determinants of health and the spread of responsibility between
individuals, communities, and governments. Australia’s health promotion based on the 5 action areas of
the Ottawa Charter is currently achieving results for many health promotion initiatives including:

- Close the Gap

- National Chronic Disease Strategy
- National Road Safety Strategy
- National Binge Drinking Strategy
- Aged Care Access Initiative

Levels of responsibility for health promotion:

Australian governments, communities and individuals all play a role in responsibility for health
promotion. Health promotion should involve all levels of responsibility to achieve the best health results.
Individuals play an important role in developing personal skills in relation to health. Communities are
central in strengthening community action and creating supportive environments. The government is
vital in building healthy public policy, creating supportive environments, and reorienting health services.
Non-government organisations, both Australian and international.

Governments Communities Individuals

Building healthy public All levels of Contribute towards the Act in accord with the
policy government are development of health policies delivered. E.g.)
responsible for the policies and are not smoking in public
creation and involved in carrying the areas.
maintenance of policies policies out. E.g.) ATSI
that aim to improve Community
health. E.g.) the close involvement in the
the gap statement of development and
intent. implementation of
‘close the gap’.

Creating supportive Responsible for the Help maintain healthy. Make better health
environments planning, environments and choices using and
implementation and promote healthy maintaining the
management of behaviours. E.g.) clean environment. E.g.)
infrastructure. up Australia day, fun putting rubbish in the
E.g.) location of runs, maintain parks, bins provided.
hospitals, parks, fields and ovals, YMCA
community centres. gyms etc.
 Council approved
developments, remove
waste etc.

Strengthening Engage with Contribute to and take Promote community

community action community groups in ownership of policies activities that promote
the creation of policies. being empowered to health, be involved in
E.g.) allowing act and implement community actions.
communities to provide them. E.g.) Aboriginal E.g.) promote fun runs,
feedback on policies community controlled engage in community
before signing them. health services. discussions around
health.

Developing personal Develop policies and Run education and Seek to develop their
skills provide funding training programs to own skills in relation to
towards developing develop personal skills health. Enabled to take
personal skills. E.g.) K- in relation to health. charge of their
10 PDHPE compulsory, E.g.) community health own health E.g.)
advertisements (2 & 5) centre education research behavioural
etc. (prenatal classes, choices for health,act
brochures etc) school on advice from GPs
education system, Quit and health
helpline etc. practitioners, enrol in
community programs
etc.

Reorientation of health Fund, research and Conduct research and Seek to make healthy
services create policies around be involved in the life choices, and help
prevention and promotion of health. others to do the same,
health promotion. E.g.) cancer council including participation
Looking at all the conducts research in health promotion.
determinants of health around cancer, but also E.g.) participating in
and not just curative promotes better health jump-rope-for-heart or
services. E.g.) TV choices in relation to getting advice from a
advertisements, the prevention of GP on quitting
training of the primary cancer. smoking.
health sector to
promote health as well
as cure.

The benefits of partnerships in health promotion:

Partnerships are between many groups including both the government sector and non-government
agencies, along with local communities and the individual. Health promotion demands coordinated
action by all concerned:

- Governments
- Health and other social and economic sectors
- Non-government and voluntary organisations
 - Local authorities
- Industry
- Media

All people are involved as individuals, families, and communities. Professional, social groups and
health personnel have a responsibility to mediate between different interests in society for the pursuit of
health.

Individuals and communities should be involved in the development of health promotion programs -
ensures their needs are met and empowers them to act in accordance with the promotion. Individuals
and communities should be involved in the creations, implementation, and analysis. Individuals and
communities can be involved in activities such as:

- Data analysis
- Community meetings
- Consultations
- Surveys

The government sector and non-government agencies should work together with individuals and
communities. Not only do individuals and communities help identify health issues but they need to
improve their capacity to improve their health. The sharing of information is vital. Government and non-
government agencies need to share research findings, funds and connections should be shared so
more people benefit.

This helps to ensure more efficient health promotion as research is doubled up and funding can be
dispersed across multiple action areas. Partnership in health promotion enables health to be promoted
through: ‘advocacy, legislation, policy change, programs, community projects, consultive community
meetings, surveys and the analysis of local health data’. The benefits of partnerships in health
promotion include:

- Addresses the needs of individuals and communities.

- More comprehensive health promotion
- Better results in health promotion goals
- Empowers individuals to act.
- More efficient health promotion (no doubling up and reduced wasted time/money).

How health promotion based on the Ottawa Charter promotes social justice:

Health promotion aims to reduce inequities in health status, ensuring equal opportunities and resources
for health. This enables people to achieve the best health possible as they have a supportive
environment, access to information, life skills and opportunities for making healthy choices.
 Equity Diversity Supportive
environments

Building healthy public Public policy is Public policy accounts Policy should aim to
policy designed with the aim for the diversity of our produce an
of producing equity in population, seeking to environment that
health status. Eg) provide for all people supports healthy
Medicare provides groups. Eg) The ‘close choices. Eg) no
access to health the gap’ initiative aims smoking in pubs and
services for to remove the health clubs.
socioeconomically inequity for ATSI
disadvantaged people. people in 1 generation.

Creating supportive An environment is not In order to be Creating environments

environments supportive if it does not supportive, the that encourage healthy
seek to provide equity. environment must also choices is vital in health
Eg) increasing access cater for the diversity of promotion. Eg)
to health facilities for the people in that ensuring good parks for
rural and remote environment. Eg) outdoor activities.
people. providing translators for
specific groups in
specific community
health centres
/hospitals etc.

Strengthening Equity both with and Each community has Communities that
community action between communities its own diversity and become empowered
is important in health needs to be consulted need an environment
promotion. in health promotion. that supports their
Communities of people Eg) large Jewish healthy choices. This
suffering inequity in population in Bondi, requires access and
health need to be Lebanese in availability of services
utilised and Bankstown etc should and facilities. Eg)
empowered in order to be empowered in bushwalks being
improve their health. relation to health maintained in the blue
Eg) ATSI involved in promotion initiatives mountains to
the development and specific for them. encourage locals to
implementation of walk.
health promotion for
ATSI.

Developing personal All people should have Programs should be People share their
skills access to education personalised to cater skills and knowledge
and skill development for the diversity in our within their
regardless of population (ethnic, environment making it
socioeconomic, socioeconomic, more supportive. Eg)
sociocultural and geographic etc). Eg) parents educate and
environmental health pamphlets in model for their children,
determinants. Eg) multiple languages who do the same in
PDHPE. utilising images. their peer groups.
 Reorienting health Health services must Health services must Health services must
services address the inequities meet the diverse needs help provide a
in health. E.g., mental of the communities supportive
health promotion and they are in. E.g.,) environment. E.g.,)
services in rural and promoting balanced Multi
remote locations. diet amongst ATSI Purpose Service
people. Program for rural and
remote people.

This is how health promotion based on the Ottawa Charter promotes social justice principles.

The Ottawa Charter in action:

Build Healthy Public Policy – policy development at all levels seeks to promote health. It includes
legislation, fiscal measures, taxation, and organisational change. Health, income, and social policies
are used to foster equity and ensure safer and healthier goods and services, healthier public services,
and cleaner, more enjoyable environments. Policies need to identify obstacles to health and seek to
remove them, making the healthier choice the easiest one.

Create Supportive Environments – there is a link between people’s health and their environment,
requiring a socioecological approach to health. Reciprocal maintenance of environments is the guiding
principle. Work and leisure should promote health, not demote it. Thus, health promotion should create
safe working environments that are enjoyable, assess health impacts of developing infrastructure
(buildings, energy etc), and protect natural and built environments.

Strengthen Community Actions – community action is strengthened through communities being

involved in setting priorities, making decisions, planning strategies, and implementing them to improve
health outcomes. The process’ goal is to empower communities, which improves outcomes of health
promotion.
Develop Personal Skills – requires the provision of information, education, and life skill development.
This increases options and control for individuals over their own health. It is essential to equip people
for lifelong learning and to develop skills for coping with ill health. This is done through school, home,
and community settings.

Reorient Health Services – health promotion is the responsibility of governments, institutions,

professionals, community groups and individuals. Reorienting health services is about the shift towards
a system which promotes health, rather than curative services. Health services need to support the
needs of individuals and communities to promote health, connecting the health sector with social,
political, economic, and physical environments. This requires greater health research and professional
education and training. The shift is to focus on the needs of the entire individual, not just their injury,
illness, or disease.
HSC CORE 2: Factors affecting performance:
Energy systems:

Alactacid system (ATP/PC):

Source of fuel: An ATP molecule loses a phosphate molecule releasing energy which can be used by
the body. CP releasing phosphate to attach to ADP, to resynthesise ATP. Excess creatine released.

Duration: Up to 10 seconds

Cause of fatigue: The inability of the system to continually resynthesise ATP from ADP. (i.e., The
depletion of CP stores)

By-products: Heat produced from muscular contraction. Rate of recovery: 2-5 mins

Sports: 100m sprinting, shot put & javelin

Lactic acid system:

Source of fuel: Glycogen is broken down, producing ATP and energy for muscular contraction.

Duration: 10 secs to 2 mins

Cause of fatigue: Accumulation of lactic acid in muscles causing a burning feeling.

By-products: Lactic acid

Rate of recovery: 30-60 mins

Sports: 200m run

Aerobic system:

Source of fuel: Carbohydrates, fats & even proteins are converted into ATP. Duration: 2-6 hrs
depending on intensity

Cause of fatigue: Depletion of glycogen. Exhaustion and thus a subsequent reliance on the secondary
fuel, fat.

By-products: Carbon dioxide and water.

Rate of recovery: short periods of time = recovers quickly, hours = take days

Sports: Marathon
Types of training and training methods:

Aerobic, e.g., Continuous, Fartlek, Aerobic interval & Circuit

Continuous: For training to be continuous, it must be greater than 20 mins. Heart rate must rise
above aerobic threshold and stay within the zone for the entire time of training. The two types of
continuous training are:

- Long, slow distance training. 60-80% MHR, focus on distance rather than speed.
- High intensity work for moderate duration.

Fartlek:

- Varying speed and terrain.

- Both continuous and interval, it involves variation in both speed and intensity.
- Beneficial for Rugby

Circuit:

- Develops aerobic capacity and has the potential to make substantial improvements in strength,
endurance, flexibility, skill, and coordination.
- Participants move from one activity to the next after completing the required repetitions (or
performing for the specified time) for that exercise.
- Progressive overload needs to be applied to see results: increasing the number of stations,
increasing the time at each station, increasing reps at each station, decreasing time allowed for
each station.

Aerobic interval:

- Alternating sessions of work and recovery. Recovery is short, 20 secs, does not allow enough
time for full recovery and thus maintains stress on the aerobic system.
- Sustained effort of moderate intensity ensures that the aerobic system is stressed but not
completely fatigued.
- The level of intensity can be adjusted to achieve the desired level of aerobic capacity.

Anaerobic, e.g., Anaerobic interval

Anaerobic training is short-lasting, high-intensity activity, where your body’s demand for oxygen
exceeds the oxygen supply available. Anaerobic lasts for less than 2 mins and relies on energy sources
that are stored in the muscles and not oxygen.

Anaerobic interval:

- Sprint training over short distances using maximal effort.

- An interval is done by increasing your pace for a short period (up to 2 mins) then having a slow
recovery period that is at least 3 times as long as the interval.
 - Participants usually aim to complete the circuit in the shortest period with decreasing times
indicating improving fitness levels.
- Helps to develop speed while focusing on technique. The rest period needs to be slightly
extended to allow lactate to disperse, the build-up of lactate inhibits the development of quality
with the sprinting action.

Flexibility, e.g., Static, Ballistic, PNF & Dynamic

Flexibility refers to the range of motion around joints. Flexibility training aims to increase the length of
muscles allowing for greater range of movement which maximises performance potential. This aids in
preventing energy, improving coordination, muscular relaxation, and muscular recovery.

Static:

- During static stretching, the muscle is stretched to a position (limit) and held in that position for
30 seconds. The stretch is performed smoothly and slowly, avoiding discomfort.
- Example, sitting down with legs extended, gently reaching forward and holding the position for
30 seconds.

Ballistic:

- Repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing to gain stretch.

- It is beneficial when sports involve movement which causes movement to be stretched, such as
gymnastics.
- Example, touching toes using a bouncing motion.

PNF:

- Is stretching which involves lengthening a muscle against a resistance usually provided by a

partner.
- It involves a static stretch (30 sec) followed by a contraction of the stretched muscle until the
stretch is no longer felt (usually 5-10 sec), then a further lengthening of the muscle to hold a
static stretch (10 sec).

Dynamic:

- Dynamic stretching is popular for warm-ups and pre-training routines as it attempts to imitate
many of the movements experienced in the game.
- Dynamic stretching uses movement speed together with momentum to gradually warm up
muscle fibres and extend them through the degree of stretch required in the game.

Strength training, e.g., Free/fixed weights. Elastic & Hydraulic

Free/Fixed Weights

- Involves lifting certain weight against gravity to train specific muscles/muscle groups.
 - Dominant form of resistance training when large gains in strength/large resistance are
required/desired.
- Suited to sports that need large amounts of strength. (Rugby, wrestling, shot-put, AFL)

Free weights: Dumbbells. Barbells. Weight plates

- Allows development of major muscles but also develops smaller muscles used to stabilise
movements.
- Wide range of exercises, good technique, mimics sporting movements - greater specificity

Fixed weights:

- Utilise machines to lift weight & often have pulley system.

- Helps to learn correct technique & experience equal resistance throughout full ROM.
- Isolate specific muscles

Elastic

- Uses various forms of elastic to provide resistance to develop strength.

- Intensity limited & resistance increases & elastic is stretched.
- Highly portable training method: useful in-home gyms or for personal trainers & cheaper
- Very affordable
- Trigger activation of stabiliser muscles to keep body correctly aligned.
- Often used in rehab
- Used for sport specific movements, facilitating rehab/recovery for athletes.
- E.g., Stretching band to ankle of AFL player & having them perform kicking motion can develop
strength in leg & stabiliser muscle groups.

Hydraulic

- Uses machines which use water/air compression to provide resistance throughout movement.
- Allows tension to be applied to pushing & pulling phase of movement.
- Constant resistance for agonist & antagonist
- Expensive & isolates muscles
- Increases resistance the faster the movement is executed.
- Slow movements = small resistance
- Fast movements = large resistance
- Enables to work both agonist & antagonists in same workout → targets one area at a time.
- Good for sports incl. rugby league, swimming, boxing, martial arts
- Well suited to circuit training
- To not be used at gym
- E.g., Quad/Hamstring machine allows to extend leg on way out & applies tension when
squeezing hamstring back to beginning.
Principles of training:

Progressive overload

Progressive overload involves gradually increasing the athlete’s training load so that improvements can
occur. It is important to increase the load just enough for adaptation/improvements to occur without
causing fatigue and demotivating the athlete. Once an athlete can perform comfortably at a certain
level, they are said to have adapted. Once adaptations have been made, training loads can be
increased again.

- In aerobic training, progressive overload can be achieved by increasing the intensity, frequency,
or duration of training.
- In strength training, the resistance, sets and repetitions can be increased, or the rest time can
be decreased.

Specificity
Specificity is exercise aimed at specific or designated components of fitness, muscle groups and/or
energy systems used in the activity being trained for. Specificity should also be used to closely as
possible the movements in the activity being trained for.

- In aerobic training, an athlete training for a marathon should target the aerobic energy system.
The athlete must choose activities in training that recruit slow-twitch muscle fibres so that the
aerobic enzymes in muscles become more efficient in utilising oxygen.
- In strength training, if increased leg power is required to improve a person’s ability to sprint, the
training program must correctly address the speed and number of repetitions, load, and time
between sets correctly. For example, if the load is too high and the repetitions too low, the
program causes bigger improvements to muscle bulk than muscle power.

Reversibility:

If training is stopped, gains made by the athlete decline at approximately one-third of the rate of
acquisition. Athletes should maintain strength, conditioning, and flexibility throughout the competitive
season, but at a lesser intensity and volume. This is also called detraining as the training is going in
reverse.

Variety:

Variety is important to maintain motivation and reduce the athlete’s boredom during training- doing the
same drills each week does little to promote variety. It is important to continually strive to develop the
required attributes using different techniques to ensure that athletes are challenged not only by the
activity, but also by initiative and implementation.

- In aerobic training, athletes can train the aerobic system by using a variety of activities such as
swimming, running, cycling and circuit training.
 - In strength training, Isometric and isotonic methods increase strength, but do so using different
equipment such as free weights, elastic bands, and hydraulic devices.

Training thresholds:

- The aerobic threshold is the intensity needed to produce an adaptation that will improve
someone’s aerobic capacity or VO2 max. The aerobic training threshold is normally between
65% and 70% MHR.
- The anaerobic threshold is the intensity needed to produce an adaptation that will improve
someone’s anaerobic capacity, normally increasing the speed of lactate removal. The anaerobic
training threshold is normally between 80% and 85% MHR.

Warm-up & Cool-down:

- Warmups redistribute blood flow and raise muscle temperature as the body moves from a rest
state to an active one which requires oxygen and nutrients in blood to reach skeletal muscles to
enable muscle contraction. Higher muscle temperatures increase the ability of the muscle to
stretch without tearing.
- Stretching is the most common form of warm-up, for example, a sprinter would engage in static
stretching followed by PNF stretches to increase elasticity and increase muscle extensibility,
reducing the risk of injuries such as muscle tears.
- The cool-down is the period following physical activity where body temperature, circulation and
respiratory rates return to their pre-exercise state. The cool-down is essential to maintain the
stretch of muscle groups, dispersing lactic acid that has built up during exercise and preventing
blood pooling, and hence reducing risk of injury occurring to athletes.

Physiological adaptations in response to training:

Resting heart rate:

Trained athletes have a lower RHR than untrained athletes, due to the efficiency of the cardiovascular
system and stroke volume.

Stroke volume:

It is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle during a contraction. This is because training
causes the left ventricle to fill more completely during the relaxation phase than it does in an untrained
heart. There is also more blood in circulation following training because of an increase in blood plasma
levels. This means more blood can enter the ventricle, resulting in more powerful contractions.

Cardiac output:

The volume of blood pumped by the heart per min. In trained athletes it can rise to 40 L/min.
Oxygen uptake:

The ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered. VO2 max is the maximal amount
of oxygen that muscles can absorb and use at that level of work.

Lung capacity:

Is the amount of air that the lungs can hold. Training leads to too little change in lung capacity.

Haemoglobin level:

The substance in blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around the body. Increase in
haemoglobin means more oxygen can be transported to muscles.

Muscle hypertrophy:

Training stimulates muscle fibres and results in muscle hypertrophy. This refers to the growth in muscle
cells and mass, although there is no change in the length of the muscle.

Effect on fast and slow twitch muscle fibres:

Fast twitch muscle fibres benefit most by anaerobic training. The following adaptations occur in fast
twitch muscle fibres due to anaerobic training:

- ATP/PC supply and efficiency with which fuel is used increases.

- Enzymes increase improving the functioning within cells.
- Increased tolerance to lactic acid in muscles

Slow twitch muscle fibres benefit most by endurance training. Aerobic training results in the following
adaptations in slow-twitch fibres:

- Increase in No. of capillaries surround fibres, improving diffusion of oxygen into muscles and
removal of wastes out through blood.
- Mitochondria are the ‘powerhouses’ of the cells, where ATP is synthesised and used to provide
energy. There is an increase in mitochondria, as well as an increase in their size and efficiency,
in response to aerobic training.
- The level of activity of oxidative enzymes increases, making the production of energy more
efficient.
Motivation:
Motivation refers to an athlete's will to achieve a specific goal or participate in training programs and
develop their skills and technique, it pushes athletes to improve their performance.

Positive:

Occurs when an individual’s performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviour. For example,
crowd appreciation and an inspirational talk from the coach are forms of motivation for players.

Negative:

Is characterised by an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing

to expectations. For example, frightening an athlete into performing well in negative motivation.

Intrinsic:

Motivation that comes from within the athlete. It is most useful when trying to achieve long term goals.
An example of intrinsic motivation is an athlete who wants to do well for the satisfaction found in
achieving a personal best. Intrinsic motivation produces better performances over longer periods of
time than extrinsic.

Extrinsic:

Comes from an external source, such as coaches, fans, or money.

Anxiety and arousal

Anxiety:
Is an emotional response to a perceived threat generating a fight or flight response. Anxiety inhibits
performance by lowering an individual’s concentration and affecting their muscular control. It can be
managed through psychological strategies.

Trait & state:

Trait anxiety is dependent on the individual and refers to an individual’s level of stress regardless of
the situation, it varies between individuals.

State anxiety is an increase in the level of stress in response to a specific situation. It brings about
fear, nervousness, and sweating.

Sources of stress:

Stress is a non-specific response to the demands placed upon an individual. It can be either good or
bad, but both result in the production of adrenaline resulting in increased blood supply to muscles,
higher oxygen levels, glucose production and seating.

Things that cause stress are called stressors; these include:

- Level of competition
- Pressure (e.g., from coach, family, etc)
- Expectations
- The environment (e.g., climate or audience)

Arousal & optimum arousal:

Arousal is a person’s heightened state of emotion. It differs from anxiety in that a certain amount of
arousal is necessary for optimal performance to be achieved.

Low arousal results in low performance, in this state, they are characterised as being bored, lazy,
uncooperative, careless, and uninterested.

Optimal arousal is where the athlete has neither high nor low arousal. It is where the best performance
an athlete can achieve is outputted. In this state the athlete is at their highest level of concentration and
has low anxiety and stress.

When athletes have high levels of arousal it can also result in poor performance. In this state the
athlete is overhyped, has uncontrollable muscle contractions, and concentrates on everything except
the task at hand.

Sports using small groups of muscles (e.g., golf) benefit from low levels of arousal, whilst sports that
require large groups of muscles, such as rugby players, benefit from high levels of arousal.

Optimum arousal varies between individual and can be affected by factors such as:
 - Self-expectations, how athletes expect themselves to perform.
- Expectations from others, how a person perceives others, such as coach or family, expect them
to
perform.
- Financial pressures, whether a person’s livelihood depends on their performance.
- The level of competition.

Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety:

Concentration and attention skills:

- This skill refers to the athlete’s ability to focus on the task at hand.
- Focuses on the process rather than the outcome.
- Blocks out distracting forces such as screaming crowds.
- Different sports require different levels of concentration: intense concentration (e.g., gymnastics,
archery)
- Intervals of high concentration (e.g., netball, softball) Sustained concentration (e.g., marathon)

Mental rehearsal and visualisation:

- Involves imagining and going through one’s performance in their head.

- It helps an athlete become more familiar with their performance and increases concentration
through avoiding distractions.
- Visualising a successful performance makes an athlete more likely to execute it.
- Mental rehearsal is particularly useful when athletes are unable to physically train due to poor
weather, illness, or injury.

Relaxation techniques:
 - Relaxation techniques are used to reduce anxiety and manage arousal levels. There are many
techniques available to the athlete, but the more common techniques are: centred breathing,
progressive muscular relaxation, listening to music, and mental relaxation.
- Centred breathing is the process where an athlete focuses on lengthening their breathing to
reduce their respiratory and heart rate.
- Progressive muscular relaxation is the process where the athlete moves from one end of
their body to the others progressively contract and then relax their muscles.
- Music has often been used to control athlete’s levels of arousal and anxiety. Music can be used
to relax and calm the athlete; as well as to psych them up. Music can increase the athlete’s
arousal levels if they are too low for performance or can increase them, depending on the type
of music listened to.
- Mental relaxation is the process where an athlete focuses on reducing their respiratory rate
and emptying their mind of thoughts and distractions in order to focus on the task at hand.

Goal setting:

- Goal setting helps improve an athlete’s motivation and enables them to measure progress.
Goals can be either performance or behaviour oriented and can be both long and/or short term.
- Setting long-term goals is important as they give the major purpose to training and performance.
- Short-term goals should be used to help monitor progress and provide benchmarks as the
athlete progresses towards the long-term goals.
- Goal setting needs the goals to be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time specific.
An example of this is running 100m in less that 10 sec within the next 6 months is specific, can
be measured, is attainable if you are already running 100m in the low 10s, relevant if you are in
a sport that requires running 100m quickly, such as a sprinter and time specific.

Supplementation
Supplementation is routine for many competitors because it is believed to improve performance.
However, in most cases, the concern, effort + money is wasted because a well-balanced diet can
supply all the necessary nutrients for optimal performance.

Vitamins/minerals

Vitamins are organic compounds essential to maintaining bodily functions and only required in small
amounts. They assist in energy release, metabolic regulation + tissue building. However, vitamin
supplementation isn’t necessary to improve performance because all necessary vitamins can be
provided by a well-balanced diet. The main vitamins needed by an athlete would be:

- A, D, E, K (fat soluble + toxic in high levels)

- B group, vitamin C (water soluble + need to be taken regularly as lost easily lost from body
through water) Vitamin supplementation isn’t needed if athlete has balanced diet + is serious
about health maintenance, training + improved performance
- Minerals are inorganic substances found in the body that are necessary for it to function
properly.
 - They don’t provide energy but are necessary for the body to function properly e.g., iron, calcium
+ potassium. Which are important for cellular functions such as muscular contraction, fluid
balance + energy systems.
- Inadequate supplies of minerals contribute to health problems + affect performance, therefore
mineral supplementation may be necessary for some athletes suffering mineral deficiencies
such as female athletes and iron deficiencies.

Protein supplementation
Studies into protein supplementation show that it’s not necessary to take to improve performance, as a
well-balanced diet (rich in fish + red meat) can provide adequate protein levels. Although protein does
facilitate growth + repair of body tissues, excess protein can have negative effects on health + hinder
performance. It leads to an increase of calcium excreted, possibly contributing to osteoporosis later in
life. On the whole research supports the idea that most athletes don’t need/benefit from protein
supplementation. Used in sports like bodybuilding, weightlifting, gymnastics, strength athletes etc.

For protein supplementation Against protein supplementation

Growth and repair for body tissues especially Excess protein can have negative health effects
muscles, i.e., muscular hypertrophy
on the body → increased calcium exerted +
possibly contribute to osteoporosis.

Beneficial for sports such as body builders, Many protein supplements contain additives that
weightlifters + strength. Also good for injury have no health benefits and may increase risk of
rehabilitation. certain cancers

Caffeine Supplementation

- Caffeine does improve alertness + studies have reported ‘clear headedness’ improved +
memory. Evidence related to caffeine + performance is inconclusive but agreement on areas
like cognitive function + anaerobic performance.
- It doesn’t help short intense activities such as sprinting, long-jump etc.
- It causes dehydration due to its diuretic properties.
- It helps mobilise fat stores assisting aerobic performance; therefore, it can be used to improve
aerobic performance.
- The mobilisation of fat stores helps as it allows aerobic performance to be continued for longer
periods of time (glycogen sparing). Thus, endurance athletes would use this but it is banned in
many sports
Recovery strategies:
Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume full training and competition in the
shortest possible time. Active rest is regarded as the most beneficial form of recovery.
There are 4 main areas of recovery strategies:

- Physiological Strategies: cool down + nutritional plan (food + fluid)

- Neural Strategies: hydrotherapy + massage
- Tissue Damage Strategies: cryotherapy
- Psychological Strategies: relaxation methods

Physiological Strategies e.g., cool down, hydration:

Focuses on two elements:

- Removal of metabolic by-products via an effective cool-down

- A nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy.

Cool Down
To gradually reduce HR, metabolism to a pre-exercise state. Cooling down effectively removes waste
products, decreases blood pooling, and assists in preventing muscle soreness and spasms. Cool down
should be active and gradual. A warm down should consist of 1-10 minutes of
walking/jogging/swimming aim to return the body to a pre-exercise state.

Nutrition Plan: addresses both fluid and food intake.

Effective measures to address and prevent dehydration need to be included in pre, during and post
event plans. The body loses considerable fluid in endurance events, threatening dehydration. Amount
of fluid replacement depends on temp, exercise intensity/duration, and sweating. Thirst isn't a reliable
indicator of hydration; the colour of urine is. If it’s dark in colour your dehydration and fluid need to be
consumed. If it's pale/clear your hydrated + need to maintain hydration. Drink roughly 600ml for every
1⁄2 kilo of body weight lost. Severe dehydration may require 24-48 hours to totally replace fluids. For
e.g., drink water, electrolyte drink, juices etc. The need to replenish depleted glycogen + blood sugar in
the first 30 mins-2 hours after exercise is essential for fuel recovery. If not replenished within 2 hours a
decrease in glycogen absorption will occur (during 30 mins-2 hours after the event muscles are most
receptive to glycogen enrichment). A high carb diet (50-100g after exercise) that is balanced (in terms
of carbs, protein, and fat) is recommended for exercise recovery. Carb-protein ratio is 4:1.

Neural Strategies e.g., hydrotherapy and massage:

Such as massage and hydrotherapy aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued/damaged from high
intensity exercise.

Hydrotherapy: involves the use of water to relax, soothe and assist metabolic recovery. It involves
steam rooms, spas, underwater massage (spa jets) and heated swimming pools. Active rest is included
in hydrotherapy through using gravity assisted movements in swimming pools e.g., running, jumping,
combat exercises + flotation exercises can be performed in this gravity assisted environment, lessening
risk of injury. Used in conjunction with cryotherapy techniques to accelerate blood flow e.g., hot, and
cold method.

Massage: can be performed prior/following an event. This is a specialised massage focusing on

recovery. Following event and sports, massage focuses on body + mental relaxation and injury
prevention. Post event massage aims to help relieve swelling, reduce muscle tension, assists in
eliminating toxic by-products and promotes flexibility, preparing athletes for the next training session.
Rehab massage focuses on injury treatment i.e., muscle damage, ligament repair etc. Properly used
massage shortens recovery time between workouts. Massage needs to address the needs of the
athletes demands from the sport (i.e., specific muscle groups). The most popular are compression
massage, cross-fibre massage, Swedish massage etc.

Tissue Damage Strategies:

Cryotherapy: involves the use of cooling of the tissue damage. Ice is the most common form of
cryotherapy, because of its ability to slow down the tissue inflammatory response preventing build-up of
waste that, if not removed, creates muscle soreness/stiffness.
RICER: is used in rehab of soft tissue injury. This technique involves Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation
and Recuperation to enhance recovery.

Ice baths are also popular in contact sports like football (NRL) and endurance training recovery
programs. Cold baths work on the principle that decreased temp contracts the blood vessels, slowing
down the blood flow to the injury site. As the body emerges or is put into hot bath, blood vessels dilate
allowing oxygen rich blood flow stimulating recovery. Short periods of 1 minute in each temp bath are
recommended + build on top of that as the body adapts.

Psychological Strategies e.g., relaxation:

After intense exercise athletes may experience low concentration +motivation and high anxiety.

The following strategies will help recover the emotional, spiritual + mental state:

- Relaxation Methods: like performance evaluations, debriefing sessions, reading, music and
movies. Some athletes participate in leisure activities like golf, swimming + surfing can help.
Visualisation and positive self-talk are other methods of psychological strategies to recover.
- Adequate Sleep: a body harbouring mental/physical tension is not able to sleep + experience
full recovery. Adequate sleep is considered the most important recovery strategy. Not enough
and too much sleep can be detrimental to performance, so roughly 8-9 hours is adequate.

Stages of skills acquisition:

There are 3 stages of skills acquisition each athlete must go through in order to succeed at a certain
skill.

Cognitive: characterised by frequent errors and is the stage when the learner has to think a lot about
the skill and how to execute it

- Requires frequent feedback from the coach.

Associative: the largest and longest stage

- Characterised by a lot of practice.

- As the athlete progresses through to the next stage, errors become smaller and less frequent.

Autonomous: characterised by few if any errors that are minor

- An athlete at this stage of acquisition can think about other aspects of the game and not think
about the skill at all.

Cognitive skill acquisition:

- Characterised by the mental process and the athlete thinking about the skill.
- The athlete must think about their body position, which muscles they’re contracting, what the
movement should look like.
- The athlete is thinking about what they are doing at each section of skill execution, resulting in a
non-fluid movement.

Athletes at this stage have frequent and large errors, have robotic and jerky movements, might miss the
ball when they attempt to kick completely, or kick the ball backwards instead of forwards. For example,
try and visualise a toddler learning to walk, or a 3-year-old trying to kick a ball. They watch lots, try and
mimic movements, and get frustrated at their errors. A coach needs to provide heaps of feedback and
demonstrations during this stage of skill acquisition. They may use videos or other visualisations to help
show the athlete what the skill should look like when done well. A coach will often break down the skill
into the different components to be put together as the athlete progresses in their learning. When
learning a new skill, frequent short periods of exposure are best for development. 20-40 min 3-5 times a
week is a great amount of practice for learning a new skill. During a training session. Break this new
skill up by including skills the athlete does well. Ensure they are getting positive results as well as they
learn the new skill. This makes distributed part practice the best practice method for the athlete at the
cognitive stage of skill acquisition.

Associative skill acquisition:

- The athlete has progressed from thinking about what they’re doing to thinking about how they
do the skill.
- They no longer think about body position, but where they’re passing the ball, or hitting the ball.
- Begin to think about end results rather than just on whether they manage to kick the ball.
- The movement becomes more fluid and smoother.
- There are still some errors though these are not large enough or as frequent as the cognitive
stage of skill acquisition.

The athlete can begin to provide feedback of their own and self-reflection. They can also still benefit
from immediate feedback concerning their technique provided by a coach as well as knowledge of
results. They can adjust their technique and begin to increase the complexity of the context in which the
skill is executed. For example: hitting or kicking a moving ball rather than a stationary one. During the
associative stage the athlete needs a lot of practice that is whole and normally massed, though if they
get bored, distribution should be used. This stage usually lasts a long time, with many athletes not
progressing to the final autonomous stage of skills acquisition.

Autonomous skill acquisition:

- When the athlete no longer thinks about the skill

- The skill comes naturally, and the athlete can think about other aspects of the game, such as;
who to pass the ball to, how to beat the defensive player, or where to hit the forehand.
- The athlete knows what the movement feels like and can provide their own feedback.
- External feedback on the skill can also still be beneficial.
- Coaching an autonomous athlete usually focuses on the execution of the skill under pressure
and with various cognitive processes being completed at the same time. This is usually done
through small-sided games or competition simulations, such as sparing.

This stage is where the athlete has finally mastered the skill and exhibit characteristics of skilled
performers. These characteristics include kinaesthetic sense, good anticipation, consistency of
performance, and sound technique. Such athletes can correct their own movements midway through
the movement to adjust to oppositional movements of environmental interference. They consistently
perform the skill well with minor errors occurring rarely. This final stage of skill acquisition is not
reached by many athletes. Many remain in the associative stage throughout their sporting career.
Athletes who become elite, have usually reached the autonomous stage of skill acquisition.

Characteristics of the learner:

Personality traits:

- Personality is the way someone behaves, thinks, and feels.

- These characteristic aspects of the person influence their work efforts and mentality towards
skill development, which greatly influences skill acquisition.
- Someone who has a good work ethic and punctuality will develop a skill better and faster than
someone who is not.
- Acquiring a skill requires hard work and dedication. If an athlete does not do this, they will not
develop a skill as well or as quickly as someone who does.
- Frequent negative thoughts about skill development and personal ability will diminish the ability
to acquire skills.
- However, positive self-talk and self-confidence will positively influence skill acquisition.
- How an athlete feels will also impact skill acquisition.
- If an athlete feels energetic and focused, then they are more likely to succeed in acquiring a
new skill.
- In contrast, an athlete who is often sad or sluggish will develop the skill much slower and to a
lower level.
- Traits within a personality that help in the acquisition of skills include determination, enthusiasm,
dedication, positive attitude, cooperation, patience, willingness to try something new.
- These help the athlete to accept and respond to coaches’ feedback, try new ways of completing
the skill, or try new skills.

Heredity factors:

- An athlete's heredity characteristics are those genetically inherited from their parents, including
gender, race, muscle type, and somatotype (body type).

Gender:

- Gender is heredity and affects levels of hormones, particularly testosterone, responsible for
muscle growth and development.
- Males tend to be more muscular, stronger, and more powerful than females.
- This difference has caused the labelling of some sports as “male” or “female”, though these
labels are not justified.
- Gender tends to have little effect on competition as sports are normally gender specific, but it
does affect performance, with males performing better in sports requiring speed, power, and
strength such as swimming and rugby league.

Race:

- Race is also heredity and particular races can have specific genes that make them more suited
to particular sports.
- Often dark ethnic groups have higher percentages of fast twitch muscle fibres and are taller
than other lighter races (though this is not always the case).
- For example- the domination of dark people in the 100m finals, and basketball.
 - Though obviously darker ethnic groups can also be suited to other sports such as long distance
running.
- In comparison, white Caucasian ethnic groups tend to be more suited for sports such as
swimming and hockey.
- Though this can also be a product of social upbringing, like South America and soccer.

Muscle type:

- Muscle type is hereditary and cannot be changed.

- The relative balance or percentage of each type of muscle fibre will suit athletes to particular
sports.
- Athletes with high levels of type II, fast twitch fibres are more suited to: Fast, powerful sports
such as: 100m sprint, rugby league or shot-put.
- Athletes with high levels of type I, slow twitch fibres on the other hand, are more suited to:
longer, more enduring sports such as: marathon running or cross-country skiing.
- There are other sports that require a balance of both and suit athletes who have a good number
of both types of fibres, these include: Soccer and Australian Rules Football.

Somatotype:

- Somatotype can help determine an athlete’s suitability for particular sports.

- Endomorphs: carry more weight and tend to hold the weight lower have advantages in sports
such as rugby union or blocking in American Football.
- Mesomorphs: very muscular and have low body fat and are best suited to sports such as
Australian Rules Football, bodybuilding, and rowing.
- Ectomorphs: skinny and are best suited for sports such as long distance running, high-jump and
horse racing.

Differences in height will also affect which sports the athlete is best suited to. Tall athletes tend to suit
sports such as netball, basketball, or volleyball. Shorter athletes are better suited to sports like horse
racing, gymnastics, and bike riding. People can acquire skills quickly and perform them well, while not
being suited for the sport, such as a short high jumper who performs the skill well but does not jump as
high as a taller person, more suited to the sport.

Confidence:

- Confidence is a belief in one’s own ability and positively influences skill acquisition.
- Grows with success, so successful skill execution will in turn increase confidence making the
athlete learn new skills faster.
- Important for coaches to provide opportunities for success early on in order to grow the athlete’s
belief in their ability to do the skill well.
- Previous experience will affect an athlete’s belief in themselves.
- If the athlete has completed similar skills well before, they will have a greater belief that they will
master the new skill as well. This means that the coach should progress skill learning moving
 from easy to harder skills. Faster success in the easier skill will increase confidence and result
in faster acquisition of the new harder skill.
- If skills are not learnt and frequent failure occurs, belief levels will decrease, and the rate and
level of skill acquisition will decrease.
- Over confidence results in poor skill acquisition, as the athlete believes that they are better than
they are and begin to try new harder skills before they are ready to do so.
- Can lead to the skill never being perfected and so the athlete never moves into the mastery
autonomous stage of skill acquisition.

Prior experience:

- Is the transfer of skills from one context to another allowing the athlete to learn new similar skills
faster than people who have no prior experience.
- Skill transfer can be lateral or vertical.
- Lateral transfer is easy and is the transfer of a similar skill from one context to another: such as
tackling in rugby union after learning to tackle in rugby league or learning to surf after learning to
skateboard.
- Vertical transfer is the transfer of a skill from a lower order skill to a higher order skill: such as
shooting in basketball to doing a layup or learning to throw before learning to shoot in netball.
- If prior experience was positive and had successful performances, then the new skill will be
acquired more easily.

Natural ability:

- An athlete’s ability refers to the ease of performing movements and performances.

- It is often known as talent and is characterised by fluid movements and accurate execution of
the skill.
- It refers to the athlete’s competency in a particular skill, a particular sport, or even exercise in
general.
- Power or capacity to do well in a particular area.
- Ability is used to describe people who are skilled in various areas, from sports, to the arts, to
mathematics. A person can have great ability in many things. Most often the term is used to
refer to the person’s natural talent.
- Athletes with greater abilities learn and process new skills faster than athlete’s with lower
abilities.
- They often will reach the higher levels of skill acquisition faster and for a wide variety of skills
that are related to each other.
- Ability is often a combination of characteristics in the athlete, this includes perception or the
capacity to read the game, sport or competition, reaction time, intelligence- smarter athlete’s will
often learn a skill faster as they process information provided from the coach and adapt
accordingly. Athletes with a sense of acuity or sharpness also have greater ability as they refine
the skill more thoroughly than those without this characteristic.

The learning environment:

 - Nature of the skill: open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous, self-paced, externally
paced.
- The performance elements: decision making, strategic and tactical development.
- Practice method: massed, distributed, whole, part.
- Feedback: external, internal, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of
performance.
- The learning environment affects the acquisition of the skill.
- Refers to the variables around skill acquisition, many of which can be managed or adapted by
the coach to ensure the skill is acquired quickly and to a high degree.
- The learning environment refers to the nature of the skill and whether it is an open or closed
skill, gross or fine skill, discrete, serial, or continuous skill, if it is self-paced or externally paced.
- The nature of the skill affects how the skill should be taught and which practice method is best
suited to the skill.
- The performance elements will also influence skill acquisition and are part of the environment in
which skills are learnt. These performance elements are essentially skills themselves but are
more skills of the mind then of the physical sense. Finally, the nature of feedback, including the
speed at which it is given are part of this learning environment.

Nature of the skill:

- A skill can be open or closed, gross or fine, discrete, serial, or continuous, self or externally
paced.
- Each classification sits along a continuum, with skills varying in their degree of any selection.
- Skills are classified by selecting one from each choice.
- Open: is performed in a constantly changing environment (weather, opposition, surface), such
as kicking a goal in Australian Rules Football.
- Closed: is performed in the same conditions every time, such as weightlifting. Open skills take
longer to learn compared to closed skills.
- Gross: requires large muscle groups (legs, back, chest).
- Fine: uses small or isolated muscle groups (wrist flexors, biceps), such as shooting. Fine skills
are easier to learn than gross skills.
- Discrete: has a clear beginning and end, such as a flip in gymnastics.
- Serial: combines a number of separate, smaller skills to perform the larger more complex skill,
such as a layup in basketball, which combines dribbling, catching, jumping, and shooting.
- Continuous: repeats a specific movement over and over again, such as running. Serial skills
are harder to learn than discrete skills, which are often harder than continuous skills because
continuous skills are repeated all the time.
- Self-paced: has its timing and speed determined by the performer, such as a tennis serve.
- Externally paced: has its timing and speed determined by external factors such as opposing
players or music, such as rhythmic gymnastics or batting in baseball. Externally paced skills are
harder to learn than self-paced skills.

The performance elements:

It is vital for performance that an athlete can perform their skills under pressure and respond to their
environment.

Performance elements that enhance an athlete's ability to perform are:

- Decision making
- Strategic development
- Tactical development

Decision making:

- Refers to the various decisions made by any athlete during a performance.

These include:

- where to hit the ball

- who to pass to and when.
- where to kick the ball
- where to stand defensively.

This can be improved by demonstrations or good decision making. Prompting questions like: “how do
we create space here?”. Practising in a game-like situation, allowing players to explore various
scenarios by changing oppositional tactics or strategies, and encouraging creativity in the athlete. The
more opportunity players have in a game to make decisions, the better they will get at it.

Strategic development:

- Strategy is the overall method used to achieve the goal, normally winning the competition.
- Includes where an athlete should be at a particular time and what they should do.

Tactical development:

- Tactics are about gaining an advantage over the opposing player normally connected with game
sense and decision making. Includes things like moving into space, marking a particular player,
using a cut out pass.
- Strategic and tactical development comes through technical efficiency, understanding the game,
and good execution.

Players who have good technical skills are more likely to make a successful pass or shot while under
pressure and making decisions. Players who understand how the game works and which strategies or
tactics are better in various situations, are more successful in executing the strategy or tactic and
selecting the right one for success. The strategy or tactic must then be practised to ensure timing is
correct and execution is smooth and successful. Requires:

- The strategy to be clear.

- Each individual player to know their role within the strategy.
 - Then learning to execute the strategy using various tactics through practice in various
situations, which will also develop good decision-making.

Practice methods:

Practice methods can either be:

- Massed or distributed.
- Whole or part

Massed practice:

- Is a continuous practice session, with smaller rest periods than practice intervals and works well
with or skilled and motivated athletes.
- Suits skills that are exciting or frequently used in performance, such as uneven bar transitions or
passing in football.

Distributed practice:

- Has short practice periods with longer breaks from the skill rehearsal, which can be rehearsal of
another skill or a break for feedback.
- Often used for less skilled and less motivated athletes and is helpful in teaching boring skills,
such as passing a basketball.
- Can be used for more difficult skills that need to be broken up, or when lots of feedback is
necessary.

Whole practice:

- Is when the skill is practised in its entirety and is often used for discrete or continuous skills.
- Good for teaching swimming or running.

Part practice:

- Is when the skill is broken up into its smaller parts and each part is practised in isolation before
being joined together.
- Often used for teaching serial skills that have smaller skills that make up the larger skill, such as
a lay-up in basketball.

Feedback:

- Feedback is important for the acquisition of a skill by the athlete.

- Provides direction, goals, and helps the athlete to adjust their performance and skill execution
as they progress through the stages of skills acquisition.
 - Feedback can be internal or external, concurrent, or delayed, knowledge of results of
performance.

Internal feedback:

- Comes from the performer and how the movement felt and relies on proprioception.
- For example: a soccer player feeling that they did not connect with the ball correctly is internal.

External feedback:

- Comes from outside the body and includes sounds, videos, or a coach.
- For example: an AFL player scoring a goal from 40 m out.

Concurrent feedback:

- Occurs during the execution of a skill, such as a coach stopping a golfer midswing to correct
their grip on the handle.

Delayed feedback:

- Is received after the skill has been completed, such as video analysis of a baseball pitcher's
performance.

Knowledge of results:

- Feedback that provides information about the outcome of the skill execution.
- Such as: scoring a goal or hitting a six.

Knowledge of performance:

- Is information provided about the process of movement normally provided externally after its
completion.
- Such as a coach giving technical advice on a tennis serve, telling the player to drop their
shoulder later.

Assessment of skill and performance:

- Characteristics of skilled performers: kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency,

technique.
- Objective and subjective performance measures
- Validity and reliability of tests
- Personal versus prescribed judging criteria

Characteristics of skilled performers:

- Skilled performers are autonomous performers and have a particular look to their movement.
 - These observable features include kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and good
technique.

Kinaesthetic sense:

- Refers to the skilled performers proprioception (perception or awareness of the position and
movement of the body).
- Relies in information from various sensors in the muscles and other organs that provide
information about the body position and movement without the need to see it.
- Skilled performers can feel the movement and even correct the movement mid-performance.
- Kinesthetics develops as a direct result of practice, as it develops ‘muscle memory’.
- For example: a basketballer adjusting their shot after being fouled to make sure the shot is still
successful.

Anticipation:

- Is the performer's ability to read the play, or his opponent and respond accordingly.
- Ability to predict their opponent’s next move.
- Good anticipation comes by learning an opponent’s body positioning and being familiar with
their preference of style or shot.
- This is particularly important in externally paced skills.
- For example: when a tennis player anticipates a backhand down the line after reading the body
positioning of their opponent. This gives the skilled performer more time to cover the court,
cover the shot and decide which return they will select.

Consistency:

- Refers to the performer repeating good performances.

- This is easily observed in sports such as basketball and tennis, where a skilled athlete
continually gets the shot in or hits the shot over the net and near the lines.
- For example: Roger Federer and Lebron James are skilled performers who are consistent in
their performances.

Technique:

- Refers to the technical aspect of skill execution; the result is efficient and consistent movement.
- Skilled performers have good technical execution of a skill which: saves energy, produces better
and more consistent results, holds up better under pressure, provides less chance of injury, and
is a large determinant of elite success.
- Correct technique is particularly vital in sports such as swimming and running.
- Correct technique helps generate more power and slimline and saves energy for later in the
performance, particularly vital for long distance endurance events.

Objective and Subjective performance measures:

 - Objective and subjective performance measures are used to classify various different types of
performance measures.

Objective:

- Objective performance measures are independent of the observer.

- This means the measurement is done using something other than the person observing.
- This can include: a stopwatch, measuring tape or record of goals.
- The objectivity of the performance measure is increased through measures such as time,
checklists, and established criteria.

Subjective:

- Subjective performance measures are dependent on the observer and based on opinions,
feelings, and general impressions.
- Subjective measures rely on the person observing rather than independent measures.
- Sports such as dance and gymnastics are more subjective than objective in their measures.
- Sports such as high jump use completely objective performance measures of metres and
centimetres
- Diving tends to use more subject performance measures.
- Skills are often measured using both, such as a soccer player’s performance. It was good
because it looked good, felt smooth, but also, he covered 12Km in the game, made 30 tackles,
had 98% success in passing and 85% success in shots, and scored 3 goals in the game.

Validity and reliability of tests:

- Validity and reliability of tests is important in the assessment of skill and performance.
- Tests are often done to check performance improvements.
- These can include various fitness tests such as: t-run agility test, the beep test.
- The validity and reliability of tests varies considerably and should influence the weight of
influence the test has on athletic performance.

Validity:

- Refers to the tests ability to measure what it's supposed to measure.

- A beep test is used to test an athlete's cardiovascular endurance.
- It is valid because it gives an accurate prediction of an athlete's VO2 max, though a VO2 max
test done in a laboratory would be a more valid test.
- Test validity is enhanced if: known good performers perform better than known bad performers,
if it is reliable predicting future performances, and if the component being tested is included in
the test.

Reliability:
 - Refers to the test’s consistency, the ability of the scorer to produce the same result each time
for the same performance.
- A shuttle run is a reliable agility test if the same tester produces the same results with the same
athletes under the same conditions in succession.
- The use of similar equipment, checklists, procedures, and conditions improves the reliability of
the test.
- Tests that are both valid and reliable tend to be more objective and are the best tests used to
measure performance.

Personal versus prescribed judging criteria:

- Personal versus prescribed judging criteria seeks to contrast the personal likes or dislikes of
performance, compared to more formal judging through the use of criteria.
- It is prescribed judging criteria that refers to the use of criteria to make subjective performance
measures more objective.

Personal judging criteria:

- Are the presuppositions brought to the performance by the judge and are very subjective.
- These include the judge’s expectations and preconceived ideas about the performance.
- Spectators and coaches often use personal judging criteria when judging a performance.
- Spectators are especially personal because their judgments rely on feelings and impressions,
not prescribed judging criteria.
- There is often bias in personal judging criteria and so are more suited to appreciation rather
than judgments of performance quality.
- Example of personal judging criteria is a person who walks out of a ballet performance thrilled
by what they saw, because it was exactly what was expected, compared to the person who
leaves disappointed because they were hoping for something in particular that was not
provided.

Prescribed judging criteria:

- Are established criteria created by the sporting body, which are then used to appraise
performance.
- This often comes in the form of a checklist or rating system and helps to objectify subjective
measurements.
- The more detailed the judging criteria and stringent the judge the better the objectivity and
reliability of the judging criteria.
- An example would be the check lists and other prescribed judging criteria used in gymnastics to
provide a score for each routine.

Subjective performance measures:

- Subjectivity is reliant upon the observer and includes personal judging criteria and other
presuppositions, such as:
 - I hope to see lots of flips and some cool balance moves in this floor routine.
- He better use upbeat music.
- I really like the gymnast from China; he’s such a nice guy.
- That skill is difficult.

These are very subjective and should not be used for judging performance. You are required to develop
your own subjective performance measures for the appraisal of performance.

Objective performance measures:

- Objective performance measures include prescribed judging criteria, which could include
checklists and ratings such as the one below:
- Criteria: number of flips performed, rate the tightness of the body during the flips, rate the
matching of movement to the music chosen
- Performance includes one: Handstand (held for 5 sec), Jumping spin.
- The criteria above help reduce the subjectivity of judgements by improving the objectivity and
reducing the room for personal criteria.

You should now develop and evaluate objective and subjective performance measures to appraise
performance on your own. As well as measurements of time, distance, and speed. individual
performance in team sports is often evaluated using a combination of objective measures such as
goals scores, passes made, and time in possession and subjective opinions on the fluidity of movement
or execution of particular skills.
HSC Option: Improving Performance:

How do athletes train for improved performance?

- Resistance training (elastic and hydraulic)

- Weight training (plates and dumbbells)
- Isometric training

Strength training:

- The main goal of strength training is to increase the maximum force that a particular muscle
group can generate.
- When strength training, you are required to work against some form of resistance and exercise
the muscles regularly.
- Strength training can take many different forms: resistance training using hydraulic and elastic
resistance, weight training using plates and dumbbells, isometric training applying a static force.

During strength training, elements of isotonic, isometric, and isokinetic contractions can be used.
People begin strength training programs for a variety of reasons which include:

- To develop muscular strength or endurance

- Develop power.
- Weight loss
- Gain muscle definition=muscular hypertrophy

Strength training programs can be tailored to the specific needs of the individual. Fitness centres will
typically devise a training program that will cater for the needs of the client. Strength training
merchandise is also available on the market (books, magazines etc) to assist people.

Types of strength training:

Maximum or absolute strength:

- The maximum amount of weight that can be lifted just once (one repetition).

Elastic strength:

- The ability to exert maximum force in a short period of time; the product of strength and speed;
common in explosive sports involving sprinting, jumping, or throwing.

Endurance strength:

- The capacity to exert a force repeatedly over an extended period of time. Required in activities
such as rowing.

There are three different types of muscular contractions:

 - Isotonic: a force against an external load that remains constant throughout the movement.
- Isometric: a force performed at a constant angle against an immovable load.
- Isokinetic: a force generated during movement at a pre-set, fixed speed throughout the range of
motion around the joint.

A muscle will only strengthen and hypertrophise if it has been forced to work beyond its customary
intensity - that is, if it has been overloaded (progressive overload). Muscles can be overloaded by
progressively increasing the following variables:

- Intensity (decreasing the number and length of rest periods)

- Resistance (lifting more weight)
- Number of sets
- Speed of muscular actions

SPECIFICITY must also be adopted; strength training must target the specific muscle groups involved
in the sport.

RESISTANCE TRAINING- ELASTIC & HYDRAULIC:

- Resistance training can be achieved through the use of hydraulic or elastic resistance.
- Elastic resistance gives the greatest resistance towards the end of the movement.
- Elastic resistance bands are also practical and inexpensive.
- Smaller muscle groups that are hard to train with traditional free-weight exercises can be
targeted with resistance bands.
- Resistance bands come in a range of colours that represent the stiffness or resistance of the
band.
- Hydraulic resistance equipment utilises isokinetic contractions allowing for a fixed amount of
resistance throughout the movement.
- It also makes it possible for the athlete to perform strength training and cardiovascular training
at the same time.
- Hydraulic resistance training can also be carried out using a swimming pool where each effort is
opposed by the density of the water (effort is opposed by viscosity).
- Hydraulic machines are very expensive, making them limited as many gyms cannot afford them.

WEIGHT TRAINING:

- Weight training is the most common form of strength training for athletes and involves isotonic
training.
- Weight training involves the manipulation of rep, sets, tempo, exercise types and weight used to
help increase the desired strength, endurance, size, and shape.
- Exercise completed during weight training involve equipment such as barbells, dumbbells,
weight stacks and plates to increase the force of gravity.
- Exercises that are isotonic in nature also involve both concentric and eccentric contractions.

ISOMETRIC TRAINING:
 - Isometric training or exercises are those in which the joint angle remains constant and there is
no lengthening of the muscle. An example is holding a half-squat position for a period of time.
- Studies have shown that isometric training increases maximum strength by 5% per week by
isometrically contracting a muscle group for 6 seconds once per day over 5 days per week.
Repeating the contraction 5-10 times per day produced greater strength gains.
- Isometric exercises can be performed anywhere as equipment is not required. Isometric
strength training may incorporate the use of free-weights and pin-loaded weights by holding a
squat at the concentric phase of the movement.
- Because static contractions rarely occur in sporting events, this type of strength training is
unsuitable.
- BUT isometric training is a very useful rehabilitation tool.

AEROBIC TRAINING:

How do athletes train for improved performance?:

- Continuous training/uniform
- Fartlek
- Long interval

AEROBIC TRAINING:

- Aerobic capacity will be improved by a training program that is designed to progressively

overload the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
- The program should be specific to the sport or event, that is, runners run, swimmers swim.
- Types of aerobic training include continuous/uniform training, fartlek training and long interval
training.

CONTINUOUS/UNIFORM:

- Continuous/ uniform training is long, slow distance training (running, swimming, or cycling).
- It involves sustained, low intensity exercise at a steady rate, without the use of rest breaks.
- This type of training develops the endurance of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems
rather than speed.
- When completing this type of training, the athlete is required to work in the ‘steady state’ zone,
which is approximately 70-75% of MHR.
- High intensity continuous training has been shown to improve lactate tolerance and VO2Max.
This intensity level varies from athlete to athlete but is approximately working at 90%+ of MHR.
Work rates equal to or slightly above the lactate threshold (LT2) produce the best results.
- The duration of the training session depends on the fitness of the athlete but should be for
approximately 20-25 minutes for best results.
- Continuous training involves working for longer than is the case in the performance or
competition, and at a uniform intensity.
- Remember, when training, more is not always better!
FARTLEK:

- Fartlek is a Swedish term meaning ‘speed play’ and is a variation of continuous training.
- In this type of training, athletes vary the pace at which they run and may also vary the terrain.
- Typically, this would involve some uniform pace exercise interspersed with short sprints and
returning to steady state to recover.
- Inclusion of uphill and downhill or stair work assists in providing the variation required.
- This type of training is a more demanding form of aerobic training and aims to have athletes
work both aerobically and anaerobically.
- An example of Fartlek training would be to cycle for 45 minutes, with the inclusion of 10 reps of
high intensity spurts of 30-60 seconds.
- By its nature, fartlek training helps to improve VO2Max and is very beneficial for athletes
requiring changes of pace for team games.

LONG INTERVAL:

- Long interval training involves periods of work interspersed with periods of recovery.
- To achieve a specific effect there are a number of variables that can be manipulated, these
include duration of each interval and rest period, intensity of interval, duration of recovery
interval and number of work/rest intervals per session.
- The key to effective and specific overload is the work: rest ratio. For aerobic training, long
intervals are used with a work: rest ratio of 1:1, each exercise interval would typically be 2-5
minutes in length and be done at submaximal pace. The number of intervals to be completed
would be around 4-8 repetitions.
- Long interval training allows work of high quality to be performed as the recovery periods delay
the onset of fatigue. Also, the athletes can complete more work than in the equivalent
continuous training session.
- Effective long interval training depends on identifying the level of fitness of the athlete, a period
of continuous training may be required to build aerobic fitness before introducing intervals.

Initial planning considerations:

- The initial planning considerations focus on the specific sport of the athlete/s. The sport is
broken down to identify specific components of fitness that are more fundamental.
- These components of fitness then become the focus for planning training programs as they
must be developed in both the individual and the team.
- Some sports have different positions, with different fitness requirements, thus a focus on the
individual is also needed.
- Sports and positions within them have specific performance requirements, and some have
specific skill sets that need to be developed. For example: in netball, a GD does not ned to be a
great shooter.

The type of competition needs to be analysed:

 - Some sports have a six-month period of competition, followed by an off season (e.g. cricket)
- Some sports have a small number of major competitions at various times and locations
throughout the year (e.g., tennis)
- The schedule of events/ competition needs to be examined in the initial planning considerations
for improved performance.

Climate and season should also be considered:

- Cricket is a summer sport and is played for long periods of time in the heat.
- AFL is a winter sport.
- These sports have different planning considerations simply because of the weather, not just
because they are different sports.

Performance and fitness needs:

- The performance and fitness needs considered are both sport and athlete specific.
- Sport specific: because the components of fitness should be relevant to the sport, and the
performance requirements identify the skills and other components used in the sport needed
development.
- Athlete specific: so that each individual athlete improves for their specific role in competition and
meets their own specific goals and starting points.

Sport specific performance and fitness needs:

- The athlete's sport should be broken down into its various components and the key components
of fitness identified.
- Both the skill and health related components of fitness should be identified so that training can
focus on those most relevant to the sport. For example- a triathlete would focus on their
cardiovascular fitness, and a 100m sprinter should focus on their reaction time and power.
- In team sports, the sports specific performance and fitness needs are essentially the
performance and fitness need of the team. An AFL team will all need good cardiovascular
endurance, power, muscular endurance, and coordination. Will also have performance needs
such as the ability to tackle well, kick accurately, and communicate effectively. These are all
team performance and fitness needs.
- In addition to these, other team needs could include tactics and strategy, leadership roles,
training days etc.

Athlete specific performance and fitness needs:

Each athlete begins the training year with their own level of fitness, injuries, and goals for the season.
Individuals have different roles in the teams’ strategies and tactics - often specialise in particular
positions.

- For example: a football striker needs to be fast, and fit, as well as coordinated.
 - Need to have very accurate shooting skills and an ability to create space and make well timed
runs that provide opportunities to score.
- A centre back does not need to have the same accuracy in shooting or the ability to make well
timed runs.
- They need to be able to predict an athlete's movements, make effective tackles and perform
accurate and effective passes.

Elite and recreational/amateur differences:

- Elite athletes: have much more detailed and higher-level performance and fitness needs.
- Will complete a wider range of fitness and performance tests to determine their performance
and fitness needs. For example: elite AFL players may need to complete level 20 in the beep
test and be able to take marks under pressure from opposition.
- Recreational/Amateur athletes: would not need to complete as many tests and would often
have more general low-level performance and fitness needs.
- For example: may need to only achieve level 8 in a beep test and want to work on their ability to
catch and kick a ball with no pressure.
- They may only need to perform for 15 minutes and be regularly substituted off the field.
- Their goals (not having detailed goals, broken down into sub goals) may be to develop
relationships and learn everyone's name, rather than be performance based.

Schedule of events/competition:

When planning training programs - initial considerations will include the schedule of
events/competitions. When creating a training calendar/schedule - identify when major events and
competitions are held (athletes need to peak their performance for competition).

- Careful planning of training leading up to, during, and after events/competitions is vital for an
athlete to perform their best when it counts.
- No good peaking during the off or pre-season.
- The schedule of events/competitions is used to guide the creation of a year or more long
training program.
- Will vary considerably between sports - depending on seasons/weekly comps/finals etc.
- A single athlete may have a larger number of scheduled events. Competitions than others.
- For example: a Rugby League player in the NRL will have weekly competitions.
- May also play in major events such as the state of origin, and international competitions.
- May also play in the rugby 9’s competitions during pre-NRL season.
- Their schedule should note the location of events, as many major events/competitions occur in
different locations, both within a country around the world.

Elite and recreational/amateur athletes different schedule of events/competitions:

- Schedule of events/competitions becomes more complex for elite athletes compared to

recreational/amateur participants.
 - Elite athletes have a larger array of events that they can compete in, including club,
representative, state, and international levels of competition.
- Many recreational/amateur athletes do not make schedules of competition, they simply know
when they are competing and turn up.
- They may not create any form of schedule or detailed training program around the schedule.
- For example: comparing elite football players with recreational/amateur athletes.
- An elite football player would be playing in a national competition, plays in the A-league,
competes in the Asian Championships League, and play for Australia in multiple international
games.
- These competitions all overlap and form a complex matrix of events. Therefore, the need for a
schedule is high.
- Recreational athletes play in the local comp each week with finals at years end - not as complex
or demanding.

Climate and season:

- Climate and season are important when planning training programs.

- Many sports have a season in which they are played.
- Football (AFL, NRL) is played during the winter season.
- Cricket is played throughout summer.
- There are a number of sports that do not have specific seasons such as tennis and golf.
- These sports have various major competitions throughout the year, and do not focus on specific
seasons.

Climate and season are important - it determines the type of environmental conditions in which the
sport will be played. The climate and season then effect how to best prepare for the sport.

- A sport played in the summer, should be prepared for by training in the heat with summer like
conditions.

Climates also need to be considered - each location has a different climate and should be prepared for
in a similar climate. Considerations concerning climate may also include the altitude the sport
competition is played at, or which area of the world.

- Tennis competitions are held at various locations around the world, each requiring specific
preparation according to the climate and season where the competition is held. There is a
similar situation around athletics, world cups and Olympic competitions.

Elite and recreational/amateur differences:

Elite athletes will have to consider a wider range of climates and seasons in their planning. Have to
travel around the country for their national competition and around the world for the international
competitions - moves them into different climates and seasons, depending on the location.
 - For example: a professional football player may have a regular competition in England, compete
in the Europe cup, but then be required to travel to Asia or Australia for international
competitions.

The recreational/amateur participant does not have the same issues:

- Do not travel large distances.

- Only have to consider the climate and season at the local level where they play.
- The climate may change with the weather, but it will not have the same amount of variation as
an elite athlete has to adapt to.

Planning a training year (Periodisation):

- Phases of competition
- Subphases (macro, micro and mesocycles)
- Peaking
- Tapering
- Sports-specific subphases (fitness components, skill requirements)

Planning a training year (Periodisation):

- Is important to use periodisation - to structure the year and ensure the athlete peaks in
performance at the right time.
- Periodisation is the process of breaking the year down into smaller time periods in order to
structure the training program effectively.
- Periodisation has three main subphases that combine to make the training year: macrocycle,
mesocycle, and microcycle.
- The training year will often have the 3 phases of competition: pre-season (preparatory), in-
season (competitive) and off-season (transition).
- The development of a yearlong training program will utilise the concepts of peaking and
tapering to help ensure the athletes are performing their best when it is required.

Phases of competition- pre-season:

- Also known as the preparation phase - is the period before competition where the trainer
focuses on developing the basis or fundamentals required in the sport.
- If the pre-season phase is long enough (6-10 weeks) it will be broken down into general and
specific mesocycles.
- General mesocycle: training will usually focus on general body fitness, including muscular
strength, muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and general body conditioning.
- As the program transitions into the specific phase of preparation, training begins to focus more
on sport specific aspects of training. This will include the development of sports specific skills
such as power, speed, ball control or specialised movements.
Phases of competition:

- In-season /competition phase can be short or long - depending on the type of sport.
- For example: tennis competition pages may only last 2-4 weeks during a tournament. Netball
goes for 6 months - during this phase of competition, training shifts its focus to strategy and
tactics, while still maintaining skill and sport specific fitness levels.
- The volume of training during competition often decreases, especially during competitions that
have matches every 2-3 days such as a tennis tournament.

Phases of competition- off-season:

- Off-season/ transition phase of competition immediately follows the competition and focuses on
relaxation and recovery.
- Training volume and intensity decrease and may also become non-existent for a period of time.
- Allows the athletes to recover from the intensities of competition before they once again begin to
increase training volume and intensity in the pre-season.
- These three (3) phases of competition are used by trainers and coaches in order to ensure the
athlete is peaking at the correct time.

Subphases- macrocycle:

- Macrocycle: is the larger training cycle and normally encompasses the whole year.
- Can be both larger or smaller than this, depending on the sport.
- For example: an athlete training to win the Olympics will have a 4-year macrocycle in order to
qualify for and then peak during the Olympics.
- A football player will focus on a single year macrocycle.
- Athletes will often set macrocycle goals that they wish to achieve.

Subphases- mesocycle:

- Mesocycle: is a smaller chunk of time and can consist of a few weeks or a few months.
- Often mesocycles match up with the 3 phases of competition (pre, in, and off season).
- For example, one mesocycle may be 4 weeks of general pre-season training.
- Mesocycles join together to create the macrocycle.
- The macrocycle goals are broken up into smaller goals that are to be achieved during each
mesocycle.

Subphases- microcycles:

- Microcycle: is smaller still - often a single week of a training program.

- Is often used to focus on a singular aspect that adds together with other macrocycles in order to
achieve mesocycle goals which accumulate to achieve the macrocycle goals.
- Microcycles are particularly important for weekly competitions as the athlete or team prepare for
their next match.
 - Microcycles that works as the building blocks to create the yearlong training program using
periodisation.

Peaking:

- Is when the athlete is performing at their absolute best during competition.

- When planning a training year, the coach or trainer attempts to have the athlete peak for the
most important competitions.
- Peaking can be difficult - especially in a sport that has a long in-season such as Rugby, AFL,
netball, cricket, or football.
- Peaking requires the athlete to have great general body conditioning, good sports specific
conditioning, and great skill execution combined with strategy and tactics that enable them to
perform at their best.
- Peaking also needs the athlete to be mentally focused and have optimum arousal levels in order
to perform at their best.

Just before the competition - training will taper down in order to allow nutrient levels to be at the
optimum levels and in order for the athlete to fully recover from training before the competition. Peaking
is often short lived but has a number of identifiable characteristics:

- Aesthetically pleasing movements

- Speedy recovery
- Optimum fitness performance
- Great tactical awareness and predictability
- Self-confidence
- Mental focus and toughness

Tapering:

- Tapering is the reduction of training volume and intensity just prior to competition - allows
peaking to occur.
- The high volume and intensity of training also causes impairments in performance.
- Strength and plyometric training cause small muscular tears - which result in the muscles
producing less force and power.
 - Tapering allows the body to repair these normal small “injuries” by reducing training volume and
intensity. This helps the body to recover fully in order for the athlete to perform their best.
- Coaches or trainers will taper training 2-4 weeks prior to competition. Allows the body to repair
while at the same time not causing a large decrease in training that there is a reduction in
training benefits, such as cardiovascular endurance.
- Also allows the body to completely replace nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, protein, as well as
vitamins and minerals) required for competition. These are replenished during the rest period.

Sports specific subphases:

- Refers to the selection of what is focused on during the subphases of competition in order to
cater specifically for the relevant sport.
- Refers to the meso and microcycles that combine in order to achieve the larger goals of the
athlete or team.
- Each sport has specific components of fitness, skills, tactics, and other variables that need to be
focused on throughout the year of training.
- These differences in sport require sport-specific subphases to be developed by trainers and
coaches in order to best prepare the athlete for competition.

Sports specific subphases will change throughout the year as training moves through the different
phases of competition.

During the pre-season:

- Often a general conditioning mesocycle that will focus on cardiovascular endurance for most
sports as well as strength and size for sports that require it, such as rugby league.
- As the year progresses in the specific preparation phase, the differences in sport requirements
in training grow and sport specific subphases are developed.

During the competition phase:

- Sports such as football will maintain cardiovascular endurance, speed, and agility, while
focusing on skill development and team strategies and tactics.
- A rower may still spend plenty of time further developing their cardiovascular endurance and
need to spend only a smaller amount of time on synchronisation with other rowers and stroke
technique.
- Further differences also arise as each athlete is catered for within their sport. Each athlete may
have their own sport-specific subphase in order to develop aspects of their game or skills that
are lacking compared to others.
Elements to be considered when designing a training session:

- Health and safety considerations

- Providing an overview of the session to the athletes
- Warmup and cool down.
- Skill instruction and practice
- Conditioning
- Evaluation

Elements to be considered when designing a training session:

- First consideration is always safety - consider the safety of the equipment, facilities and training
being designed to meet the levels of the athlete/s.
- Other elements to be considered when designing a training session include how much time will
be allocated to each activity, what the goals or aims of the session will be, how warm up and
cool down will be done, and making sure you leave room at the end to evaluate the session.
- The timing of the elements is also important to consider: how long will the athletes spend
warming up, doing conditioning work, or focusing on a skill? what order will these be done in
order to gain the most from the training session?

Health and safety considerations:

Health and safety are the most important consideration. Training sessions need to suit the athletes
being trained.

- E.g., If it's a child with low levels of fitness, then the training session should match their fitness
and skill levels.
- Also applies for the adult, training should be done at a level that extends the athlete and
develops them for the sport, but not set at a level that could be harmful to them.

Other safety aspects include:

 - Adequate warm up
- All equipment is available and in working order (includes the court/field)
- An appropriate venue should be chosen that caters for the specific training session.

Also includes the athletes state of health and whether they are ready for training (both mental and
physical). Other health and safety considerations include:

- Protective equipment
- Clothing
- Safety gear (sunscreen, water etc)
- First aid kit
- Climatic conditions etc

Providing an overview of the session to the athletes:

Providing an overview of the session is an important aspect of any training session.

- When an athlete knows the aims of the training session - it improves the results of training.
- The athletes understand the purpose of each activity, why they are doing it and how it should
help them in competition.

A session overview is a short process:

- Helps get the athletes on side with the coach.

- Allows for more effective feedback and session evaluations.

A session overview will be completed just prior to or during a warmup. It will outline what is happening
in the training session and link the activities with specific outcomes or goals for the athletes. Providing
an overview allows the athletes to have an input.

Warmup and cool down:

Warmup:

Should be specific to the activities that are going to be completed in the session and the muscles being
used. Begin with general whole body, low intensity movements and become more specific throughout
the warmup. Include some forms of stretching. The type of stretching used should be specific to the
training.

- Most commonly used type of stretching used in a warmup today is dynamic stretching, though
many athletes and coaches still use static stretching.

Warm up prepares the body for the session, improving performance, which during training means
improved physiological adaptations and promoting safety in the session.

Cool down:
Occurs after the training session and needs to be included in order to speed up recovery. Generally,
consists of low intensity movements using the same muscle groups and body systems as were used in
the training session. Goal is to help remove waste products, and fluid in order to decrease post
exercise oedema (swelling).

Skill instruction and practice:

Makes up the greater portion of any training session. The allocation of time to specific skill related
activities needs to be decided, along with how the activities flow together for best development of the
skill. The selection of skill instruction and practice activities should be determined by the athletes ‘stage
of skill acquisition’. Skill instruction usually includes:

- Demonstration of the skill (may be broken down into its various parts before being combined to
perform the entire complex skill).

Skill instruction should be short and to the point. Need to be clear in delivery giving both specific and
useful instructions.

- This instruction for practice should be timed appropriately during the session, and where
possible include demonstration.

Often the best method for practising skills relevant for a particular sport is to play the sport. Modified
games are used frequently to practise and teach skills - one of the best ways to continue to develop
athletes who are autonomous. Various drills are also used in sports to develop specific skills that an
athlete may need to develop.

- Drills can be done using both massed and distributed practice.

- Whichever is chosen the most important thing for skill development is frequent use.

Examples:

- A triathlete may spend some time on their technique for swimming, riding, or running.
- It will not be the same amount of time as a sport such as Rugby Union or AFL spent on
technique and skill development. These sports have a greater variety and emphasis on skill
compared to sports that use predominantly health related components of fitness.

Conditioning:

All sports require conditioning training - it is the base work required for the sport. It is NOT just
cardiovascular endurance - it is about bringing the body to the desired state for use in the particular
sport, largely occurs during the pre-season and is sport specific. If the sport has a long competition
phase - reconditioning and maintenance of conditioning needs to occur. An athlete’s condition release
to injury and performance:

- Good condition will help to prevent injury and improve performance.

- Poor condition leaves the athlete vulnerable to injury and leads to poor performance.
Conditioning covers ALL of the components of fitness (health and skill related).

- E.g., Conditioning required for Rugby League includes high levels of cardiovascular and
muscular endurance. Good speed, muscular strength, power, and coordination. As well as
agility and reaction time. In essence each component needs to be well developed in order for
good performance.

During a training session, the amount of time spent on conditioning should match the requirements
during competition and the needs of the athletes. Generally, 20+ minutes is set aside during a training
session. If the focus of training is the end of the game and the coach wants the athletes to perform well
when fatigued, then conditioning should be done at the beginning. If the focus is on skill development,
conditioning should be left until the end of the training session.

Evaluation:

Must happen at the end of the training session - should re-address the goals of the session that were
discussed in the overview. Athletes should be given a chance to provide feedback to the coach on the
training session, as well as the coach providing feedback to the athletes. Athletes feedback should be
welcomed, and if needed have a follow up for the next session.an evaluation will also include some
planning for the next training session and checking in with the athletes - it is a time to review the
training session. After the training session - further evaluation should occur (between coach and
training staff to determine if the session was effective). The key point to the evaluation is that it focuses
on the achievement of goals, and if further actions are needed in order to achieve them.

Planning to avoid overtraining:

- Amount and intensity of training

- Physiological considerations e.g., lethargy, injury
- Psychological considerations e.g., loss of motivation

Planning to avoid overtraining- overview:

- Overtraining leads to poor performance and leads to injuries, particularly overuse injuries.
- It is when an athlete does high intensity training, in high volumes.
- Often this comes in the athlete training too often and not including enough rest between
sessions of high intensity.
- This affects their recovery and prevents physiological adaptations from occurring.
- Athletes who suffer from overtraining become fatigued, tired, lethargic.
- This feeling leads to a lack of motivation in the athlete and can also lead to injury through poor
technique and overuse.

Amount and intensity of training:

 - Leads to overtraining when the athlete completes high intensity training too often/in large
amounts.
- Particular forms of training (strength training) require 48 hours of rest for the muscles in order to
recover and adapt appropriately to the training.
- Large volumes of training at high intensity cause overtraining because the athlete does not have
enough time between training sessions to recover from the previous training session.
- More likely to suffer from overtraining, leading to poor performance, decreased motivation, and
higher risk of injuries.

How much training is too much?:

There are some general guidelines, but everything is always athlete specific. Individual aspects
including:

- Stress from work or family

- Medical conditions
- Nutrition
- Sleep
- Use of recovery strategies

All contribute to an athlete's risk of suffering from overtraining. As a general rule - athletes should not
be completing high intensity training every day. In order for physiological adaptations to occur - training
intensities should be in the relevant training zone and need to only occur 3 times a week. Types of
training should be examined - ensure the amount and intensity of training does not place too much
stress on the athlete.

- For example: a Rugby League player should not be developing their strength, power, speed,
agility, and body composition at the same time. This would require a large amount of high
intensity training.

What do you do to identify an overtrained athlete?

- Reduce the amount and intensity of training sessions.

- May need to take a complete break from training - to fully recover from their training session.
- If overtraining is identified early - a change in frequency, intensity and time may be adjusted.
- Often overtraining is not identified until after injuries begin to occur - in this case, rehabilitation
should occur, and testing be done before the athlete returns to normal training and competition.

How can overtraining be avoided?

- Have a good balance in the amount and intensity of training.

- Planning a training year ensuring the athlete has regular rest periods (weekly) is vital.
- Inclusion of recovery sessions and skills or tactical training - allows recovery from higher
intensities.
- Monitor each athlete closely looking for the signs and symptoms of overtraining.
Physiological considerations:

Two focus areas:

- Lethargy
- Injury

For injury - need to understand how it is caused at the muscular level.

- Every high intensity training session causes minor injuries to muscle cells - these are usually
micro-tears (often felt as delayed onset muscle soreness or DOMS), and they require time to
heal.
- These micro-tears usually stimulate the physiological adaptation that occurs from training - but if
they have not fully recovered before the next training session, the small ‘injuries’ are re-injured
and become larger. The longer this goes on the larger the injury and this can lead to other
injuries.

For lethargy - the constant low-level pain wears the athlete out.

- The small tears also cause muscular weakness, decreasing performance and strength.
- As these build up over time, the muscles become constantly weak, making normal activities
draining on the athlete.
- Nutrition - important consideration for recovery. Leads to further feelings of lethargy as there is
not enough energy within the body to recover properly.

How do you identify an overtrained athlete? - Physiological Considerations:

Signs of an overtrained athlete:

- Frequent error in performance

- Poor performance (decreased endurance, strength, power, speed etc)
- Illness
- Poor technique
- Increased resting heart rate.
- Excessive thirst

Symptoms of an overtrained athlete:

- Pain
- Lack of energy (lethargy)
- Headaches
- Cramps
- Loss of appetite

Psychological considerations - loss of motivation:

An overtrained athlete will lack motivation. They will be:

- Tired
- No longer feel like training.
- Lose focus on their goals and no longer want to do the hard work to get there.

It is different to lethargy because lethargy is about lack of energy to train, while a lack of motivation is
not wanting to train or compete. Often lethargy will lead to a lack of motivation due to the body being
tired and suffering frequent or constant pain. This leads to our emotions becoming elevated (hence why
we are grumpy when tired or hungry).

How do you identify an overtrained athlete? - Psychological Considerations:

Signs of overtraining:

- Moody and irritable

- Responds poorly to criticism/on field banter.
- Gives up when competition gets hard/abandons struggles against opponents.

Symptoms of overtraining:

- Lack of motivation
- Depression
- Sensitive to criticism
- Confusion during competition

Use of drugs:

- The dangers of performance enhancing drug use e.g., physical effects, loss of
reputation, sponsorship, and income
- For strength (human growth hormone, anabolic steroids)
- For aerobic performance (EPO)
- To mask other drugs (diuretics, alcohol)
- Benefits and limitations of drug testing

Use of drugs - Overview:

- The use of drugs in sport is always a hot topic - there are many people who were considered
the greatest athletes of all time, who, due to the use of drugs, have now shamed the sport and
their name (e.g., Lance Armstrong)

The dangers of performance enhancing drug use:

Dangers of performance enhancing drug use are extensive:

 - To the athlete’s physical health
- Loss of reputation
- Loss of sponsorship deals
- Loss of income

For an elite athlete, the dangers of performance enhancing drug use should be enough to deter them
from use.

Physical dangers of performance enhancing drug use:

- The physical dangers of performance enhancing drug use are specific to the drug.
- The syllabus dictates that you know only 5 drugs: Human growth hormone (HGH),
Erythropoietin (EPO), Diuretics, Alcohol, Anabolic steroids.
- These 5 drugs are used for 3 purposes: strength gains, aerobic capacity, and masking drug use.

Reputation dangers of performance enhancing drugs:

Elite athletes regularly complete drug tests - a positive result in a drug test of an elite athlete often hits
the media very quickly and is widespread. An athlete may have spent a long time building a reputation,
not just as a physically dominant athlete, but also off the field as many elite athletes are now held up as
role models. A positive result in a drug test = athletes lose their reputation overnight. They will be
labelled a liar, a cheat and many other things as their career spirals downwards. Their loss of reputation
will affect other aspects of their life as well. Lance Armstrong has lost his stellar reputation because it
was later revealed that he had been cheating.

Sponsorship and income dangers of performance enhancing drug use:

Elite athletes often have sponsorships with leading brands in the industry. These sponsors can often
bring in large amounts of income for the athlete - for some this sponsorship is what allows them to
continue as a professional athlete. When an athlete loses their reputation and begins to be seen
negatively in the media - many companies who sponsor the athlete will stop their sponsorship, and
often will fine the athlete for the effect the media has on their brand. Many sponsorship deals have
clauses that relate to negative media exposure and the use of drugs, allowing them to remove their
sponsorship quickly when an athlete is caught cheating.

For strength (Human Growth Hormone & Anabolic Steroids):

Human growth hormone:

- Is a chemical (hormone) produced by the body for growth and development.

- The levels of HGH increase during periods of large growth such as in childhood and puberty.
HGH levels begin to decrease as a person ages.
- HGH is used for strength and power development as well as body composition. Because it
stimulates muscle growth.
- Also stimulates fat mobilisation for use as an energy source.
Physical dangers of HGH:

The side effects of using HGH for strength include:

- Nerve, muscle, and joint pain

- Swelling
- Carpal tunnel
- Numb tingling skin
- High cholesterol

Anabolic steroids:

Used by athletes to develop strength and power while also changing body composition. They are
derived from testosterone and have similar effects on the body.

- Testosterone is the male hormone helping develop the secondary male characteristics
(increased muscle size, body hair, deeper voice, Adam’s apple etc).

It is interesting to note that when it comes to improvements in performance, anabolic steroids do not
work without training. In response to the question, “Do anabolic steroids work?” The NSW Government
fact sheet states: The answer to this is controversial. If you speak to athletes, body builders, trainers
and some doctors, who have used or had experiences with anabolic steroids, they are certain that
anabolic steroids increase lean muscle mass, strength and endurance. But scientific studies have only
shown that anabolic steroids enhance physical performance through the effect of training, diet and
motivation, which accompany the use of the drugs.

Meaning that you get benefits from anabolic steroids if you are training hard, but you get no benefits if
you are not training.

Physical dangers of anabolic steroids:

The side effects of anabolic steroids include:

- Aggressiveness
- Irritability
- Baldness
- Acne
- Hypertension
- Heart issues
- Liver damage
- Male secondary sex characteristics (facial hair, deep voice etc)
- Irregular periods
- Infertility
- Diabetes
- High cholesterol
Other dangers for the athlete arise when the drug is sourced from the internet, gyms, or other means
where a medical practitioner is not involved. In these cases, the contents of the ‘drug’ are unknown and
add extra physical danger to the athlete.

For aerobic performance - EPO:

The most commonly used drug for aerobic performance is erythropoietin (EPO). It is a naturally
occurring hormone in the body released from the kidneys - is used for aerobic performance
improvements because it stimulates bone to produce more red blood cells. The redder blood cells you
have, the more oxygen the blood can carry leading to improved oxygen uptake and improved
performance, particularly in aerobic sports, but will also raise the lactate inflection point.

Physical dangers of EPO use:

Erythropoietin, when used for aerobic performance, has many well-known side effects that are highly
dangerous. These include:

- An increased risk of heart disease

- Stroke
- Cerebral or pulmonary embolism

The increase in red blood cells thickens the blood, raising blood pressure and increasing the likelihood
of blockages in the arteries and damage to artery walls.

To mask other drugs - diuretics & alcohol:

Three reasons an athlete may use diuretics:

- Appearance
- Weight class
- Masking other drugs

Use of diuretics to mask other drugs:

Diuretics cause the body to remove water from blood and excrete it as urine. This dilutes the urine and
makes positive detection of drugs such as anabolic steroids less likely.

Physical dangers of using diuretics:

Diuretic use can lead to:

- Dehydration
- Headaches
- Heart and kidney disease
- Poor coordination
- Dizziness
 - Fatigue
- Chest pain
- Irritability
- Depression
- Electrolyte imbalance
- Impaired hearing

Use of alcohol to mask other drugs:

Alcohol is a diuretic and a depressant, its effects on the body vary by body size, previous exposure,
amount consumed etc. alcohol has been used by athletes to mask other drugs and is banned in some
sports because of its diuretic effect.

Physical dangers of alcohol use:

The dangers associated with alcohol use include those above plus:

- Nausea, vomiting.
- Slowed nervous system leading to delayed reaction time, lack of coordination, dizziness etc.
- Blurred vision
- Loss of consciousness
- Death

Benefits and limitations of drug testing:

It is important before looking at the benefits and limitations of drug testing that you know the purpose of
drug tests. Drug tests are not about trying to catch cheating athletes, although it will do this. It is about
promoting fair play and making sports safe for the athlete. The World Anti-Doping Agency tagline is
“play true” and seeks to promote drug free sport. Most athletes are happy to be tested and have testing
in sports because it promotes fair play.

Benefits of drug testing:

- Creating a deterrent for athletes who may consider using drugs to cheat in sport.
- Promoting drug-free sport that incorporates fair play.
- Promoting safety in sport
- Promoting equity in sport
- Rewarding athletes for their ability, training, and efforts
- Protects athletes’ reputations.

Limitations of drug testing:

The use of drug testing in sport does not have limitations in its use, which some people use to debate
its place in sport, but this is not justified.

Limitations include:
 - Not all drugs can be tested for. New drugs get created frequently, and until they are created,
tests cannot be developed for them.
- Testing exposed the athlete (nudity) before the tester.
- New prohibited lists are developed each year, which athletes need to know and follow as they
are currently held responsible.
- Testing is expensive.

Use of technology:

- Training innovation (e.g., lactate threshold testing, biomechanical analysis)

- Equipment advances (e.g., swimsuits, golf ball)

Use of technology:

The use of technology in sport has increased dramatically over the last 20 years. At an elite level,
training facilities now routinely include:

- Gyms
- Biomechanical technology
- Physiological testing
- Indoor and outdoor facilities
- Plenty of training equipment

There have been massive advances in the technology of equipment:

- Cricket bats have become larger and lighter, with larger ‘sweet spots’.
- Tennis rackets are lighter and have longer handles.
- Balls have changed from leather to synthetic.
- GPS devices are used at training and during competition, and much more.

Training innovations:

Training innovations have developed many elite sports, which have become standard practice. Training
innovations is the inclusion of specific tests such as:

- The VO2Max test

- Lactate threshold testing

Biomechanical analysis of specific movements has become more common in a variety of sports to aid
with technique/skill execution.

VO2Max testing and how it improves performance:

The VO2Max test measures an athlete’s maximum oxygen consumption in litres per minute per
kilogram of body weight, maximum heart rate, ventilation rate, and the efficiency of muscles. The test
also provides a predictor of lactate threshold. The test is used to set heart rate training zones as a real
measure of maximum heart rate is achieved. Provides feedback on the effects of training - allows the
athlete to train more effectively to improve their cardiovascular endurance. Particularly beneficial in
endurance sports such as marathons, AFL, or triathlons.

Lactate threshold testing and how it improves performance:

Lactate threshold testing identifies an athlete's lactate inflection point (the point where lactate begins to
accumulate in the blood). This test provides you with a lactate threshold heart rate and training pace.
This helps the athlete to set training zones that are more accurate and beneficial. It provides better
results (especially in aerobic sports where you want to be as close as possible to the lactate inflection
point without crossing into the anaerobic training zone). It also helps in anaerobic training to ensure
training is forcing the body to deal with lactate overload and recover from it.

Biomechanical analysis and how it improves performance:

Biomechanical analysis analyses the athlete’s technique to ensure their movement is efficient and safe.
It analyses:

- The force through the joints

- The force absorbed and produced by muscles.
- Ensures technique is correct to produce the most efficient movement possible.
- That the technique will not lead to injury

Huge benefit in sports that are particularly technical such as:

- Cricket
- Tennis
- Golf
- Baseball

It allows the athletes to compete longer with more efficient movement patterns and achieve better
results due to a better technique. It saves energy and provides the athlete with an advantage over
others.

Other training innovations:

There are many other training innovations used in sports. These include:

- Heart rate monitors

- GPS devices
- Video analysis
- And much more

Ethics and training innovations:

Many of the training innovations are expensive and can only be accessed by athletes or clubs who can
afford the testing and equipment. It can create an unfair playing field, particularly when competition is
between countries, where one country has access and the other doesn’t. The ethical considerations
revolve around equity of access and money, more than safety.

Equipment advances:

Many equipment advances in sports have caused increases in sports performance that are not due to
the athlete’s ability, but due to equipment advances. Equipment advances can be in:

- Clothing
- Protective equipment
- General equipment
- Technological equipment

Clothing equipment advances:

- Clothing in sports has changed dramatically over time.

- It is very light, and can be loose or skin-tight, depending on the need for performance and
safety.
- For example: swimsuits worn have changed to become whole body suits, and even went too far
and added structural support (these suits were since banned from competition).
- Clothing in many contact sports has also become tighter to make it harder for the opposition to
grab hold of it when tackling (e.g., Rugby codes).

Protective equipment advances:

- Protective equipment in sports has become lighter (cricket pads, helmets etc - allows for faster
and more free movements).
- Some sports have developed new protective equipment - stem guard in cricket.
- Shin pads in football and shoulder pads in Rugby have changed to allow better movement in
competition.

General equipment advances:

This is where most advances have occurred in equipment. These types of advances include:

- Graphite golf clubs

- Tennis rackets are lighter, longer, have larger heads (stringed area), and nylon strings.
- Cricket bats are larger and lighter.
- Golf balls have specialised dimples and are lighter.
- Many sports have converted to synthetic balls over leather (football, rugby codes, NFL, afl etc)
- Perspex backboards for basketball
- Perspex masks for ice-hockey

Technological equipment advances:

The Grand Slam tennis and many other international tennis competitions now use “Hawkeye”
technology that tracks the ball and is used to determine if the ball is in or out. Ice-hockey uses a light
system over the goal to determine when the puck has crossed the line. Cricket uses many
technologies, from video replays for run outs, to “Hawkeye” to determine LBW decisions. Rugby
League uses video replays to determine if a try has been scored.

Ethical issues related to technology use in sport:

There are a number of ethical issues related to technology use in sport. There are many who debate
the place of technology in sport.

- Things such as goal line technology and video replays for decisions normally made on the field
affect the sport and how they are played.

Many technology advances have benefited people with disabilities.

- The changes to wheelchairs, prosthetics and more that enable people with varying disabilities to
participate in sport has been a great development, but this access is not the same to all
athletes.

Has technology gone too far?

There is no simple answer to this question. This is one of the biggest ethical issues related to
technology use in sport. Technology should be used to improve sports performance. Spectators and
athletes want to see and improve their performance. Improvements will become rare if technology is
removed from sports completely. However, when technology leads to unfair competition its use should
become limited.

Has access to technology created unfair competition:

- The ethical issues include equity of access.

- Accessing technology is expensive (especially physiological testing or biomechanical analysis).
- Some equipment is costly - if all competitors cannot access technology, then the competition is
unfair due to inequities in access to technology.
- Most sporting competitions involve athletes or clubs who either can or cannot afford
technologies.
- All major sporting competitions such as NBA, NBL, NFL, AFL, NRL, A-League, EPL, Champions
League, etc have plenty of money to access technologies.
- The same goes for many elite individual sports such as golf and tennis.
- International sports competitions do not have the same level of equity.
- Individual athletes from poorer developing countries cannot always afford the same
technologies as athletes from developed countries that place a high value on sport (America,
England, and Australia.
Sports medicine:

Ways to classify sports injuries:

- Direct and indirect

- Soft and hard tissue
- Overuse

Direct and indirect:

- Direct and indirect are 2 classifications for a sport injury.

- In classifying sports injuries, they can either be direct or indirect, never both.

Direct injury:

- A direct injury is an injury sustained at the site of external force (hit by a ball, bat, person)
- These are very common injuries in sport.
- Blisters and abrasions are always direct injuries and bruises are frequently caused by direct
external forces (e.g., bruised leg from a cricket ball or black eye from being punched during a
boxing match).

Indirect injury:

- An indirect injury is an injury sustained from an internal force (pulled hamstring, sprained ankle)
- Internal forces are often generated by muscles, but includes forces transferred from the outside
(fall onto your arm, but injure your shoulder)
- Sprains and strains are always classified as indirect injuries as an external force does not cause
tears in ligaments or muscles.
- Other common indirect injuries are dislocations and breaks (for example: a dislocated shoulder
after falling on your arm or rolling your ankle causing a sprain).

Soft and hard tissue:

- Soft and hard tissue are 2 classifications for sport injuries.

- You need to combine this classification with either direct or indirect for a full classification.

Soft tissue:

Occur to soft tissue in the body, everything except bones and teeth. Soft tissue includes all:

- Muscles
- Ligaments
- Tendons
- Skin
- Organs etc
Soft tissue injuries can be directing such as a blister or bruise at the sight of external force, or they can
be indirect injuries caused by internal forces such as a sprain or strain. For example - a sprained ankle
is an indirect soft tissue injury or a black eye from a punch to the eye is a direct soft tissue.

Hard tissue:

- Hard tissue injuries are injuries to the bones or teeth (injuries of the skeleton).
- Hard tissue injuries include breaks and dislocations, including lost teeth. Hard tissue injuries are
less frequent than soft tissue injuries in sport, but are often more serious (e.g., a dislocated
shoulder from a poor tackle in rugby league, therefore also direct).
- Remember you need to identify different types of injuries.
- Make sure the injury has 2 classifications for a complete classification of the injury (e.g., a
laceration of the leg from an ice-skate during a hockey game is a direct soft tissue injury).
- Soft and hard tissue injury classifications are opposing and cannot be combined in the
classification of sports injuries.

Overuse:

- Overuse injuries are caused by repetitive action and are a separate classification as they are
not an acute injury (like direct and indirect are) but a long-term injury.
- They are much the same as indirect injuries because they are caused by internal forces.
- Overuse injuries develop over time due to the athlete not allowing enough time between
performance for the body parts used in the repeated action to recover.
- Overuse injuries begin as small injuries, often due to poor technique or constant repetition of
particular movements and develop into larger injuries because the athlete does not allow
enough time to repair/recover from the smaller injury before it is re-injured.
- The small injuries produce scar tissue because the body does not have enough time to
reproduce the actual body tissue. This often occurs in muscle tissue.
- This scar tissue then builds up because the body never gets a chance to repair and fix the
tissue. This forms a weak area that is easily re-injured and often becomes a larger injury, even
after recovery.
- Overuse injuries include soft tissue injuries, such as tendonitis (e.g., tennis elbow) and hard
tissue injuries, such as stress fractures.

Soft tissue injuries:

- Tears, sprains, contusions

- Skin abrasions, lacerations, blisters
- Inflammatory response

Tears, sprains, contusions:

Soft tissue injuries are injuries to any type of body tissue other than bones and teeth. They include:

- Tears, such as ligament sprains and muscular strains

 - You also need to know about simple injuries like a skin abrasion or a blister.

All these injuries stimulate the same inflammatory response from the body, which can result in further
damage if not controlled through the application of RICER (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation,
Referral). The RICER treatment of a soft tissue injury aims to decrease inflammation, allowing enough
inflammation to repair the injured area, but not so much as to cause further soft tissue damage. In
addition to this, you should know how to treat skin injuries to prevent blood loss (abrasions, contusions,
blisters etc).

Strains:

- A strain is a tear that occurs in a muscle - often referred to as a “pulled” muscle.

- Strains (muscle tear) are normally caused by internal forces, poor technique or overtraining.
- Strains are often classified by a grading system with 3 levels.

Sprains:

- A sprain is a tear that occurs to a ligament (joining bone to bone around joints).
- Sprains are often caused by an external force being transferred through the body often to the
other side of a joint.
- They are always caused by a joint being bent in a direction it’s not meant to move.
- A sprain has 3 levels of classification, that are exactly the same as above only applied to a
ligament.
 - A third-degree tear is a ligament that has been torn in half and needs surgery to repair. An
example of a sprain is a rolled ankle in netball or an ACL rupture in the knee.

Contusion:

- A contusion is when capillaries are causing internal bleeding.

- Referred to as a bruise and is normally caused by an external force.
- Contusions are also caused through internal forces being imbalanced resulting in capillaries
bursting.

Skin Abrasions, Lacerations and Blisters:

Skin abrasions, lacerations and blisters are 3 other soft injuries, but all occur at the skin level and result
from external forces.

Skin abrasions:

- A skin abrasion is a scraping or wearing away of the skin and is usually not very deep.
- Usually, an abrasion is referred to as a graze.
- These are common injuries in any sport, especially those where athletes may frequently fall or
be tackled. (Example of an abrasion is a grazed knee from a slide tackle in soccer)
- The treatment for skin abrasion is clean the wound, wash it with a disinfectant, covering it with a
non-stick dressing.
- In the case of a more serious abrasion the management of blood loss will become the priority,
though this is very rare for an abrasion.

Lacerations:

A laceration is a deep cut or tear to the skin resulting from contact with any sharp object.

- Cut from a kitchen knife.

 - Cut from an ice-hockey skate.
- Tear from a stud in rugby

Lacerations often result after a head clash or contact with other sport specific equipment.

- Ice-hockey player who gets hit with a stick cutting his skin open.

Treatment for a skin laceration:

- Manage bleeding.
- Apply pressure to the area.
- Depending on the severity - medical attention, stitches or surgery may be needed.

Self-managed lacerations:

- Clean the wound.

- Apply a non-stick dressing with pressure to control bleeding.
- If bleeding does not stop quickly, ice can be used, and medical treatment is needed.

Blisters:

- A blister is caused by friction or burning that leads to a build-up of serum in the skin.
- Athletes often get blisters on their feet due to friction from their shoes.
- Most blisters are caused by equipment such as a tennis racket or soccer boot.
- Treatment for a blister: cover it with padding, remove the object causing the friction/ burning, do
not pop the blister, but allow it to heal.

Inflammatory response:

- Body’s natural reaction to injury and infection

- Involves vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) allowing more blood to the area and more fluid
to exit the vessels into the surrounding tissue.
- This increases the white blood cells (leucocytes) entering the area to clean up debris and fight
infections (if the injury is open).
- The inflammatory response has three phases: phase 1- acute inflammation, phase 2- repair
inflammation, phase 3- remodelling inflammation.

Phase 1- Acute Inflammation:

- During the acute inflammation stage, inflammation is fast and painful.

- The inflammation response during this phase involves the vasodilation of blood vessels, and the
transfer of fluid into the surrounding tissue.
- The inflammatory response causes secondary (additional) damage to the area.
- The athlete loses function as inflammation (swelling) is large.
- New blood vessels begin to be developed in this phase and the area is swollen, red and painful.
 - The acute inflammatory phase lasts 48-72 hours (2-3 days) and it is during this time that RICER
is most important.

Phase 2- Repair Inflammation:

- During the repair phase of the inflammation response, the body begins to fix the damaged or
injured site.
- The white blood cells (leukocytes) clean up the debris from the injury and new body tissue
begins to form.
- Often this phase of the inflammatory response produces scar tissue in the repair of the injury,
which needs to be minimised for proper healing to occur as scar tissue is weaker than normal
tissue.
- This phase extends from 3 days up to 6 weeks.

Phase 3- Remodelling Inflammation:

- The remodelling phase of the inflammation response continues to rebuild the injured site.
- More scar tissue is produced during this phase of the inflammatory response, but also new
functional body tissue is developed and strengthened.
- This tissue can replace scar tissue if proper treatment is sought from health professionals.
- During this phase of the inflammatory response, the balance of exercise and rest is important as
too much exercise can cause further injury, but not enough exercise will result in too much weak
scar tissue.
- This phase can last many months. An athlete will not be back to full health until this phase is
completed (though they often have returned to play).
- It is important to remember that while the inflammatory response is necessary for repair of the
injury, too much inflammation causes further damage. There are 5 signs and symptoms of
inflammation: redness, swelling, pain, heat, and loss of function.

Management of soft tissue injuries:

The management of soft tissue injuries focuses on controlling the inflammatory response and
minimising pain. The immediate management of soft tissue injuries is known as RICER (Rest, Ice,
Compression, Elevation, Referral) and is applied for at least the first 48 hours.
Rest:

- First thing to do when managing soft tissue injuries is to stop playing the sport or doing the
exercise.
- Rest the injured area - e.g., if this is an ankle then the joint should not be moved.
- Rest helps to prevent further damage to the injured area, which helps ensure the inflammatory
response is not stimulated again.

Ice:

- Ice should be applied as soon as possible in the form of an ice pack, or a bag of ice, but can
include other forms of cryotherapy.
- Ice should be applied over the first 48 hours.
- There are many methods to icing a soft tissue injury e.g., 20 mins on, 20 mins off. Generally, as
long as ice is consistently applied to the area with short breaks benefits will occur.
- Helps reduce the pain, decreases inflammation, and speeds up recovery.
- Ice causes vasoconstriction (narrowing of the arteries) reducing inflammation.
- Then when taken off the vessels dilate (vasodilation) allowing the blood to flow through with a
momentary increase in the inflammatory response that allows waste removal and new nutrients
to be delivered for repair.

Compression:

- Compression helps to reduce or control the inflammatory response and stabilises the joint.
- Involves the application of a compression bandage or garment around the injured area.
- Helps force fluid away from the area, reducing the inflammation at the area.
- Can also help reduce movement, limiting re-injury, and providing support for the injured area.

Elevation:

- It is important to get elevation correct.

- Elevation of the injured soft tissue must be above the heart.
- An injured elbow could be resting on the chest as a person lies down or an ankle needs to be
placed on a pillow or 2 while the athlete lies flat.
- Elevation above the heart means gravity can assist in the removal of fluid from inflammation.
- Gravity helps to move the blood and other fluid back towards the heart reducing or controlling
the inflammatory response.

Referral:

- Refer the athlete to a health or medical professional.

- Allows for proper diagnosis and rehabilitation to be applied if needed.
- This will help improve recovery and prevent future injury to the site.
- Often GP’s will provide an anti-inflammatory drug to help reduce pain and improve recovery.
 - Important to control the inflammatory response because if left to its own devices, the
inflammatory response will cause further damage to the area.
- Too much inflammation increases the pressure around the injury which damages the nearby
cells delaying recovery.

Hard tissue injuries:

- Fractures
- Dislocations

Hard tissue injuries overview:

Hard tissue injuries include any injury to the skeletal system:

- Fractures
- Dislocations
- Loss of teeth

A fracture is the technical term for a broken bone. There are various types of fractures with various
degrees of complication. The other main hard tissue injury is a dislocation. A dislocation is when a joint
is displaced. There are some joints more susceptible to dislocation than others and dislocations will
always result in various soft tissue injuries as well. Hard tissue injuries need to be assessed and
managed quickly. The first aid response of DRSABCD should always be followed. In sport, TOTAPS is
also likely to be used in the assessment of the injury to determine the nature and extent of the injury
and if the athlete can continue to play. Once a hard tissue injury is identified, it should be immobilised,
and medical attention sought as soon as possible.

Fractures:

Classification of fractures:

- Comes in 3 classifications.

Closed fracture:

- Remains inside the body and does not break the skin.
- Most common broken bones that occur.
- Also known as a simple fracture.

Open fracture:

- A break that does pierce the skin so that bone can be seen.
- Also known as compound fractures, because there is more than one issue that needs to be
addressed (e.g., bleeding, open wound).
Complicated fracture:

- Where the bone causes further damage to major organs or blood vessels.
- These are complicated because they can be life threatening and require immediate medical
attention.

Types of fractures:

Although there are 3 classifications of a fracture, there are also many different types of fractures.

These are the 3 more common types:

- A complete fracture breaks clean through the bone, so that there are now 2 parts.
- Comminuted fractures result in breaks to more than 2 parts of the bone. Smashing of bone or
simply multiple fractures in the one (1) bone.
- An incomplete fracture/greenstick fracture does not break the whole way through the bone. The
bone is still in one piece but has a break in it.

Signs and symptoms of a fracture:

Signs (what can be seen) and symptoms (what they feel and report):

- Hearing or feeling a break.

- Hearing or feeling a grating of bone.
- Pain
- Redness
- Loss of function
- Deformity
- Bone protruding from the skin

Management of fractures:

- Immobilise the area.

 - Reduce pain.
- Prevent further injury.
- Reduce bleeding and shock.

First aid is required to:

- DRSABCD
- Control bleeding
- Cover wounds
- Check for other injuries.
- Keep the injured athlete still.
- Immobilise injury.
- Seek medical attention.

Dislocations:

A dislocation (or luxation) is when there is an abnormal separation in a joint between 2 bones. A
dislocated joint result in much damage to the surrounding soft tissues including:

- Sprains to ligaments
- Strains to muscles (particularly the rotator cuff muscles)

A dislocation is often caused by excessive force and can be either a direct or indirect injury. Joints that
frequently dislocate are those in the fingers, and ball and socket joints, such as the shoulder and hip.

Signs and symptoms of dislocation:

- Pain at the joint

- Swelling around the joint
- Bruising around the joint or just below the joint (gravity may cause the bruise to appear below
the ankle for example)
- Deformity
- Tenderness
- Inability to move the joint properly.

Often these injuries are readily identifiable as the athlete often will clutch at the joint and allow the rest
of the limb to hang or support their limb quickly to immobilise it.

- For example, a Rugby league player who dislocated his shoulder will be seen holding his
shoulder while the arm hangs down or supporting his elbow while bending over.

Assessment of injuries:

- Totaps

Assessment of injuries:
In the assessment of injuries in the sports context there are 3 step-by-step procedures that are used
and overlap with each over:

- First aid DRSABCD

- On field STOP
- Off field complete assessment TOTAPS

DRSABCD:

- DRSABCD is followed before any specific assessment of injury occurs.

- The person assessing the injury should first check for danger to themselves, by-standers and
then the casualty.
- They then look for a response from the athlete.
- Provided there is a response, progress through STOP (Stop, Talk, Observe, Prevent further
injury).
- If there is no response, then the assessor should continue through SABCD.

STOP:

- STOP is an on-field assessment done to quickly assess the injury and determine if further
assessment is required or if the athlete can continue to play.

STOP means:

- Stop the athlete from further participating (game is topped only if necessary)
- Talk to the athlete, determine what happened, how it happened? Where does it hurt? Etc.
- Observe- while talking to the athlete you observe the area and the athlete. From this fast on-
field assessment, the assessor determines if the athlete can continue to play or if they need to
be taken off for further assessment.
- Prevent- any further injury, which comes by taking the player off for further assessment if
required.

Examples of STOP:

- A Rugby League player has suffered a contusion (cork) and is limping.

- The sports trainer will come on to the field and talk to the player behind the play and find out
what happened and have a look to see if the player needs to come off.
- After a short conversation and observation, it can be quickly determined that the athlete can
continue to play, or if they need to be taken for further assessment in order to prevent further
injury.

TOTAPS:

If the athlete has been removed from play following the stop assessment - the assessment of injuries
follows TOTAPS. If an athlete fails any part of the TOTAPS assessment, the assessment is stopped,
they cannot continue to play, and medical attention is sought.
TOTAPS stands for:

- Talk: gather as much information about the injury as possible (often the sports trainer, or first aid
officer will ask questions such as: where does it hurt? how painful is it? is the pain sharp or dull?
did you hear a snap or crack? how did it happen? etc.)

If the casualty reports that they have immense pain, that they heard a snap or crack or does not
respond, the process is stopped immediately, First Aid is applied as medical attention is found.

- Observe: the injured area. Compare both limbs or both sides of the body in order to determine if
obvious abnormality and whether there are any signs of the injury. Signs could include:

If there is an obvious abnormality or the area is already inflamed or swollen, then the process is
stopped, and First Aid is applied as medical attention is sought.

- Touch: touch the casualty, again comparing to the other limbs or the other side of the body.
During this step of the assessment of injuries you are looking to see where the pain begins
moving along the limb or injured side towards the site of injury. You are also feeling
abnormalities, heat and swelling.

If an abnormality or excessive pain exists during touch, then the assessment of injuries is stopped, and
First Aid is applied as medical attention is sought.

- Active movement: ask the casualty to move the injured area. During this step, you are looking to
see if the athlete has full range of motion around the injured site and that this movement is pain
free. You may also place a hand on the injured area to feel for grating as the athlete moves.

If there is excessive pain, or a limited range of motion then the assessment of injury is stopped, and
First Aid is applied as medical attention is sought.

- Passive movement: you move the injured area for the athlete. Involves applying force to the
area such as pulling or pushing the joint as well as moving the joint through its full range of
motion. The pushing and pulling around a joint are done to test the ligaments, tendons, and
stability of the joint. If there is no pain and full range of motion, then the next step applies.

However, if the injured athlete reports pain and a lack of mobility, then the assessment of injury is
stopped, and First Aid is applied as medical attention is sought.

- Skills test: used to assess the injury to determine if the injured area can undergo the forces
often found in the sport being played. Skills tests are specific to the sport and progress from
basic low intensity/force movements (such as putting weight on the injured limb, walking or
jogging) to the faster more powerful and forceful activities (such as jumping and changing
direction at speed). It will also progress from no equipment to the full range of equipment as it
would be used in the sport, e.g., serving with a tennis racket at top speed, hitting back hands
and fore hands as well as volleys and other strokes, while running and changing directions for a
tennis player.
Children and young athletes:

- Medical conditions (asthma, diabetes, epilepsy)

- Overuse injuries (stress fractures)
- Thermoregulation
- Appropriateness of resistance training

Children and young athletes:

- Children and young athletes have specific demands that are addressed by sports medicine,
such as: asthma, type 1 diabetes, and epilepsy.
- They are more prone to overuse injuries (stress fractures and repetitive strain injuries) as they
are growing and developing.
- They also have underdeveloped abilities to regulate body temperature, particularly in relation to
sweating and having a smaller surface area to body mass ratio.

Asthma:

- Is a medical condition that affects the airways.

- Inflammation of the airways leading to contraction of the bronchioles (airway branches) limiting
the air flow into and out of the lungs.
- Has various triggers: dust, pollen, pollution, and exercise.

Implication of asthma for the ways of children and young people engage in sports:

- Can be induced by exercise and is more likely to be triggered in longer duration physical activity
than short and intense bursts of activity.
- Exercise induced asthma is more likely to occur during a marathon run, than a 100m sprint.
- The asthma “attack” us usually proportional to the intensity of the exercise.
- Having asthma should not stop them from participating in sport, but there are actions that
should be in place to manage this medical condition.

Asthma- Management:

- Should have an Asthma Management Plan developed with their GP.

- This asthma management plan should be provided to those supervising the physical activity for
their knowledge and use if and when necessary.
- Should have a Ventolin puffer (usually grey or blue) with them for use if an asthma “attack”
occurs.
- The supervising adult should also know how to address an Asthma “attack” through first aid
training.
- Exercise induced asthma can possibly be prevented through a proper warm-up and cool-down.

Type 1 Diabetes:
 - There are two types of diabetes.
- Type 2 diabetes - condition caused by lifestyle, often brought on through physical inactivity and
poor diet.
- It is characterised by a breakdown in the efficiency of insulin activity resulting in high levels of
insulin (which is responsible for the transport of glucose in the blood.
- Type 1 diabetes - known as insulin dependent and early onset diabetes caused by an
autoimmune disorder.
- The body no longer produces insulin resulting in a build-up of glucose in the blood. It is more
prevalent amongst children and young athletes.

Implications of diabetes for the ways children and young people engage in sport:

- It relates to the glucose levels in the blood, which affects the sport engagement because
glucose is also an important energy source for ATP production during sport participation.
- As a child or young athlete participates in sport, their muscle cells are opened for glucose
transportation without the need for insulin.
- This results in a decrease in blood glucose, which can become problematic for children and
young athletes who have diabetes.
- If glucose levels are too low, it can lead to a hypoglycaemic episode, but if they are too high it
can cause a hyperglycaemic episode.
- Both of these can lead to loss of consciousness and death.
- Important that those who have diabetes monitor their blood glucose levels closely.
- Normally means not having an insulin injection before or after sport and eating meals before
and after exercise to help balance blood glucose levels.

Type 1 Diabetes- Management:

- Often managed through insulin injections and access to sugary foods.

- Children and young athletes who have this medical condition should participate in regular
physical activity as it helps manage both types of diabetes and can prevent hyperglycaemia.
- Should have access to food and sugary drinks during physical activity.
- Eat before and after sports events.
- It is important for those supervising to know the first aid procedures used to manage hyper and
hypoglycaemic episodes.
- Hypoglycaemic episodes have a sudden onset and cause: rapid heart rate, sweating, shaking,
anxiety, dizziness, and unconsciousness.
- Managed by providing sugary foods or drinks, such as jellybeans or juice. Further food should
then be consumed afterwards.
- Hyperglycaemic episodes occur slowly and may cause thirst, vomiting, weak rapid pulse, rapid
breathing, and drowsiness. Medical assistance should be sought in the treatment of
hyperglycaemic episodes.

Epilepsy:

- Disruption of normal brain activity that results in seizures.

 - A seizure is when the brain's nerve cells misfire and generate sudden, uncontrolled bursts of
electrical activity in the brain.
- The orderly communication between nerve cells becomes scrambled and our thoughts, feelings
or movements become momentarily confused or uncontrolled.
- Epileptic seizures can be subtle - only momentary loss of consciousness, or conspicuous
causing sudden loss of body control.

Implications of Epilepsy for the ways children and young people engage in sports:

- Should not stop children and young athletes from participating in sports.
- Many medications that can be used to reduce the likelihood of seizures occurring.
- Should not limit sports choice, but the type and possible triggers should be considered as sports
are selected.
- Should ensure others are present as they participate in sports, particularly activities such as:
water sports, bike, and horse riding.

Epilepsy management:

- Epilepsy can be managed through medication, but the supervising adult should be aware of how
to manage seizures, in case they occur.

Overuse injuries:

- Result from repetitive movements placing repetitive stress upon the body parts involved, such
as: bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
- Overuse injuries can be caused by poor recovery, high stress loads, poor technique, poor
muscular strength, or imbalance, and ill-fitted protective equipment.
 - Common overuse injuries in children and young athletes are shin splints, stress fractures and
tendonitis (golfers or tennis elbow).
- Occur because they are specialising in a sport at a young age, resulting in repetitive movements
and muscular imbalance.
- Particularly susceptible to overuse injuries as their bodies are growing and developing.
- Requiring longer recovery periods and have greater nutritional requirements.
- Often result from small injuries, such as muscle tears, that are not noticed, or not given enough
time to fully recover.
- Leaves the injured area weak and vulnerable to further injury.
- As further stress is placed on this area, re-injury occurs.
- This cycle repeats resulting in an overuse injury, which takes longer to recover from and causes
more lasting damage than acute injuries.

Implications for the ways young people engage in sports:

- Overuse injuries such as stress fractures affect the ways young people engage in sports.
- To avoid overuse injuries young athletes are encouraged to engage in a wide variety of sports
and not to specialise in a sport at a young age.
- This improves the variety of movements, helps ensure development and growth is holistic and
balanced, rather than imbalance.
- Ensure they have appropriate rest periods after training and performance to avoid these injuries.
- Ensure they fully recover from injuries, both major and minor, before they continue in any sport
or training to help avoid these overuse injuries.
- Coaches and trainers should be fully qualified to work with children and young athletes.

Overuse injuries management:

- The management of these injuries should be supervised by a qualified health professional, such
as a physiotherapist, an osteopath, or an exercise physiologist.
- Often management is done in conjunction with a GP and information is provided for the coach
and trainer to use when administering any further training.
- Athletes need to stop the movement that has created the injury, and to give the injured area a
break. For example: stress fracture to the shin is an overuse injury usually caused by excessive
running, particularly on concrete. They would be required to stop running until cleared by their
health professional and GP.
- For a tennis elbow injury, management should be to stop playing tennis, and rest the elbow.

Thermoregulation:

- Refers to the maintenance of a stable body core temperature.

- It is vital for every athlete as maintaining a safe body temperature avoids conditions like
hyperthermia and hypothermia.
- A child's body will overheat 3-5 times faster than an adult.
- For children and young athletes, thermoregulation is not as well developed as it is for adults.
 - They have underdeveloped sweat glands, which means they sweat less and are more affected
by their surrounding environments.
- Have a small body mass to surface ratio. This means that they have a large surface area (skin)
compared to their body mass (weight). More vulnerable to their surrounding environment than
adults.

Considerations of thermoregulation for the way children and young athletes engage in sports:

They need to have their body temperature monitored closely in sports that are performed in the heat or
in the cold. Considerations such as:

- Appropriate clothing
- Time of day the sport is played.
- Availability of shade
- Access to fluid

These need to be addressed to ensure the safety of children and young athletes during the sport:

For example: soccer

- A game of soccer on a hot day can be broken into quarters.

- Can be played in the early morning to avoid the heat of the day.
- Should have sunscreen applied and wear clothing that allows for greater air flow.

For example: snowboarding

- Children should wear warm clothing.

- Have an adequate extended warm up.

How conditions associated with thermoregulation are managed:

- Thermoregulation issues such as HYPERthermia, or HYPOthermia need to be managed swiftly

and properly.
- HYPERthermia refers to any heat induced conditions such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke.
The management of heat exhaustion is lying the person in a cool place with circulating air,
remove unnecessary clothing, sponge with cool water, give cool water to drink, and seek
medical attention.
- Heatstroke is an emergency situation and is managed by: DRSABCD, lie the person in a cool
place with circulating air, remove unnecessary clothing, apply cold packs or ice, cover with a
wet sheet, ensure 000 has been called, and give water.
- HYPOthermia is a cold induced condition and is managed by: DRSABCD, lie the person in a
warm, dry place, avoid wind, rain, sleet, cold and wet grounds, remove wet clothing, warm the
athlete with a blanket, head cover and warm drinks, ensure 000 has been called.

Resistance training:
 - The appropriateness of resistance training for children and young athletes is a highly debated
issue due to many myths around the appropriateness of resistance training.
- Some myths include resistance training is not safe for children and young athletes, resistance
training is no more dangerous than any other form of physical activity in which children and
young athletes participate, resistance training will stunt the growth of children and young
athletes.
- There is no evidence that resistance training slows the growth of children and young athletes. In
fact, resistance training is more likely to have a positive effect on children’s and young athlete’s
growth.
- Attached to this myth is the thought that resistance training will break the growth plate of the
athlete.
- This has never happened when resistance training is done with proper supervision and following
appropriate guidelines.

Implications of resistance training for the ways young people engage in sport:

- Resistance training is appropriate for children and young athletes when proper supervision is
provided, and guidelines are followed.
- Provides many health benefits and performance benefits.

The American College of Sports Medicine states:

While regular participation in a strength training program can enhance performance of young athletes
and reduce their risk of sports-related injuries, boys and girls of all abilities can benefit from strength
training.

- Resistance training provides increases in: muscular size, strength, power, speed
- Resistance training increases bone strength and helps prevent injury.
- The key to safe participation in resistance training is to provide qualified supervision, age
specific instruction and a safe training environment following established training guidelines.

These guidelines include those from the Australian Strength and Conditioning Association:

- Children should be mature enough to follow directions and appreciate the benefits and risks of
resistance training, usually age 6.
- 1 RM should be avoided.
- Technique should be taught and mastered before increasing resistance.
- Intensity should be fairly low:

Age Max. reps

6-9 15+ RM

9-12 10-15 RM

12-15 8-15 RM
 15-18 6-15 RM

- Frequency should be 2-3 times a week.

How the appropriateness of resistance training for children and young athletes is managed:

- Resistance training should be managed by well trained professionals when being used for
children and young athletes.
- Anyone conducting resistance training with children and young athletes should follow
appropriate guidelines.
- If injury occurs, proper first aid and follow up should be sought.

Adults and aged athletes:

- Heart conditions
- Fractures/ bone density
- Flexibility/ joint mobility

Adults and aged athlete’s overview:

- Adults and aged athletes are not the same age group of people, though the aged are still adults,
the aged are usually associated with the elderly, while adults are those who are no longer young
athletes, usually 21+.
- This dot point requires you to understand the different types of medical conditions listed and
how they impact sport availability for adults and aged athletes.
- This includes a range of heart conditions, how they impact the athlete and limit their choice of
sports.
- The same goes for bone density, which leads to fractures and how a decrease in flexibility or
joint mobility also affects sports choice.
- Sports participation options are also specific to the medical condition listed and should be
presented with each condition for adults and aged athletes.

Heart conditions:

- Heart conditions is a broad term used to refer to a number of health issues including high blood
pressure, cardiovascular disease, angina, survivors of heart attacks, heart valve disease (e.g.,
leaky valves) etc.
- Although heart conditions are generally on the decrease in Australia, they are still prevalent
especially among aged athletes.
- It is important to know how heart conditions impact the choice of sports available to the person
who has one, especially since exercise is a useful form of treatment for the underlying causes of
most heart conditions.
- Adults and aged athletes with heart conditions can still adapt to exercise, including
improvements in heart and circulatory health.
 - Before beginning any sports or exercise an adult or aged athlete with a heart condition should
get medical clearance first.
- If a heart condition is already known, the athlete may be asked to complete a stress test to
check that it is safe to participate in sport and what intensities are safe to be performing at.

The following are recommendations for adults and aged athletes with heart conditions:

- Contact a GP for approval.

- Include a proper 5-7 minute warm up and cool down.
- Never exercise to the point of chest pain or angina.
- Exercise with a friend in case of emergency.
- Exercise should be stopped immediately if dizziness, nausea, unusual shortness of breath or
irregular heartbeats occur during or immediately after exercise. A GP should be contacted
immediately, although you may simply need to slow down a bit.
- Do not exercise outdoors when it is too cold, hot, or humid, as this weather may increase the
likelihood of complications with the condition.
- Exercise 5 times a week for 30+ minutes at a moderate intensity (brisk walk).
- Light weight resistance training (NO isometric or less than 10 RM).

Sports participation options for adults and aged athletes with heart conditions:

Adults and aged athletes with heart conditions cannot participate in sports that require high intensity.
Instead, they are advised to participate in sports and physical activity that can be done using low
intensities such as:

- Golf
- Cycling
- Tennis
- Dancing
- Brisk walks
- Aerobics

These sports and physical activities will be beneficial and provide opportunities to develop
relationships, improve mental health and independence.

Fractures/ bone density:

- Fractures is the term used for any break of a bone in the body.
 - More likely to occur in people who have poor bone density.
- Poor bone density can lead to osteoporosis.
- Predispositions to poor bone density and fractures include genetics, females, early menopause,
small size, inadequate diet, poor physical activity levels (particularly weight bearing exercises).
- Fractures and bone density are greatly influenced by diet.
- Should eat plenty of fruit and vegetables in order to get all the nutrients in appropriate amounts
that are required for healthy bone density and to avoid fractures.
- Among the key nutrients for good bone health are calcium, vitamin D, phosphorus- help to build
strong bones and teeth along with calcium, sodium, and protein.
- Poor bone density and osteoporosis limit the sport choices for adults and aged athletes.

- People with poor bone density should avoid contact sports or sports that involve powerful
changes in direction that place large stress on bones such as: martial arts, rugby league,
football, ice hockey.
- The following sports are examples of options available for adults and aged athletes with bone
density issues: cycling, walking, golf, tennis, swimming.
- There are particular forms of physical activity that are beneficial for people with bone density
issues that will improve bone density and help avoid unwanted fractures.
- Weight bearing exercises such as running and walking have a positive impact on bone density
as the weight going through the bones causes a physiological adaptation - increased bone
strength through increased bone density.
- Just like your muscles, bones adapt to the stress placed on them.
- It is important that this stress only be enough to cause an adaptation and not enough to cause a
fracture.
- Resistance training is very beneficial for bone density, and when performed with proper
supervision and correct technique, poses minimal risk to the adults and aged athletes with bone
density issues.

Flexibility/joint mobility:

- Flexibility and joint mobility both refer to the joint's ability to move through its full range of
motion.
- Flexibility is often used to refer to the range of motion across multiple joints or to refer to the
entire body.
- Joint mobility is used to refer to specific joints.
 - Although flexibility and joint mobility does not automatically change with age, it does change
according to use. For example, as adults and aged athletes begin to decrease their movement
at a particular joint or across their entire body, their flexibility decreases.
- Decreased flexibility and joint mobility lead to increased injury risk, particularly of sprains and
strains.

Sports participation options for adults and aged athletes with poor flexibility and joint mobility:

- Poor flexibility and joint mobility are often a result of a decrease in sports exercise participation.
- Those with poor flexibility can increase their flexibility and joint mobility by slowly increasing the
range of motion at each joint through regular exercise.
- Start at low intensities and speeds and gradually increase as joint mobility increases.
- Particular sports that require good flexibility include gymnastics, dance, martial arts.
- Many other sports require joint mobility for particular actions such as: kicking, bowling, hitting
etc.
- Adults and aged athletes with poor flexibility and joint mobility are not limited in their choice of
sport but should begin at a low level and gradually increase their activity.
- For example, someone with poor flexibility may begin to participate in Tai Chi, or yoga at a
beginner’s level and slowly move up in difficulty according to the instructor.

Female athletes:

- Eating disorders
- Iron deficiency
- Bone density
- Pregnancy

Female athletes overview:

- Female athletes need to manage menstruation along with everything else an athlete may need
to deal with.
- Menstruation affects the female haemoglobin and iron levels resulting in: decreased oxygen
carrying capacity, intensity levels, motivation.
- It also causes varying degrees of pain and discomfort for the female athlete.
- Female athletes are also under pressure to have an “athletic” figure.
- Our society places great value on external beauty, especially in relation to women and a female
athlete who is in the media is expected to be beautiful.
- This can lead the athlete to develop eating disorders, which then affects not just their iron levels
and haemoglobin levels, but their calcium and magnesium levels leading to poor bone density.

Eating disorders:

- Female athletes are often under pressure to fit the social pressure of the female physique and
beauty, while still being a great athlete.
 - Eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia, can result from these social pressures, or result
from the demands of training for some sports, such as martial arts.
- Eating disorders decrease energy and nutrient intake, which negatively impacts health and
sports performance.
- Low energy and nutrient intake affect the female menstruation and skeletal health, along with
many other physiological processes. These other processes include cellular maintenance,
growth, repair, thermoregulation.
- Eating disorders also cause iron deficiency.
- Eating disorders affect the energy and nutrition available to the female athlete. The lack of
energy and nutrition affects both the bone health and menstrual cycle of the athlete. Together
this can greatly impact sports performance and choices for the female athlete, especially one
with an eating disorder.
- Other vital nutrients for sports participation include calcium, potassium, and sodium. Of these,
calcium and magnesium are particularly important for bone density. This is particularly important
for female athletes, because females usually have thinner bones than men, and if oestrogen
levels drop so does their bone density.

Iron deficiency:

- Iron deficiency is caused by decreased nutrient intake and a loss of iron through menstruation
(or other forms of bleeding).
- Iron is one of the key nutrients for sports performance - required in order to allow haemoglobin
to take the right shape so that it can combine with oxygen and transport it around the body. I.e.
The less iron the less oxygen can be transported and the less the body can use the aerobic
energy system.
- Iron deficiency or anaemia results from two conditions: bleeding, lack of iron in the athletes diet.
- Anaemia is much more common in females because of menstruation.
- Menstruation is one of our factors in the female athlete triad. It is influenced by energy and
nutrient availability. If an athlete has amenorrhea (no menstrual cycle) then their oestrogen
levels are often low, which will decrease their bone density as well. If they have a normal cycle,
it can lead to iron deficiency if they are not eating adequate iron levels.
- Iron is a readily available nutrient found in red meats and many vegetables.
- A lack of iron also affects training. Not only will training not be able to be sustained for long
durations, but the female athlete will also feel lethargic (tired), and less motivated to train at all.

Bone density:

- Bone density is a medical measure of the amount of minerals per square centimetre of bone. It
is a key measure to help determine the strength or fragility of the bone.
- Poor bone density is an indicator of osteoporosis.
- It is a particular issue in female athletes as oestrogen levels drop, which leads to lower mineral
counts.
- Calcium and vitamin D are of particular importance - need to ensure they consume the right
amount of calcium for bone development and either produce vitamin D through sun exposure or
take a vitamin D supplement.
 - Low bone density is more likely in female athletes who have an eating disorder or are post
menopause.
- A decrease in density causes the bone to become more fragile, making the athlete more prone
to fractures.
- Bone density can be improved through a proper diet, weight bearing, and resistance training.
- Women’s oestrogen levels usually drop when they hit menopause, but for many female athletes,
the increase in muscle mass, and decrease in fat, disrupts their hormonal balance. This is
because fat produces oestrogen, while muscle produces testosterone. Female athletes often
miss their period, which is a sign of low oestrogen, and can therefore suffer lower bone density.

Pregnancy:

- Female athletes can and will also be mothers and wish to continue their sport while being
pregnant.
- Many women show concern about sport during pregnancy, but there is little need to be -
generally a female athlete can continue doing any sport that they already do when pregnant and
can start a sport after they become pregnant with proper guidance.
- Pregnancy affects the body of a female athlete - including an increase in relaxin (allows for
greater flexibility).
- This means that a pregnant athlete has a greater range of motion at their joints. This is
generally not a problem, as long as the joint is not stretched beyond normal range of motion.
However, if the joint is stretched further, dislocation is more likely.

Sports Medicine Australia states:

Care should be taken with any activity that involves jumping, frequent changes of direction and
excessive stretching. Jerky ballistic movements should be avoided.

- Pregnant athletes will also put on weight and have their centre of gravity shifting forward. This
will make exercise a higher intensity because of the extra weight and make the woman more
unstable.
- Blood volume and haemoglobin levels will increase. The result is better oxygen delivery to
working muscles during exercise as well. However, any benefits during pregnancy are lost with
the increased weight and delivery of blood to the baby. This improved oxygen delivery continues
for many weeks after pregnancy and will improve performance post pregnancy.
- Currently there is no research to say that exercise during pregnancy will affect the baby’s birth
weight.
- There is also a lack of evidence saying contact sports will hurt the baby, however, it is not
advisable that a woman late in pregnancy try a new contact sport or dangerous sport for the first
time, such as skiing or football.
- Female athletes do stand to benefit from sports participation and exercise while pregnant. They
will have better weight control, improved mood and will maintain fitness levels.
- It will also help prevent gestational diabetes and will be used in the management of gestational
diabetes if it does occur.
 - Pregnant female athletes can continue to participate in sports they are familiar with. Should
probably avoid participation during the heat of the day, and not try new contact or dangerous
sports, especially late into pregnancy.

Physical preparation:
- Pre-screening
- Skill and technique
- Physical fitness
- Warm up and cool down.

Stage 1 pre-screening questionnaire:

The first stage is a pre-screening questionnaire that can be completed with a professional or self-
administered questionnaire. The aim of the pre-screening questionnaire’s first stage is “to identify those
individuals with a known disease, or signs or symptoms of disease, who may be at a higher risk of an
adverse event during physical activity/exercise.” The questionnaire consists of seven questions:

1. Has your doctor ever told you that you have a heart condition, or have you ever suffered a
stroke?
2. Do you ever experience unexplained pains in your chest at rest or during physical
activity/exercise?
3. Do you ever feel faint or have spells of dizziness during physical activity/exercise that causes
you to lose balance?
4. Have you had an asthma attack requiring immediate medical attention at any time over the last
12 months?
5. If you have diabetes (type I or type II) have you had trouble controlling your blood glucose in the
last 3 months?
6. Do you have any diagnosed muscle, bone, or joint problems that you have been told could be
made worse by participating in physical activity/exercise?
7. Do you have any other medical condition(s) that may make it dangerous for you to participate in
physical activity/exercise?

A yes to any of these questions means the person is at high risk for undertaking exercise and needs to
be cleared by a medical practitioner before training can begin.

Stage 2 pre-screening questionnaire:

The second stage of the pre-screening questionnaire aims “to identify those individuals with risk factors
or other conditions to assist with appropriate exercise prescription,” and is administered by an exercise
professional such as an exercise physiologist. This stage has 12 questions that look at family history,
behavioural risk factors, and underlying medical conditions such as hypertension that could make
exercise riskier. If a person has risk factors, then their training and exercise should be catered to their
health needs. This often means beginning training at lower intensities and processing more slowly.

Stage 3 pre-screening measurements:

The aim of the stage 3 measurements is “to obtain pre-exercise baseline measurements of other
recognised cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors.” the measurements include:

- BMI
- Waist girth
- Resting blood pressure
- Fasting lipid profile
- Fasting blood glucose

These measurements are taken by an exercise professional and help guide them in exercise
prescription. Pre-screening enhances the well-being of the athlete because it helps guide the exercise
professional in an exercise prescription that caters to the specific needs of the individual. It also
ensures those who are at high risk of suffering a heart attack or stroke during exercise are first cleared
by their medical practitioner and have correct supervision and prescription of exercise to avoid harm.
Pre-screening is important, because physical activity is very beneficial for all people, including those of
higher risk categories, and the pre-screening ensures proper precautions and liberties are taken.

Skill and Technique:

Skill: If you have done Factors Affecting Performance already, then you will know the three stages of
skill acquisition: cognitive, associative, and autonomous. At the beginning stages of skill acquisition, the
athlete is focused on the skill at hand. This could be dribbling a soccer ball, hitting a cricket ball, or even
just jogging. Regardless of the skill, if the athlete has lower skill levels, then they will focus on the skill.
This can result in greater injury. For example, an unskilled football player, may be dribbling a soccer
ball looking down the whole time and collide with a defender, or even his own player resulting in an
injury. Or he may be distracted and step on the ball spraining his ankle. A more skilled autonomous
athlete, however, can focus on her surroundings and still perform the skill well. She can dodge players
and see what is coming in front of her. If she is hitting a cricket ball, she can respond quickly to the
particular ball, adjust her action, and perform the skill safely without being injured.

Technique: Technique is one of the greatest indicators for sports injury. Poor technique leads to higher
injury rates, especially overuse injuries. Good technique, on the other hand, protects against injury and
produces a better performance. Someone with good technique is biomechanically efficient. This means
they can produce more power, and greater accuracy with less effort. This protects against injury. For
example, a tennis player with good technique for their serve is more consistent with their first serves,
but also suffers less injury because they are putting less strain on their body. This prevents injury to the
back or shoulder. A player with poor technique generates unnatural forces that pull the body or its joints
in directions they are not designed for. This is a non-efficient movement, requiring greater effort from
the athlete and causing more injuries. A cricket bowler with poor technique is more likely to injure their
neck, back or shoulder.

Physical fitness: In order to be physically prepared for competition an athlete’s physical fitness
needs to be at a level that can manage the demands of the competition. Physical fitness helps reduce
injuries in sport and is specific to the sport. That is, the athlete needs to be physically fit in all the
components of fitness as they are required in their sport. There are eleven (11) components of physical
fitness, five (5) health and six (6) skill related (from Preliminary).

Health related components of physical fitness

- cardiorespiratory endurance
- muscular strength
- muscular endurance
- flexibility
- body composition

Skill related components of physical fitness

- power
- speed
- agility
- coordination
- balance
- reaction time

Each sport has specific key components of fitness that are required for safe and good performance. For
example, a gymnast requires excellent muscular strength, muscular endurance, coordination, balance,
and flexibility. If any of these are lacking, they are more likely to have an injury, such as a fracture
occur. For most sports a firm cardiorespiratory base is required to ensure the athlete does not become
fatigued. If an athlete fatigues, then their technique becomes poor, and injury is more likely to occur.
This is particularly the case in sports such as AFL, football, or lacrosse, where both cardiorespiratory
endurance and technical movements are combined. In these sports an athlete who is not physically fit
is more likely to sprain an ankle, strain a muscle or suffer an abrasion to the skin. Each sport is specific
in its physical fitness requirements and should be analysed individually. This is particularly important as
you learn to “analyse different sports in order to determine priority preventative strategies and how
adequate preparation may prevent injuries.” The specific components of physical fitness required will
be used more frequently in training in order to look after the athlete’s well-being and prevent injury. This
would become a priority preventative strategy – ensuring the athlete has the appropriate physical
fitness required for their sport of choice.

Warmup, stretching and cool down:

Warmup: A warmup should prepare the body for the physical activity ahead. Whether it is a sport,
general exercise or training, a warmup is important for safe participation. A warmup should begin with
general whole-body movements that are low in intensity and slowly increase this intensity to what will
be required during performance. This means, if the athlete will need to do a 100% flat out sprint, they
should slowly progress to this intensity in the warmup: from a light jog, to running, to sprinting. A
warmup should also begin without any equipment. If the athlete is participating in a sport such as
football, then the football should not be added into the warmup until towards the end, when the body
already has blood flowing to the working muscles. The warmup should include activities with the
football in order to properly prepare the athlete for the sport. Having them pass, tackle, and complete
skills while running, is an important aspect of the warmup, because it should be as specific to the sport
or activity as possible. Warmups will often finish with a small mini game to fully replicate the
movements required in the sport. This helps ensure the body has slowly responded to the activities
demands and is ready to perform. Performing without a proper warm up (minimum of 5-7 minutes)
increases the risk of injury to the athlete.

Warm up and stretching: Should stretching be part of a warmup in preparation for physical activity
or sports performance? The answer has been highly debated over the last decade and the conclusion
is basically that stretching in a warmup should be specific to the sport. There are many different types
of stretching: ballistic, static, dynamic, and PNF. Stretching in a warmup should use the correct type of
stretching for the sport. If the sport requires continual movement throughout the activity, such as in
football, netball, tennis etc then dynamic stretching is the more appropriate form. However, if your sport
is gymnastics or dance and you are required to hold a pose such as the splits, then static stretching is
preferred. This is not to say that the types of stretching cannot be combined, as dance and gymnastics
also frequently require movement throughout the range of motion and dynamic stretching does help
performance. The reason stretching should be specific to the sport is because static stretching has
been shown to decrease power and force output from the muscle and can decrease performance in
sports that require them.

Stretching: Stretching is a fundamental part of physical preparation for sport. Stretching as part of a
training program increases the athlete’s flexibility, which helps to prevent injury and promote wellbeing.
However, these comments are related to a flexibility program, where stretching is done routinely just
like resistance training.

Stretching and cool down: Stretching should always be used as part of the cool down. During the
cool down, a combination of stretching types may prove beneficial. It may help speed up recovery and
decrease DOMS. Ballistic stretching is the exception and should not generally be used in a cool down.

Cool down: A cool down should slowly bring the athlete back to a pre exercise metabolic state. The
cool down should begin at a vigorous intensity and slowly decrease in intensity. The aim is to continue
to move the blood back to the heart as the heart decreases in rate back to a pre-exercise level. This
helps ensure that waste products are removed before exercise is stopped. Resulting in less carbon-
dioxide and lactic acid in the muscles. It also helps to reduce the muscle temperature and deliver
nutrients required for repair.